Webster's New World Punctuation: Simplifed and Applied (Webster's New World)

PUNCTUATION

Simplified and Applied

Geraldine Woods

TM

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PUNCTUATION

Simplified and Applied

Geraldine Woods

TM


For Kyra, the first of the next generation.

Websters New World Punctuation: Simplified and AppliedCopyright 2006 by Wiley, Hoboken, NJPublished by Wiley, Hoboken, NJPublished simultaneously in CanadaNo part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted inany form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United StatesCopyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorizationthrough payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the web atwww.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to theLegal Department,Wiley Publishing, Inc., 10475 Crosspoint Blvd., Indianapolis, IN 46256,317-572-3447, fax 317-572-4355, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to theaccuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all war-ranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. No war-ranty may be created or extended by sales or promotional materials.The advice and strate-gies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation.This work is sold with theunderstanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or otherprofessional services. If professional assistance is required, the services of a competent profes-sional person should be sought. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable fordamages arising herefrom.The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in thiswork as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that theauthor or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provideor recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websiteslisted in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was writtenand when it is read.Trademarks: Wiley, the Wiley Publishing logo,Websters New World, the Websters NewWorld logo, and all related trademarks, logos, and trade dress are trademarks or registeredtrademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates.All other trademarks are theproperty of their respective owners.Wiley Publishing, Inc. is not associated with any productor vendor mentioned in this book.For general information on our other products and services or to obtain technical support,please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 800-762-2974, outsidethe U.S. at 317-572-3993, or fax 317-572-4002.Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appearsin print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley prod-ucts, please visit our web site at www.wiley.com.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Woods, Geraldine.Websters New World punctuation : simplified and applied / Geraldine Woods.

p. cm.ISBN-13: 978-0-7645-9916-3 (isbn-13 : pbk.)ISBN-10: 0-7645-9916-X (isbn-10 : pbk.)

1. English languagePunctuationHandbooks, manuals, etc. I.Title.PE1450.W66 2006428.2dc22

2005023688Manufactured in the United States of America10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii

PART I: The Punctuation Marks

1 The Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3As an Endmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3In Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5In Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7In Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9With an Ellipsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14In Lists and Slide Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14In Titles and Headings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16In Memos and E-mails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16In Web Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17In Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

2 The Question Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19To Ask a Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19To Express Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24To Make a Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25In Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26In Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

3 The Exclamation Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31As an Endmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32In Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34In Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35In Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

4 The Comma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37To Create a Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39In a Set of Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43To Set Off Nonessential Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45To Set Off Interrupters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49When Combining Two Complete Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . .50To Indicate Direct Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53In Personal and Company Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54In Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55In Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58In Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59To Set Off Introductory Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

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With Short Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65In Mild Interjections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66In Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67With Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71To Indicate Omitted Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73In Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73To Avoid Misreadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

5 The Semicolon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75To Join Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75With Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78In Complicated Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79To Separate Items in a Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81With Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82With Quotation Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

6 The Colon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83To Introduce a List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83To Introduce a Quotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86To Join Two Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88To Designate Time and Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89In Business Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

7 Quotation Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93Direct Quotations in Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93Blocked Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103Quotations with Words Omitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105Quotations with Words Added . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107Indirect Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107Definitions and Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108Special Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109Punctuating Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110Distancing Quotation Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

8 The Dash and the Hyphen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113The Dash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114The Hyphen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123

9 Parentheses and Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142

10 Ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145To Replace Omitted Words in Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . .145

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To Show a Trailing Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158In Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

11 The Slash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161To Indicate Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161To Link Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162To Link Word Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164In Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164In Web Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165In Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166In Quoting Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166In Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167

12 The Apostrophe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169To Show Possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169In Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179In Expressions of Time and Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180To Form Some Plurals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181

PART II: Punctuation in Common Writing Formats

13 Personal Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185Absence Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188Thank-You Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190Invitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192Letter of Complaint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194Letter to the Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196Letter to an Elected Official . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198Letter of Sympathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200

14 Business Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203Cover Letter for a Job Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204Information Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206Performance Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208Letter of Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210Letter Ordering Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212Letter Returning Merchandise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214

15 Memos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217To a Supervisor, Reporting on a Business Trip . . . . . . . . . .218An Agenda for a Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220Status Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222Announcing a Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

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Warning to Improve Job Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226Policy Memo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

16 E-mails and Faxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231An Informal E-mail to a Friend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232E-mails to Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234E-mail Notice of Travel Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236E-mail Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238Fax Cover Sheet 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240Fax Cover Sheet 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242

17 Presentations and Resumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245Traditional Bulleted List: Complete Sentences . . . . . . . . . .248Traditional Bulleted List: Incomplete Sentences . . . . . . . . .250Nontraditional Bulleted List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252Resume 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254Resume 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256

18 School Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259Book Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260Essays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262Laboratory Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264Laboratory Report, Continued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266Research Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

19 Desktop Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271Newsletter Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272Web Posting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274Advertisement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276Pamphlet Cover and Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278

PART III: Citations

20 Modern Language Association Citation . . . . . . . . . . . .283Citations in the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284Citations in the List of Works Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291

21 American Psychological Association Citation . . . . . . .301Citations in the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301Citations in the Reference List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308

22 The Chicago Manual of Style Citation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317Citations in the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318The Reference List or Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341

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Introduction

A popular French entertainer once explained that a kiss canbe a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation point. Thissort of punctuation easily attracts interest, but until recentlymany grammarians and copy editors assumed that their pas-sion for a properly placed semicolon was rare. Yet a substan-tial number of people do care about punctuation and wouldindeed like to know, for example, when a comma is called for.Moreover, everyone should care because punctuation is theroadmap that tells the reader how to arrive at the writersmeaning.

Imagine that a worried student goes to a fortuneteller foradvice about an important exam and receives this note:

The way you are studying you will take the test and passnot experiencing a miserable failure.

How is the student to react? Should the worrier open thebook and study madly in an effort to avert disaster? Shouldthe student, reassured by the prediction, take in a movieinstead? The answer depends on the punctuation:

The way you are studying, you will take the test and pass,not experiencing a miserable failure.

The way you are studying, you will take the test and passnot, experiencing a miserable failure.

The preceding example illustrates what American writerEdgar Allan Poe meant when he said, The writer whoneglects punctuation, or mispunctuates, is liable to be misun-derstood. The primary reason to place a punctuation mark inyour text is to clarify the message, making sure that the readergrasps what you are trying to say.

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Proper punctuation, like good grammar, has another pur-pose as well. The quality of your writing influences the impres-sion you make on your boss, your teacher, or your personalcorrespondents. A job application letter or a note to a childsteacher that is marred by punctuation errors will, rightly orwrongly, make you less likely to be taken seriously. The reverseis also true: to attract and keep the readers serious attention,you must writeand therefore punctuatecorrectly.

Learning how to punctuate is relatively easy these days, butsuch was not always the case. The modern system of punctua-tion did not become standardized until the late 18th century.The preference of individual writers and printers determinedthe placement of punctuation, not the needs of the reader.In the works of Shakespeare, for example, periods, colons, andsemicolons appear with seemingly little reason for one ratherthan the other. At various times polite but fierce battles brokeout over the standards and practices of various punctuationmarks. Thomas Jefferson, as he wrote the Declaration ofIndependence, joined a long-running dispute over apostro-phes, placing an apostrophe in its (the possessive pronoun) inthat document. In Jeffersons draft, the new government wasorganizing its powers. The non-apostrophists eventuallywon their point, and Jefferson was obliged to omit the apos-trophe from its.

