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Week6 The molecular basis for growth and reproduc9on 1. Review: Central dogma (and beyond) 2. Structure of DNA and its replica9on 3. Transla9ng the gene9c code 4. Using ribosomal RNA to infer the evolu9onary rela9onships

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Week6  The  molecular  basis  for  growth  and  

reproduc9on  

1.  Review:  Central  dogma  (and  beyond)  

2.  Structure  of  DNA  and  its  replica9on  

3.  Transla9ng  the  gene9c  code  

4.  Using  ribosomal  RNA  to  infer  the  evolu9onary  rela9onships  

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DNA  polymerase  

RNA  polymerase  

Ribosome,  mRNA,  tRNA  

spontaneous;  aided    by  molecular  chaperons  folding  

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Reverse  Transcriptase    (e.g.  HIV)  

Post-­‐transla9onal    protein  modifica9on  (e.g.  cell  signaling,  cancer)  

Prions    (e.g.  in  BSE)  

Non-­‐ribosomal  pep9des  (e.g.  cyclosporine)  

Ribozymes  (i.e.  RNA  enzymes)  

Epigene9cs  (i.e.  modifica9on  of  DNA  packing)  

RNA  interference    (i.e.  RNA-­‐mediated  gene  silencing)  

RNA  modifica9on  

Many  interes9ng  processes  occur  beyond  the  central  dogma  

Splicing  

Transposable  elements  

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Gene9c  informa9on,  the  structure  of  DNA  

-­‐  A  pairs  T,  G  pairs  C  (hydrogen  bonds)  -­‐  phosphate-­‐sugar  backbone  (nega9ve  charge)  -­‐  The  two  strands  run  an9parallel  

Double  helix  

Crick  &  Watson:    “The  secret  of  life”  

-­‐>  Homework  paper  

“Semi-­‐conserva9ve  copying”  “right  handed”  

chirality  

X-­‐ray  fiber    diffrac9on    by  Rosalind  Franklin  

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Example:  Transla9ng  the  gene9c  code  

e.g.     DNA: 5’-TGCGCCCTTACAGAATGCCATTGA-3’! mRNA: !5’-UGCGCCCUUACAGAAUGCCAUUGA-3’!Protein: N’-C A L T E C H *-C’!

Rules  of  transla9ng  the  code:  -­‐  Non-­‐overlapping  triplet  code  -­‐  Redundant  -­‐  1  start  and  3  stop  signals  

4  nucleo9des,  20  amino  acids  

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The  ribosome  translates  the  gene9c  code  into  protein  

rRNA  sequences  are  highly  conserved  -­‐>  evolu9onary  rela9onship  between  species  

S:  Svedberg  unit    of  sedimenta9on  

Bacteria,  Archaea  

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makes  pep(de  bond  

selects  correct  tRNA  

The  small  ribosomal  subunit  “reads”  the  mRNA,    the  large  subunit  synthesizes  the  protein  

X  

X  

X  

X  MOVIE  

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Protein  synthesis  by  the  ribosome  

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Example:  The  16S/18S  RNA  sequence  is  highly  conserved  between  species  

-­‐  The  core  of  the  RNA  molecules  is  highly  conserved  -­‐  Differences  can  be  used  to  infer  evolu9onary  rela9onships  (‘tree  of  life’)  

Bacteria  (16S)   Archaea  (16S)  

Eucarya  (18S)  

Region  ‘decoding’    the  mRNA  

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Rela9onship  between  structure  and  func9on  in  proteins  

Primary  structure:      Sequence  of  amino  acids    connected  by  pep9de  bonds    

Secondary  structure:      Sequence  of  structural  mo9fs  formed  by      regular  hydrogen  bonds  of  the  pep9de  bonds      (alpha  helix,  beta  sheet)  

Ter9ary  structure:      3D  atomic  model  of  the  protein      including  cofactors  (e.g.  ions).  

spacefill  representa9on   cartoon  representa9on  

GWQAEIVTEFSLL  NEMVDVDPQGIL  KCVDGR  ……  

hydrogen  bonds    formed  by  the    protein  backbone  

α β

Quaternary  structure:      Molecular  assemblies  

e.g.  ribosomes  

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The  end  

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Small  subunit  (mainly  16S  RNA)  

When  the  correct  tRNA  is  binding  to  the  mRNA  codon,  16S  rRNA  closes  and  triggers  pep9de  bond  forma9on  

Region  where    correct  tRNA    is  detected  

Why  is  16S  RNA  highly  conserved  in  all  species?  

View    from  side  

Region  where    pep9de  bond  is  made  

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Week8:  

Obtaining  the  the  16S  RNA  sequence  of  a  bacterium  

Sample  -­‐>  DNA  isola9on        (Proper9es:  DNA  nega9ve,  large;  remove  RNA  with  RNase)  

-­‐>  Amplifica9on  of  the  16S  RNA  gene  (PCR)    

-­‐>  DNA  sequencing  

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Polymerase  chain  reac9on  (PCR)  

Key  insights  (1960-­‐early  80s):    

-­‐  DNA  helix  separated  when  temperature  increases  

-­‐  DNA  polymerase  copies  DNA  at  lower  temperature  

-­‐  Heat-­‐stable  DNA  polymerase  discovered    

Yellowstone  

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The  ribosome  orchestrates  protein  synthesis  using    mRNA,  tRNA  and  addi9onal  proteins  (transla9on  factors)  

4  main  phases  of  transla9on:  1.  Ini9a9on  2.  Elonga9on  3.  Release  4.  Recycling   MOVIE  

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Chemistry  and  physics  are  the  founda9on  of  biology  

Enzymes  catalyze  chemical  reac9ons  that  are  unfavorable.  

Physical  techniques  are  used  to  visualize/measure  biological  processes.  

The  tools  of  molecular  biology,  the  combina9on  of  chemistry  and  gene9cs,  have  revolu9onized  our  ability  to  inves9gate  and  control  cells.  

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Polymerase  chain  reac9on  (PCR)  

-­‐>  Homework  assignment:  DNA  replica9on  Youtube  Video  

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The  ribosome  as  an  example  for  a  ‘molecular  machine’  

2  key  func9ons:    

 -­‐  select  correct  amino  acid  

 -­‐  form  covalent  bond  between        growing  protein  and  next        amino  acid  

       

                   

Transla9on  involved  many  proteins  and  several  large  RNA    molecules  working  together  in  a  coordinated  manner.  

Transfer  RNA  (tRNA)  “adapter”  

Messenger  RNA  (mRNA)  

Amino  Acid