Jeffersons struggle illustrates an important point aboutpunctuation: Each little symbol gets its meaning from anagreement between readers and writers. Educated peopletoday have decided that the possession shown by the word itsmay be turned into a contraction with the addition of anapostrophe (its). Thus, its and its have different meanings.Had the standard been decided otherwise, its might have ful-filled both functions.

Although many punctuation rules clarify meaning, someexist for no reason at all apart from custom. With meaningnot at stake, you may wonder why a writer should worryabout where to place the period or whether a comma belongsinside or outside the quotation marks. The value of thesepunctuation customs is the sense of stability they provide.Seeing the period inside some quotation marks and outside

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others in the same piece of writing would be disconcerting.Proper punctuation works on an almost subconscious level. Itguides the reader to the intended meaning without becomingtoo intrusive. Variations catch attention and distract the reader from the writers message. So arbitrary or not, punctua-tion customs are worth learning.

Unfortunately, the rules for punctuation are still not com-pletely uniform. They change over time and according to loca-tion. Years ago writers placed far more commas and semicolonsin their work than modern writers do. Also, punctuation some-times varies depending on country or context. British andAmerican writers follow different rulesand even use differentnamesfor some punctuation marks. Scientists customs differfrom historians, and business has its own traditions.

This book explains both the generally accepted rules as wellas the major variations. The recommendations of the majorstyle manuals, the texts that codify the preferences for eachacademic discipline, are included. If you are writing in a part-icular field, take note of the style manual that governs yourwork: The Publication Manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation (APA, science and social science), The ModernLanguage Association Handbook (MLA, the humanities), and TheChicago Manual of Style (CMS, general). This punctuation manual also highlights current business practices. In addition,the British and American language gap is addressed. WhereBritish and American punctuation customs differ, the Americanstyle is explained first, followed by the British custom.

This book is divided into three parts, each giving you a dif-ferent path to the information you seek. In Part I, every punc-tuation mark is treated separately. The rules are explained andillustrated, and common pitfalls are described. If you are puz-zling over a colon, for instance, you can turn to the chapteron colons (Chapter 6) to find the rules governing this punc-tuation mark and examples of its most common usage. Part IIprovides samples of all sorts of writing. If you are writing abusiness letter or an absence note for school, you can look ata prototype to see how this sort of writing is punctuated andwhy. Parts I and II also highlight the most frequent errors.Part III features citations: how to identify sources (both print

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and electronic) and format entries in the major bibliographicstyles. If you are writing a term paper, a dissertation, or a pro-fessional article, you will find the proper punctuation of foot-notes, endnotes, and parenthetical notes in Part III.

One last point about punctuation: not everything aboutpunctuation is written in stone. At times the insertion or dele-tion of a comma is a matter of preference, not correct usage.Plus, the best writers, the true geniuses, break the rules atsome point. For those who understand what is expected andwho can show that they know what is expected, the unex-pected is a good option. To surprise and delight the readerwith originality is a wonderful achievement!

For the ordinary, everyday writer, however, the rules are asafety device; obeying the rules ensures that you are withinthe accepted practice of educated people. American authorErnest Hemingway put it best:

My attitude toward punctuation is that it ought to be asconventional as possible. The game of golf would lose agood deal if croquet mallets and billiard cues were allowedon the putting green. You ought to be able to show thatyou can do it a good deal better than anyone else with theregular tools before you have a license to bring in your ownimprovements.

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Part I

THE PUNCTUATION MARKS

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1

The Period

What Americans call a period is named full point orfull stop in Britain. The second British term gives a goodidea of the periods main function. Like the red sign at theend of a road, a period orders the reader not just to slowdown briefly but to come to a true halt. Probably the onlysign in a piece of writing that makes a sharper separationbetween one idea and another is the blankness at the end ofa line preceding a new paragraph or the unfilled page at theend of a chapter.

The periods primary function is to signal the end of anysentence that makes a statement or gives a command. Periodsalso appear in most abbreviations. In recent years this punctu-ation mark has picked up a new and important function aspart of Web addresses.

Though the rules governing the period are fairly straightfor-ward, problems do arise when a period at the end of a sen-tence tangles with the period of an abbreviation or with quotation marks. This chapter addresses those intricacies andother special cases, including the use of a period in titles, lists,and slide presentations.

AS AN ENDMARKA complete sentence that states an idea always ends with aperiod. A sentence that gives a command normally concludeswith a period as well. To put this rule another way: Any sen-tence that does not ask a question, exclaim, or command withextra emphasis needs a period. Every sentence in this chapter

3

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thus far, and nearly every sentence in this book, finishes upwith a period. Some examples follow:

The toy duck is resting atop the childs dresser. (statement)

Turn left at the corner. (command)

Stop what you are doing and help me. (command)

No house is truly a home until it is lived in. (statement)

A penny saved is a penny earned. (statement)

The periods emotional tone is neutral. To see the contrast,imagine the above sentences punctuated differently:

The toy duck is resting atop the childs dresser?

Turn left at the corner!

Stop what you are doing and help me!

No house is truly a home until it is lived in!

A penny saved is a penny earned?

The first sentence leads one to think that the writer ispuzzled or perhaps even upset about the presence of the toyduck on the dresser. Why is the duck there, you imagine thewriter pondering. The next two sentences are much moreurgent than the versions ending with a period. Perhaps thewriter is angry or intent on securing complete obedience. Thefourth sentence sounds like a protest. Any one of a numberof situations comes to mind: a new house, a family not yetsettled, a conversation about the meaning of home. In thelast example, you may imagine a spendthrift child answeringa parents scolding with a bit of sarcasm. Whatever scenarioyou come up with for these sentences, the issue is the same.The period has a more neutral effect on meaning than otherendmarks.

In placing a period at the end of a sentence, be sure thatyouve actually written a complete sentence. A true completesentence in grammatical terms includes a subject and a verb

4 Punctuation: Simplified and Applied

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and expresses a coherent thought. The subject is the personor thing being talked about in the sentence and the verb isthe action or state of being of the subject. A coherent thoughtmeans that the sentence may stand alone and make sense.The reader may not have every piece of information possible,but neither is the reader left hanging halfway through anidea. Below are some samples of complete and incompletethoughts. Several of the examples include subjects and verbs,but only the complete thoughts are true sentences:

Complete: The stadium is filled to capacity. (subject =stadium, verb = is filled)

Incomplete: The fans are. (subject = fans, verb = are)

Why it is incomplete: The fans are what? The statementisnt finished.

Revised, complete: The fans are thrilled by the teamssuccess.

Complete: Despite altering the dress three times, the tailorwas still dissatisfied with the fit. (subject = tailor, verb = was)

Incomplete: Sewing for hours and hours to make endsmeet. (no subject or proper verb)

Why it is incomplete: There is a verb form, sewing, but nosubject. No one is sewing. If sewing is taken as a thing,a hobby, perhaps, it may be a subject. In that case the sentence still needs a verb.

Revised, complete: Sewing for hours and hours to makeends meet, Eloise dreamed of a better life.

IN PARENTHESESA number of rules govern the interaction between periods andparentheses (what the British call round brackets).

Chapter 1: The Period 5

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Entire Sentence Inside ParenthesesIf an entire sentence making a statement or giving a commandis in parentheses, place a period inside the closing mark:

(The appendix contains more information on closing costsand mortgage rates.)

(See page 12 for more information.)

Complete Sentence Inserted into Another SentenceIf the parenthetical statement appears inside anothersentence, there is no period in the parentheses. The logicbehind this rule is that there is only one sentence, of whichthe parenthetical information is a part, and thus only oneendmark.

This situation is not acceptable (I have told you so severaltimes) and must be remedied immediately.

When the cleaners have finished their work (they generallyleave before midnight), only the security staff remain oncampus.

Citations in ParenthesesCitations of source material are sometimes placed in paren-theses at the end of the ideas or quotations being cited. Themajor style manuals allow this citation format and even attimes recommend it over footnotes or endnotes. The generalprinciple is simple: Parenthetical citations are part of the sen-tence but not part of the quotation, if there is one. Thereforethe parentheses come before the endmark of the sentence(usually a period) but after any quotation marks. Note thepunctuation in these examples:

As Smith reached the Pole, he staked the claim of asovereign nation (Smith 203).

A sailor on the supply boat later said that Smith admittedhis trek had not been a success because of the high fatalityrate (Morganstern 44).


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For more information on the punctuation of cited sources,see Part III.

IN QUOTATIONS

The rules governing where a period should be placed in quotedmaterial have very little to do with meaning. The arbitrarynature of these rules is made clear by the fact that they are dif-ferent on each side of the Atlantic Ocean. In fact, British andAmerican period and quotation mark placement is exactlyopposite. In most cases British and American quotation marksvary in another respect as well. In Britain single quotationmarks generally enclose quoted material; double quotationmarks are reserved for quotations within other quotations. InAmerican usage the order is reversed, with double quotationmarks enclosing the primary quotation and single marks sur-rounding an interior quotation.

Quotation at the End of a SentenceWhen quoted material appears at the end of a sentence anda question mark or exclamation point is not called for, theperiod resides inside the closing quotation mark (AmericanEnglish) or outside the quotation mark (British English).

Some examples in American English follow:

Laura replied, I visited the museum yesterday and touredthe Asian galleries.

Olivia mentioned that Tang Dynasty art presents anage of splendor.

One piece of art was called Autumn Moon.

Some examples in British style:

Laura, as an art buff you are more likely to be in a museumthan anywhere else.

Oliver commented that he plans to see the new Rubensexhibit this weekend or die trying.

Im looking forward to the curators essay for this exhibit,Rubens: A Reassessment.


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When the quotation ending the sentence is a question, aquestion mark appears inside the quotation marks, but noperiod ends the sentence. The logic here is that the sentenceshould not have two endmarks, so the question mark doesdouble duty. Some examples follow:

Arthur asked, Are you feeling ill today?

Amy replied, Why are you asking?

In British style these sentences would employ single quota-tion marks (inverted commas), but otherwise appear the same:

Arthur asked, Are you feeling ill today?

Amy replied, Why are you asking?

The question mark, following both American and Britishusage, goes inside the closing quotation mark if the quotedmaterial is a question and outside the closing quotation markif the sentence, but not the quoted material, is a question.The period, on the other hand, always goes outside the quota-tion mark (British style) or inside (American style).

Quotation Within a SentenceIf a quoted statement normally calls for a period but the sen-tence continues on after the quotation, replace the periodwith a comma:

The tapestry is slightly frayed, observed the curator.

The tapestry is slightly frayed is a complete sentence. Becauseit is a statement, it would normally end with a period. Yetobserved the curator is part of the same sentence. A periodshould follow curator to signal the end of the entire sentence.Had you placed a period after frayed, the sentence wouldhave two endings, a clearly impossible situation:

Wrong: The tapestry is slightly frayed. observed thecurator.


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Here is another example:

The ski instructor remarked that his class must be willingto fall in order to master the correct posture.

Here the quotation is not a complete sentence, but somewriters may still be tempted to insert a period after theinstructors statement. Once again, the rule is that no sen-tence should have two endmarks. A period should not beinserted after fall because the sentence continues:

Wrong: The ski instructor remarked that his class mustbe willing to fall. in order to master the correct posture.

Quotation Within Another QuotationIf the sentence ends with a quotation within another quota-tion, place the period inside both the single and the doublequotation marks (American usage). In British usage, theperiod normally goes outside both marks:

American usage: Canwell explained, My favorite saying isjust do it.

British usage: Canwell explained, My favorite saying isjust do it.

For more information on quotation marks, see Chapter 7.

IN ABBREVIATIONSA period often takes the place of letters that have been omit-ted in an abbreviation. However, not all abbreviations includeperiods. If you are unsure about a particular abbreviation, thedictionary is a good guide. The major style manuals alsoinclude lists of abbreviations, showing which should includeperiods and which should not. If you are writing an academicpaper, check the style manual if you are in doubt about theconventions of abbreviations in your field. This sectionexplains only the most common forms.


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Most Common Abbreviations

Two of the most common abbreviations are a.m. and p.m.,indicating morning and afternoon times. These abbreviationsare sometimes capitalized and written without periods: AMand PM. Both forms are correct and quite common, so youmay choose either. Take care to be consistent in one piece ofwriting. Regardless of how they are written, these forms arealways placed after the time, separated by a space.

Names and TitlesWhen a name or title is abbreviated, insert a period:

W. B. Yeats (William Butler Yeats)

F.D.R. (Franklin Delano Roosevelt)

John F. Kennedy (John Fitzgerald Kennedy)

Msgr. Robert Agnow (Monsignor Robert Agnow)

Sen. Henry Dosworth (Senator Henry Dosworth)

Some Common Abbreviations for TitlesThe abbreviations in the following chart are generally writtenwith periods:

Atty. Gen. Attorney General

Dr. Doctor

Esq. Esquire

Gov. Governor

Jr. Junior

Pres. President

Rep. Representative

Note: Academia and the military now prefer to omit peri-ods from abbreviated ranks or degrees (LT for Lieutenant,PhD for Doctor of Philosophy, and so forth). Many titles,such as Medical Doctor may be abbreviated with or withoutperiods (M.D. or MD).


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The most common titlesMr., Mrs., and Ms.havetraditionally been followed by periods. However, this styleis changing, perhaps in recognition of the fact that thewords abbreviated are never spelled out and, in the case ofthe female titles, never even pronounced as a whole word.In Britain, the period is always omitted in these titles.

Latin TermsAbbreviations derived from Latin words commonly includeperiods:

e.g. (for example)

i.e. (that is)

cf. (compare)

et al. (and others)

etc. (and so forth)

When any abbreviation ends a sentence, only one periodis inserted. The period following the abbreviation (if there isone) does double duty, as in the following examples:

The best article was written by Peterson et al.

The temperamental artist was always complaining about thelack of time, space, energy, etc.

Sic Is Not an Abbreviation

A small word, sic, alerts the reader to an error in a quotationa misspelled word, a faulty grammatical construction, and thelike. Sic is not an abbreviation and thus is not followed by aperiod. Sic should be placed in brackets next to the error.

Original: She had gave it to me yesterday before I wentto the movies.

Quoted: The witness reported that she had gave it [sic]to me but the jury did not believe him.


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Lowercase WordsMost abbreviations that end with a lowercase letter includeperiods:

fig. (figure)

illus. (illustration)

Sp. (Spanish)

Inc. (Incorporated)

Ltd. (Limited)

irreg. (irregular)

When these abbreviations occur at the end of a sentence,only one period is inserted. The period at the end of theabbreviation also serves as an endmark, as in these examples:

Helen invested in Burbank, Ltd.

The towels on sale were marked irreg.

Abbreviations Without PeriodsAs noted earlier in this chapter, the trend today is to stream-line writing by omitting the periods in many abbreviations,as in AM (morning) and PM (afternoon). The same trendapplies to the abbreviation for the United States of America,which may be written with periods but which increasinglyappears without punctuation (USA). Acronymswordscreated from the first letters of each word of a namedontinclude periods:

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)

The United States Postal Service abbreviations forAmerican states and territories should not include periods.A sampling:

NY

AK


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AL

MS

You may see the older state abbreviations (Ind. forIndiana, Penn. for Pennsylvania, for example) from timeto time. The two-letter abbreviations are preferred.

Note: Abbreviations and acronyms multiply almost as fast asa supercomputer. Because the placement or omission of aperiod is often governed by custom, not logic, you may wantto check the standard usage in your company or schoolbefore writing a particular abbreviation. If youre unsure andthe dictionary is no help, simply spell out the term you need.If more than one option is open to you, be sure to use thesame abbreviated form throughout the document.

Abbreviations in a SentenceWhen an abbreviation containing a period occurs within asentence, the period remains. When the same abbreviationoccurs at the end of the sentence, one period serves twopurposesto mark the abbreviation and to signal the endof the sentence. Some examples follow:

I bought this stationery from Johnsons Inc. and comparedit to a store brand. (abbreviation within the sentence)

In my opinion the best quality stationery is from JohnsonsInc. (one period for the abbreviation and endmark)

If the abbreviation is tucked into the sentence at a spotwhere a comma or semicolon is called for, the period of theabbreviation is followednever precededby those marks:

I bought this stationery from Johnsons Inc., which is goingout of business.

I thought you invested wisely in Johnsons Inc.; I was wrong.


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One Endmark Only

Never place two periods at the end of a sentence.

Wrong: Return unused merchandise to the Macalister Co..

Right: Return unused merchandise to the Macalister Co.

WITH AN ELLIPSISAn ellipsis is a series of three dots, each separated from thenext by a space, indicating that material has been left out ofa quotation. An ellipsis may also signal a trailing thought.(For more information on ellipses, see Chapter 10.) When anellipsis occurs at the end of a sentence expressing a statementor command, the three dots are joined by a fourth, which isthe period, as in this example:

The author goes on to say that we should take advantageof each day. . . .

In the above example the period is placed immediatelyafter the concluding word, day, and the three dots for theellipsis follow, each separated by one space.

If the quotation is cited parenthetically in the text, theperiod follows the parentheses. In the quotation below, thethree dots after anger indicate missing words, and the periodafter the parentheses functions as an endmark.

The author writes, None of the rulers understood thenature of the peasants anger . . . (Sneeman 23).

IN LISTS AND SLIDE PRESENTATIONSWhen items in a list on paper or in a slide presentation arecomplete sentences, each item ends with a period:


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Follow these steps in assembling your new Robotype G-3:

(1) Unpack and count all pieces. You should have twelve.

(2) Assemble all side slats according to figure 1.

(3) Place the roof over slats 15.

(4) Connect the power supply cord to slat 3.

If the items are not complete sentences, no period is calledfor. Note the difference between this list and the preceding list:

Each camper should bring these supplies:

sleeping bag

canteen

water purification tablets

snacks

sunscreen

Numbers, Letters, and Periods

If the items in a list are numbered or preceded by letters,the numbers and letters are usually followed by periods orenclosed in parentheses. The choice is a matter of style. Dontmix parentheses and periods in the same list, and dont placeperiods inside parentheses. Some examples follow:

Incorrect:

(1.)

(2.)

(3.)

Correct:

1.

2.

3.


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Correct:

A.

B.

C.

Correct:

(1)

(2)

(3)

IN TITLES AND HEADINGSIf a title or subtitle is centered on a title page or in a heading,no periods are needed even if the title sounds like a completesentence.

Wrong: The Sun Also Rises. (centered title)

Right: The Sun Also Rises (centered title)

IN MEMOS AND E-MAILSIn writing a memorandum or an e-mail, the text is punctuatednormally. Periods signal the end of complete sentences in theusual way. The heading of the memo or e-mail contains noperiods unless one is called for in an abbreviation or an e-mailaddress. The subject line contains no periods. Note theseexcerpts from a memo and an e-mail:

To: Alexander McSorley

From: Eileen Enders

Re: The Company Picnic

Next month the company picnic will be held in McCarronPark. All departments are responsible for collecting fees frommembers.


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To: [email protected]

Subject: Term Paper

Please submit the rough draft no later than February 27, 2006.

IN WEB ADDRESSESPeriods, more commonly called dots in this context, sepa-rate various parts of Web addresses or Internet addresses.Because these addresses are sometimes extremely long, youmay need to divide one between two lines. Take care to sepa-rate the Web address at a natural breakafter a slash or beforea period. If a Web address is mentioned in your text and endsa sentence, place a period at the end of the sentence in thenormal way.

Wrong: The data we need for next months product launch can be found at www.havad.edu

Right: The data we need for next months product launch can be found at www.havad.edu.

IN NUMBERSThe period acts as a decimal point, as in these examples:

15.44 (15 and 44 hundredths)

2.033 (2 and 33 thousandths)

In Britain, the separation between hours and minutes isalso indicated by a period, or full stop. (In American usage, acolon replaces the period for this function.) Examples inBritish style:

5.15 (15 minutes past 5)

2.30 (half past 2)


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The same times would be written differently in Americanstyle:

5:15 (15 minutes past 5)

2:30 (half past 2)

In drama, a period also separates the number of an act,scene, and line:

1.2.3334 (Act 1, scene 2, lines 3334)

When a Period Is Not Appropriate

Periods are not called for after centered titles, following datesand addresses, or in short captions that do not form completesentences. A signature should not be followed by a period.


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2

The Question Mark

During the Middle Ages, the question mark began to appearin the form of a shorthand version of the first and last lettersof the Latin word for question, quaestio, written one on topof the other. Gertrude Stein, a famously eccentric Americanauthor, believed that question marks were fine as a brandon cattle or in decoration but were not needed in sen-tences because the question is already there in the writing.Stein was a literary star and thus permitted to ignore normalpunctuation rules. Ordinary people, however, must followcertain conventions in placing question marks. Fortunatelythis particular bit of punctuation poses few problems.

The function of a question mark is simple: It generallyindicates a request or expresses doubt. Most questionmarks appear at the end of the sentence, but under specificcircumstanceswhen a question is in parentheses orembedded in a statement, for examplea question markmay be placed within a sentence.

TO ASK A QUESTIONThe question mark is one of three endmarks; the other twoare the period and the exclamation point. Question markstake the place of the rising intonation of the voice whensomeone asks a question orally.

Normal Word OrderAs Gertrude Stein observed, the order of words usuallysignals that a sentence is a question instead of a statement.Nevertheless, the question mark makes life easier for thereader when the question is written. Take a look at theseexamples:

19

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What time is the party?

When will we learn that war is not the answer?

Will you help me clean the gutters?

The word order of these examples makes it impossible forthe sentences to be anything other than questions. Sentenceone is a true request for information. Sentence two is notreally a question at all but a disguised statement of the writ-ers beliefs about war and aggression. This sort of statementis called a rhetorical question and is a traditional tactic inpersuasive speeches, essays, or letters. The reader or audienceis not supposed to answer the question but rather to acceptthe writers point of view. Sentence three is a request forassistance. Said by an authority figure, sentence threes answeris a foregone conclusion. Regardless of the amount of freewill involved, however, sentence three is still technically aquestion.

Statements as QuestionsNot every question has a word-order pattern that immediatelysignals its identity. In these sentences, the punctuation makesall the difference in meaning. Some examples:

Im next in line?

You want me to clean my room?

These sentences represent a less common form of question.With a period, the first example would state a fact. The ques-tion mark allows you to imagine a bit of doubt. Perhaps thespeaker is in a confusing situation, wondering where her placeis. She may be tentatively asserting a possibility, hoping thatsomeone will clarify that she is indeed next. Perhaps the Iin the sentence is not ready and is really expressing surprisethat shes come to the head of the line so quickly. Similarly, inthe second example the question mark creates a vastly differ-ent emotional tone. Now you may picture a disbelievingteenager who cant accept that his private domain is subjectto parental control. Alternatively, this sentence may come


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from someone with an urge to please, begging for a way to beuseful. Whatever the context, the question mark creates a sce-nario that is not at all related to the tone signaled by a period.

Mixed Statements and Questions, Question LastSometimes a statement and a question are combined in thesame sentence. In such sentences, conclude with a questionmark if the question appears at the end of the sentence. Someexamples:

He mused, where do I fit it?

The committee argued all morning on the question, howmuch money should be spent on advertising and howmuch on development?

As you begin the college application process, take amoment to consider, How important is campus atmosphereto you?

The deliberations of the other jurors receded into the back-ground while Martha thought, Could the police officer havelied?

Notice that in each sentence a comma separates the state-ment from the question. The first word of the question maybe capitalized for emphasis or left in lowercase, according tothe writers preferences.

Multiple Endmarks

Comedians and comic book artists like to string several end-marks together to indicate strong emotion or simply toachieve a humorous effect:

Did you eat my sandwich!!?!?

What????

These combinations are fine for a laugh, but not for stan-dard, formal English. In formal writing, no sentence shouldconclude with two endmarks.

Chapter 2: The Question Mark 21

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Mixed Statements and Questions, Question FirstEndmarks, by definition, appear at the end of a sentence.However, a question may be embedded in a sentence thatends with a statement. Usually this sentence structure occurswhen the question is quoted, but not always. (For more infor-mation on punctuating questions in quotations, see InQuotations later in this chapter.) Embedded questions mayalso appear in parentheses.

Embedded Questions, No ParenthesesIf a question appears inside a sentence and is not set off fromthe rest of the sentence by parentheses, a question mark sepa-rates the question from the statement. The statement is fol-lowed by a period, as in these examples:

Did the roses arrive? was the first thing he asked the florist.

What role did his parents play in organizing the surpriseparty? he wondered.

No matter how many schools she visited, How can I getinto an Ivy League college? was her constant worry.

The logic here is simple. The entire sentence, taken overall,is a statement, so a period is appropriate after the final word.The embedded question is set apart from the rest of the sen-tence so that the reader is not confused. In the first two exam-ples, the question mark signals the separation. In the lastexample, a comma marks the beginning of the question, anda question mark signals the end of the question.

In the third sentence, How is capitalized. The writer maycapitalize or lowercase the question, according to personalpreference. The capital letter makes the question more formaland emphatic.

You may also add a string of similar questions to one sen-tence if you are sure that the reader will understand yourmeaning:


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What time did he send the message? from where? towhom?

In the preceding example, the reader understands that thelast two questions mean:

From where did he send the message?

To whom did he send the message?

The omitted words are repetitive and add nothing to themeaning that the reader has not already gleaned. Becausethese added questions are considered part of the same sen-tence, they usually do not begin with capital letters.

Note: Oxford University Press, a major arbiter of Britishstyle, calls for capital letters for questions in a series.

Did you buy a car? When? Why?

Embedded Questions, in ParenthesesTo set a question apart from the main idea, insert the ques-tion into the statement using parentheses:

Alan will bring the projector to the meeting (has hechecked the condition of the screen?) and will be responsi-ble for set up.

Naomi will gather the relevant data (which years?) anddistribute them to all regional offices.

In the first example, the question in parentheses canstand alone as a separate sentence. Because it is tucked insideanother sentence, no capital letter is used for the first word,has. In the second example, the words in the parentheses maynot stand alone as a complete sentence but are acceptablesince there is little chance that the reader will misunderstandthat the writer wants Naomi to clarify which years she isstudying.


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Indirect Questions

Dont use a question mark for an indirect question, nomatter where the question appears in the sentence.

Wrong: He wondered whether the blizzard would arrivebefore nightfall?

Why it is wrong: Whether the blizzard would arrive beforenightfall is not really a question, though it does expressdoubt.

Right: He wondered whether the blizzard would arrivebefore nightfall.

Wrong: Where to put the cleaning supplies was our firstdecision?

Why it is wrong: Where to put the cleaning supplies is nota separate, independent question embedded in a sen-tence. Instead, it is a fundamental part of the statementin which it appears.

Right: Where to put the cleaning supplies was our firstdecision.

TO EXPRESS UNCERTAINTYThe question mark appears in scholarly writing whenever adate or other specific fact is the subject of dispute. Ratherthan indicating a request for information, a question markreveals doubt or signals an educated guess. Some examples:

McFrench (1677?1743) had little impact on the colonybefore his retirement in 1733.

The creator of this magnificent painting (Holbrook?)displays a muted color palette.


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In the first sentence, the question mark tells the reader thatMcFrenchs birth date is unknown. The author believes that1677 is probable. Similarly, in the second sentence the artistsidentity is uncertain, but the authors best guess is Holbrook.

Note: Oxford University Press calls for the question markto precede the area of uncertainty.

Lady Alice (?14031460) is burried in St. Marys Cemetery.

The question mark tells the reader that Lady Alice wasprobably born in 1403, but the date of birth is uncertain.

TO MAKE A REQUESTA question mark may follow a veiled or direct request. Noquestion mark is necessary if a command, for the sake ofpoliteness, is expressed as a question, but in such cases a ques-tion mark may soften the tone. Note the difference in thesethree sentences:

May I count on your support? (direct request)

Volunteers (Marty? Ellen?) will circulate a petition through-out the community. (indirect request)

Will you please be quiet? (command)

In the first sentence, the reader knows exactly what is beingasked and may decide how to respond. In the second exam-ple, Marty and Ellen are being pressed into service, though apolite refusal is still open to them. The writer is really askingwhether these two volunteers are willing to take on the job ofcirculating the petition. The word order in the last examplecreates a question, but the meaning doesnt allow for such aninterpretation. The audience for the last sentence knows thatsilence is required, not optional, and that the sentence is acommand, not a question. A period is appropriate, but a ques-tion mark takes away some of the severity.


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IN QUOTATIONSQuotation marks, which the British call inverted commas, tellthe reader that the exact words of a spoken or written sourcehave been reproduced. When question marks and quotationmarks intersect, strict rules ensure that they dont collide.

When the Quoted Words Ask a QuestionIn quoting spoken words, place a question mark inside theclosing quotation mark if the quoted words are a question:

Does the recipe call for one or two lemons? asked thechef.

When you graduate from college, inquired the loan offi-cer, will you have a steady job?

Our supervisor queried, How long before the report is onmy desk?

In British style, single quotation marks are substituted forthe double quotation marks, and double marks take the placeof singles. (See Chapter 7 for more information on quotationmarks in British and American style.) In both American andBritish English, however, it doesnt matter where the questionappears. The speaker tagthe words identifying the source ofthe quotationmay be at the end of the sentence (as in thefirst example), in the middle of the sentence (the secondexample), or at the beginning of the sentence (the last exam-ple). Regardless of location, the quoted question ends with aquestion mark, which is placed inside the closing quotationmark in both British and American style.

In quoting written material, place a question mark insidethe closing quotation mark only if the original sourceincludes a question mark:


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Washberg wrote, Was the intervention of the Austrian armythe deciding factor?

Her question is still relevant today: Does the artists me-dium overpower the message?

If the original source does not include a question mark, butthe sentence that includes the quotation is a question, thequestion mark should be placed outside the closing quotationmark:

Why has the personnel department accepted her statementthat the supervisor was inappropriate?

Quotation Marks and EllipsesIn quoting only parts of a long passage from a written source,you may omit unnecessary words and place an ellipsis (threedots) to show the reader where the gaps lie. If the omittedwords are taken out of a question, you still need to place thequestion mark in the quotation, followed by an ellipsis:

Original: In discussing the causes of the war, several factorsmust be considered. Was the enemys goal of completedomination realistic, given the strength of the opposition,the scarcity of supplies, and the severity of weather in thatseason? Most historians think that even the high commandunderstood the futility of their efforts.

Shortened quotation: In discussing the causes of the war,several factors must be considered. Was the enemys goal ofcomplete domination realistic? . . . Most historians thinkthat even the high command understood the futility oftheir efforts.


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The Proper Number of Endmarks

Except in comedy, no sentence ends with two endmarks. If aquoted question ends a sentence, the sentence does not endwith a period because the question mark is already there.

Wrong: Agnes asked, How should I title this report?.

Right: Agnes asked, How should I title this report?

If the entire sentence and the quoted words both ask ques-tions, only one question mark is called for:

Wrong: Did Agnes ask, How should I title this report??

Right: Did Agnes ask, How should I title this report?

When a Quoted Statement Appears Within a QuestionIf a quoted statement appears within a question, the questionmark is placed outside the closing quotation mark:

Did Yves ever say, Your French is excellent?

Can any historian doubt that the victor controls thehistorical record?

Is it any wonder that Helen always replies, I choosenot to run?

Punctuation rules are not always logical, but this one makesperfect sense. The question mark belongs to the sentence as awhole, not to the quoted material.

Question Marks with Double and Single Quotation MarksIf the sentence calls for both single and double quotationmarks, indicating a quotation embedded within anotherquotation, the rationale for placing the question mark is simple. The question mark is always associated with thepart of the sentence that is asking a question. Place thequestion mark inside the closing quotation mark (either


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single or double) if the quoted material is a question and out-side the closing quotation mark if it is not. This sentenceillustrates the rule:

What did Mary mean by her comment that no one isunscarred? asked Evelyn.

The sentence contains two different quotations: no one isunscarred and What did Mary mean by her comment that no oneis unscarred. Following American custom (British custom isreversed), the embedded quotation is placed in single quota-tion marks and the larger quotation is placed within doublequotation marks. The embedded quotation is not a question,so it would be wrong to place a question mark inside theclosing quotation mark. The larger quotation is a question,so the question mark appropriately belongs inside the closingquotation mark.

Even if both quotations are questions, only one questionmark appears, inside the closing quotation mark:

Why did Mary ask, Is no one unscarred? remarkedEvelyn.

IN TITLESA title in the form of a question should end with a questionmark unless the writer wishes to omit the punctuation for thesake of literary effect. If the title is placed alone on a line (in aheading or title page), no quotation marks are used. In thetext, the question mark is italicized if the title calls for italics.In a title surrounded by quotation marks, the question markbelongs inside the closing quotation mark. Examples:

Who Will See the Sunrise?

Who Will See the Sunrise?

For more information on whether a title should be itali-cized or placed in quotation marks, see Chapter 7.


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3

The Exclamation Point

The exclamation point, which the British call the exclamationmark, is derived from the Latin word io, which expresses sur-prise and joy. The two Latin letters of that word, written oneabove the other, form the modern exclamation point.

The problem with exclamation points isnt understandinghow to use them. Its understanding when an exclamationpoint is called for. The renowned American author F. ScottFitzgerald once said that an exclamation point is like laugh-ing at your own joke. On the long-running television sitcomSeinfeld, one of the characters is nearly fired because sheinserts exclamation points randomly throughout the text of anovel she is editing. American scientist and author LewisThomas said that encountering an exclamation point is likewatching someone elses small child jumping up and downcrazily in the center of the living room shouting to attractattention. The message is clear: Dont overuse this punctua-tion mark.

But dont discount the exclamation point either. Humanbeings are emotional creatures, and the need to scream inprint with more than word choice seems universal. The excla-mation point does exactly what its name implies. It raises thelevel of emphasis and emotion of the sentence. In e-mails, forexample, exclamation points often express excitement orwarmth, emphasizing the good wishes and high spirits of thewriter.

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AS AN ENDMARKOne of the three endmarks (the period and the question markare the other two), an exclamation point signals the end of acomplete sentence:

Dont leave me!

The auditorium is on fire!

No employee should leave before the end of the shift!

Clean up after yourself!

No one knows the trouble Ive seen!

An exclamation point adds passion and intensity to a sentence. Perhaps because great emotion and logical follow-through dont always go togetheror perhaps for no reason


Using, Not Overusing, Exclamation Points

No one can maintain an intense pitch of emotion for verylong before tuning out. If you place too many exclamationpoints in your writing, the reader will mentally discard them.Then when you truly want to emphasize an idea, you willhave nothing at your disposal. Place these punctuation markscarefully and sparingly.

Mild exclamations may be indicated by commas, not excla-mation points:

Well, I have looked for the macro file for an hour and notfound it.

Oh, Paulina will return those encyclopedias to the shelfwhen she has a chance.

My goodness, a better alarm clock would certainly behelpful.

He is the best candidate, absolutely.

In the preceding examples, the words separated from themain idea of the sentence (well, oh, my goodness, absolutely)are exclamations, but the writer has chosen not to emphasize

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at allexclamation points have traditionally been allowed tomark off incomplete sentences as well. Note the exclama-tion points in these passages:

The wicked witch has cast a spell on the weary travelers.Alas! They have no idea what lies in wait for them.

Gentlemen! I will not tolerate any disrespect inside librarygrounds.

The instructions said to enable macros. Well! That stepwould be easy if only I could find a macro that was disabled.

A map! Inez would donate an entire tank of gas if only shehad a map of the area.

Alas, gentlemen, well, and a map are not complete sentences,but the rules of grammar allow their use as exclamations.

Chapter 3: The Exclamation Point 33

them. Each could certainly become a stronger statement withdifferent punctuation:

Well! I have looked for the macro file for an hour and notfound it.

Oh! Paulina will return those encyclopedias to the shelfwhen she has a chance.

My goodness! A better alarm clock would certainly behelpful.

He is the best candidate. Absolutely!

The choice between the comma of a mild exclamation andthe intensity of a full-fledged exclamation point is nearlyalways a question of style, not grammar. One exception lieswith the words oh and O. The first (oh) may be followed byeither a comma or an exclamation point. The second (O)must always be written separately, capitalized and followed by an exclamation point:

Wrong: O, my joy is everlasting.

Right: O! My joy is everlasting.

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IN QUOTATIONSThe rules for placing an exclamation point in a quotation aresimilar to those governing the placement of question marks(described in Chapter 2). If the quoted material is an exclama-tion, the exclamation point goes inside the closing quotationmark. If the quoted material is not an exclamation but thesentence as a whole is, the exclamation point is placed out-side the closing quotation mark. In quoting written materialthat includes an exclamation point, place the exclamationpoint inside the closing quotation mark. These sentences illus-trate the proper placement of exclamation points:

Sarah screamed, You caught me!

As Nordstrom wrote in The Complete Guide to Libraries, Nolibrary is ever completely silent!

I cant believe that Sarah said, Wisconsin is my home!

In the first sentence, the quoted words (You caught me) arean exclamation. Therefore the exclamation point precedes thequotation mark. In the second sentence, the original sourcecontained an exclamation point, so the mark is place insidethe closing quotation mark. In the third sentence the quotedwords (Wisconsin is my home) are a fairly neutral statement,but the sentence as a whole is not. Thus the exclamationpoint comes at the end of the sentence, not at the end of thequotation.

When Both the Quotation and the Sentence AreExclamations

If both the sentence and the quoted words are emphatic,place the exclamation point inside the closing quotation.Dont use two endmarks.

Wrong: I cant believe that Sarah screamed, Youcaught me!!

Right: I cant believe that Sarah screamed, Youcaught me!


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IN TITLESIf a title is an exclamation, the author may choose to includean exclamation point or to omit this punctuation mark for lit-erary effect. The choice is a matter of style and preference, notgrammar. Once the author has made a decision, however,anyone referring to the title should abide by the authorschoice. If the title ends in an exclamation point, italicize it(for titles in italics) or place the exclamation point before theclosing quotation mark (for titles enclosed in quotationmarks).

Strike Three!

Strike Three!

IN PARENTHESESYou may occasionally wish to include an exclamation insideanother sentence, setting it off from the rest of the sentenceby enclosing the exclamation in parentheses. The first word ofthe exclamation is generally not capitalized, and the exclama-tion point goes inside the closing mark, in this way:

What he said (screamed!) was quite offensive.

The track meet is coming soon (next week!) despite yourlack of preparation.

He accepted the proposal (O joy!) and will join us nextweek.

Note: The exclamation O is always capitalized.

Inappropriate Exclamation Points

Some writers have a habit of inserting exclamation points inparentheses, with no words at all, to show that they are sur-prised, offended, or amused by the quotation. Similarly, writ-ers at times place several endmarks together to emphasize thecraziness or intensity of a statement. Such punctuation is fine

Chapter 3: The Exclamation Point 35

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for comedy or informal notes or e-mails between friends.However, it is frowned upon in formal writing. The text sur-rounding the quotation may be a suitable spot for explaininghow you feel about the quoted material.

Wrong: Scrivener wrote that he was offended by thescene (!) and wished to be excused from acting in it.

Right: I am stunned by Scriveners comment that he wasoffended by the scene and wished to be excused fromacting in it.

Wrong: Mavis ate an entire jar of cherries?!!

Right: Believe it or not, Mavis ate an entire jar ofcherries!


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4

The Comma

The comma is subject to so many rules that it wouldnt besurprising if the average writer preferred to ignore them andinstead keep a salt shaker full of commas at hand, ready tosprinkle randomly over the text. Yet the rules governing thecomma are actually quite simple, once you understand thepurpose of this punctuation mark.

Commas create a pause for the reader. A comma pause isntas long as the silence signaled by a period, a question mark,or an exclamation point. A comma pause is more of a half-breath, a tiny hesitation. In conversation, a change in toneor a bit of silence is the equivalent of a comma. Without theseverbal commas, it would be much more difficult to followthe onrush of words. Unfortunately, too many writers tend toinsert a comma wherever they themselves would like to pausefor a moment, perhaps to think about the next idea. Yet com-mas arent meant to give the writer a brief rest. They exist onlyto serve the reader.

As with all punctuation, the most important reason toplace a comma is to clarify the meaning of the sentence.Theres a world of difference between sentences with andwithout commas:

John tipped Mary because he appreciated good service.

John tipped, Mary, because he appreciated good service.

In the first sentence John tipped someone named Mary. Inthe second, Mary is being addressed, and the reader doesntknow whom John tippeda waiter, a taxi driver, or a house-cleaner. John may even have tipped Mary herself.

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Because a comma creates a break in the flow of text, itseparates one thought from another. The rules in this chapteroften call for a word or phrase to be set off from the restof the sentence by commas. The comma tells the reader wherethe separation lies and may signal the fact that the separatedmaterial is slightly different from the rest of the sentence.The text cut off by commas may be a comment on the restof the sentence, some extra information, or, as in the preced-ing sentence about John and Mary, the name of the personbeing addressed. In the following sentences, the separationcreated by commas radically changes the meaning of the sec-ond sentence:

Students who are obnoxious should be disciplined firmly.

Students, who are obnoxious, should be disciplined firmly.

If you read this pair of sentences aloud, pausing at thecommas in sentence two, youll probably hear the differencein meaning. In the first sentence no commas set off who areobnoxious from the rest of the sentence. The main idea is theentire sentence: The students who are obnoxiousbut notthose who arentshould be disciplined firmly. In the secondsentence, which may have been written by a burned-outteacher, the separated material may be lifted out. The mainidea of sentence two is whats left: Students should be disciplinedfirmly. In this version, all students should be disciplined firmlybecause all students are obnoxious.

Clarity isnt the only reason for inserting or omitting acomma. Commas are often governed by custom rather thanby meaning. Those customs have changed through the years.Writers of previous generations used commas more generouslythan modern writers. The contemporary open style of writ-ing emphasizes an uninterrupted flow of wordsall the morereason to make every comma count.

Various style manuals differ on the placement of commas.If you are asked to follow a specific style manual for your


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writing task, be especially careful to note the variations listedhere with some rules. If no variations are mentioned, themajor style manuals agree.

Whether meaning or custom calls for a comma, this littlepunctuation mark is powerful. You should pay attention toits placement, though perhaps not as much as British writerOscar Wilde, who once spent an entire morning decidingto take a comma out of one of his poems, only to put thecomma back again in the afternoon. Nor should you be ascarefree as another author, who wrote that commas haveless and less importance for her because the reader cancatch his own breath. The rules in this chapter fall some-where between these two schools of thought and will guideyou in placing and deleting commas in your own writing.

TO CREATE A SERIESA series is a list of three or more items inserted into asentence. In speaking, short pauses distinguish each itemfrom those before and after. In a freestanding list, eachitem appears on a separate line, with line breaks serving aspunctuation. A comma takes the place of the line break oran oral pause when the list appears in a sentence. Heresan example:

The tightrope walker leaned left, bent from the waist, slowlystraightened up, and stepped forward confidently.

Four itemsthe actions of the tightrope walkerappear inthis series:

1. leaned left

2. bent from the waist

3. slowly straightened up

4. stepped confidently forward

Chapter 4: The Comma 39

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The commas separate these actions so that the readerknows that the tightrope walker slowly straightened up, notbent from the waist slowly.

The comma before and is optional because the word andsignals the end of item three and the beginning of item four.Many writers include this last comma for the sake of sym-metry or because they want an extra pause. Most majorAmerican style manualsthe Modern Language AssociationHandbook, The Chicago Manual of Style, and the PublicationManual of the American Psychological Associationcall forthis comma. In Britain, writers tend to omit the commapreceding and.

Take a look at these examples:

Maude, Ellen, and I will compile the sales informationyou need.

The best way to reach this student is to praise his bestefforts, to scold him when he misbehaves, and to treathim with respect at all times.

The initial plan is to hold a raffle, bake sale or dance inorder to raise funds for the fire victims. (optional commaomitted)

If all items in a series are linked by and, no commas areneeded:

Wrong: She said that she wanted milk, and cookies,and candy.

Why it is wrong: And takes the place of the commabetween milk and cookies and between cookies and candy.

Right: She said that she wanted milk and cookies andcandy.


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Sometimes commas are not enough to differentiatebetween the elements in a series. If even one item has acomma within it, the reader may become confused. Supposethat a guest list is made up names and titles:

Andrew Worth, President and Chief Executive

Gene Delowitz

union representative

Helen Herbert

Arthur Katetov, Vice-President in charge of sales

Molly Dell, Chief Operating Officer

If you were to insert this list into a sentence using onlycommas, the reader would not be sure where one item endsand the next begins. Questions would be inevitable: Howmany people are invited? Is Gene Delowitz a union represen-tative? To clarify where the breaks between items occur, use asemicolon between every element, including the one thatcomes before the and:

Participants at todays meeting include Andrew Worth,President and Chief Executive; Gene Delowitz; a union rep-resentative; Helen Herbert; Arthur Katetov, Vice-President incharge of sales; and Molly Dell, Chief Operating Officer.

For more information on semicolons, see Chapter 5.

When a series separated by commas ends in etc., and soforth, and so on, or other such phrases, place a comma beforethe word or abbreviation indicating continuation:

He visited London, Madrid, Copenhagen, etc.

I would like you to give me the receipts, bills, order forms,and so forth.


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Two Is Not a Series

Two items are not enough to make a series. Never separatetwo items with a comma, unless each of the two may standalone as a separate sentence. (See When Combining TwoComplete Sentences later in this chapter.)

Wrong: At his birthday party Herbert served milk, andcookies.

Why it is wrong: Only two items, milk and cookies, areon the list. The words after the commaand cookiesdonot form a complete sentence.

Right: At his birthday party Herbert served milk andcookies.

Wrong: The vice-president asked me to report on fourthquarter earnings, and to discuss our plans for a newmanufacturing plant.

Why it is wrong: The vice-presidents request includesonly two tasksto report on fourth quarter earnings and todiscuss our plans for a new manufacturing plant. The wordsafter the commaand to discuss our plans for a new manu-facturing plantdo not form a complete sentence.

Right: The vice-president asked me to report on fourthquarter earnings and to discuss our plans for a newmanufacturing plant.

Wrong: Many Egyptian pharaohs planned elaboratetombs, and commanded their subjects to build them.

Why it is wrong: You are not joining two complete sen-tences. The sentence has one subject (Egyptian pharaohs)and two verbs (planned, commanded).

Right: Many Egyptian pharaohs planned elaboratetombs and commanded their subjects to build them.

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IN A SET OF DESCRIPTIONSProbably the most common form of description in English isan adjectivea descriptive wordplaced in front of the per-son, place, or thing being described:

Conscientious Molly bought crisp broccoli. (Conscientiousdescribes Molly and crisp describes broccoli.)

On television, blue shirts and dark ties work better thanother color combinations. (Blue describes shirts, darkdescribes ties, and color describes combinations.)

When two or more descriptions of the same type andimportance are strung together to describe a single person orthing, the descriptions are separated by commas. No commaever separates the last descriptive word from the word itdescribes.

The key phrase in this rule is of the same type and impor-tance. In grammar terminology, descriptions of the same typeand importance are called coordinate. Heres an example of asentence with coordinate descriptions:

Mr. Inchworth selected an experienced, intelligent workerfor that task.

In the preceding sentence, experienced and intelligent arecoordinate. Therefore, they are separated by commas. Whenyou include a set of descriptions in your writing, you mustdecide whether the descriptive words are coordinate, thusrequiring commas, or not. A few guidelines may help youdecide whether commas between descriptions are necessary:

1. You can determine whether the descriptions are coordi-nate by mentally inserting and between them. If thesentence still makes sense, the descriptions should beseparated by commas. In this example, the sentencereads well:

Mr. Inchworth selected an experienced and intelligent worker for that task.


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2. Another way to check whether a set of descriptions iscoordinate and requires commas is to reverse the orderof the descriptions. If the sentence still makes sense, thedescriptions are coordinate. In the example above,reversing the descriptions yields a perfectly fine sentence:

Mr. Inchworth selected an intelligent, experienced workerfor that task.

3. Numbers are never separated by commas from otherdescriptive words.

4. Words showing possessionmy, your, her, his, their andthe likeare never separated by commas from otherdescriptive words.

Take a look at these guidelines in action in the followingexamples:

Marietta carefully placed the blank, pink, decorated sheet ofpaper in front of the judge.

Using guideline number one, you might say that the sheetwas blank and pink and decorated. That statement makes sense;all three words give information about the sheet of paper. Thedescriptive words are equal and should be separated by com-mas. No comma appears between decorated and sheet, theword being described.

Note the difference in this sentence:

Marietta carefully placed the three best pink sheets in frontof the judge.

Now the descriptive words are three, best, and pink.Placing and between them doesnt work: The sheets werethree and best and pink. Nor can you reverse the order of thedescriptionsbest pink three. This sentence sounds oddbecause the descriptive words dont function in the same way.One indicates a number (three). Best creates a comparison.Pink is the only straightforward description of the sheet.Because these three descriptions are all doing different jobs,


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they arent coordinate (equal) and shouldnt be separated bycommas.

Still another example:

Her carefully chosen comments sounded rehearsed.

No commas are appropriate in this sentence because com-ments is described by two words, her and chosen. As guidelinethree above states, words showing possession (in this sen-tence, her) are never set off by commas. Chosen and carefullyarent separated by commas because they describe differentwords: carefully describes chosen, and chosen describes words.

TO SET OFF NONESSENTIAL INFORMATIONGrammarians label some elements as either essential ornonessential to the meaning of the sentence. (The terms restric-tive and nonrestrictive are also used at times to describe thesame elements.) These elements are usually descriptive,explaining how or when something happened or giving infor-mation about a person or a thing. In grammar terminology,adjective and adverb clauses and phrases may be essential ornonessential. So may appositives. Dont worry about thoseterms. You can understand this rule without them, simply byreading the examples and explanations below. The primaryprinciple here is simple: nonessential information is alwaysset off by commas; essential information is not.

The preceding section of this chapter explains how topunctuate single-word descriptions (adjectives) that comebefore the person, place, or thing being described. The ele-ments discussed in this section are generally longer and oftenappear after the word being described.

In deciding how to punctuate, you must first determinewhether a particular expression is essential or nonessential.Several guidelines apply. Essential information cant be leftout without changing the main idea you are trying to convey.Nonessential information, as the name implies, is interestingbut not crucial to the readers understanding of the sentence.


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The sentence says more or less the same thing without thenonessential material. Another way to sort essential andnonessential elements is to decide whether the element isidentifying the word it describes or simply providing an extrafact. Essential elements identify; without the essential ele-ment, you may not know which person, place, or thing isbeing discussed. Nonessential elements provide additionalinformation that you might like to know but dont actuallyneed in order to understand the sentence.

The first word of an element can sometimes help you dif-ferentiate between essential and nonessential descriptions.That often introduces an essential element, and which fre-quently signals a nonessential element. However, many essen-tial and nonessential elements contain neither of those words.

Below are some pairs of sentences with essential andnonessential elements. By comparing them you can see thedifference in meaning and punctuation.

Essential: Im not going to the party unless you go.

Essential element: unless you go

Why it is essential: If you cut unless you go out of the sen-tence, the statement is absolute. I am not going to theparty. But the writer may go to the party, if a certain condi-tion is met.

Nonessential: Im not going to the party, although I mayattend the awards ceremony.

Nonessential element: although I may attend the awardsceremony

Why it is nonessential:

Documents

Webster's New World Punctuation: Simplifed and Applied (Webster's New World)