Chapter 23: Knowing Your Audience Copyright © 2013

Audience

http://www.flickr.com/photos/scobleizer/6293322182/sizes/m/in/photostream/

Audience is another way of saying readers—those who are likely to read your writing. Knowing your audience is important because we adopt different styles depending on who we are writing for, just like we adopt different styles depending on who we are talking with. Think about how you talk with your friends, compared to talking with your parents, your professors, your employer, or the person behind the counter at Qdoba’s. The differences are sometimes subtle and sometimes dramatic, and oftentimes we are not even aware of the differences. That’s when we are likely to make mistakes that can cause miscommunication and frustration. It’s the same with writing. Knowing your audience reduces miscommunication.

Amy Tan, author of the best-selling book, The Joy Luck Club, and daughter of Chinese immigrants, illustrates how we use different language, what she calls “Englishes” with different audiences:

Lately, I've been giving more thought to the kind of English my mother speaks. Like others, I have described it to people as “broken" or "fractured" English. But I wince when I say that. It has always bothered me that I can think of no way to describe it other than "broken," as if it were damaged and needed to be fixed, as if it lacked a certain wholeness and soundness. I've heard other terms used, "limited English," for example. But they seem just as bad, as if everything is limited, including people's perceptions of the limited English speaker.

I know this for a fact, because when I was growing up, my mother's "limited" English limited my perception of her. I was ashamed of her English. I believed that her English reflected the quality of what she had to say. That is, because she expressed them imperfectly her thoughts were imperfect. And I had plenty of empirical evidence to support me: the fact that people in department stores, at banks, and at restaurants did not take her seriously, did not give her good service, pretended not to understand her, or even acted as if they did not hear her.

My mother has long realized the limitations of her English as well. When I was fifteen, she used to have me call people on the phone to pretend I was she. In this guise, I was forced to ask for information or even to complain and yell at people who had been rude to her. One time it was a call to her stockbroker in New York. She had cashed out her small portfolio and it just so happened we were going to go to New York the next week, our very first trip outside California. I had to get on the phone and say in an adolescent voice that was not very convincing, "This is Mrs. Tan."

And my mother was standing in the back whispering loudly, "Why he don't send me check, already two weeks late. So mad he lie to me, losing me money.

And then I said in perfect English, "Yes, I'm getting rather concerned. You had agreed to send the check two weeks ago, but it hasn't arrived."

Then she began to talk more loudly. "What he want, I come to New York tell him front of his boss, you cheating me?" And I was trying to calm her down, make her be quiet, while telling the stockbroker, "I can't tolerate any more excuses. If I don't receive the check immediately, I am going to have to speak to your manager when I'm in New York next week." And sure enough, the following week there we were in front of this astonished stockbroker, and I was sitting there red-faced and quiet, and my mother, the real Mrs. Tan, was shouting at his boss in her impeccable broken

English.

…. Just last week, I was walking down the street with my mother, and I again found myself conscious of the English I was using, the English I do use with her. We were talking about the price of new and used furniture and I heard myself saying this: "Not waste money that way." My husband was with us as well, and he didn't notice any switch in my English. And then I realized why. It's because over the twenty years we've been together I've often used that same kind of English with him, and sometimes he even uses it with me. It has become our language of intimacy, a different sort of English that relates to family talk, the language I grew up with….

Amy Tan, best-selling author

http://www.the-american-interest.com/article.cfm?piece=271

Amy and her Mom

http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/tan0int-1

Amy Tan mentions three Englishes: the English she speaks in formal settings, the English she slips into when talking with her mother, and the English she enjoys speaking in personal settings with her husband. Consider the words you use when talking with different people. For instance, you use different levels of formality in your speech (and in writing), moving from the highly informal—slang or street talk—to the highly formal—college essays or legal documents. For example, think about the different words you use for money, depending on who you are talking with: a good friend, your parents, a loan officer at college, or when writing an essay for an economics class.

Practice 1. Informal and Formal Vocabulary

(This practice works best if completed with several students or in a class discussion.)

Take the word money and write down all the slang words you can come up with that can be used in place of money:

For a list that the Online Slang Dictionary recorded, (Click Here).

Now write down all the more formal terms you can think of for money:

If you’re like most people, your list of slang words will be much longer than the list of formal words. Because most of your experience is in informal settings, especially with friends and family, so naturally you have a larger informal vocabulary. On the other hand, not knowing formal wording can make writing college essays a challenge.

In the 1950s, there was a popular TV show called Leave it to Beaver, about a typical American family of that time, named the Cleavers. As people imagined families back then, there was a father, who worked and gave good advice, a mom who stayed at home and raised the kids, a big brother named Wally, and a little brother named Theodore, or “The Beaver.” Wally’s good friend, Eddie Haskell, who often convinced Wally and Beaver to get in trouble, took changing his speech, depending on his audience, to a new level:

The Beaver

http://tvlistings.zap2it.com/tv/leave-it-to-beaver/photo-gallery-detail/EP00002560/369957513?

aid=zap2it

Wally and The Beaver

http://www.avclub.com/articles/top-ten-leave-it-to-beaver,88717/

The Cleavers

http://www.sitcomsonline.com/photopost/showphoto.php/photo/7274

Eddie Haskell (Center)

http://www.dailynews.com/columnists/ci_13507733

Eddie Haskell (juggling his audience, at light speed): “Wally, if your dumb brother tags along, I'm gonna - oh, good afternoon, Mrs. Cleaver. I was just telling Wallace how pleasant it would be for Theodore to accompany us to the

movies.”

While most of us do not change our English quite so drastically, depending on who is in the room, we all make significant changes depending on who we are talking to, or writing for, whether we are aware of those changes or not. Consider the different “Englishes” you use in writing to your grandmother compared to writing a text message to a friend.

Practice 2. Write three short notes (less than half a page each), the first, a letter to your grandmother, the second, a text message to a good friend, and the third to an officer at your bank. In each note, ask for a certain amount of money, each in the form of a loan. (I am grateful to the faculty at Salt Lake Community College, especially Jerri Harwell, for providing the foundation for this exercise.)

Letter to your grandmother or grandfather:

Text message to your best friend from high school:

Letter to a representative at your bank:

Questions to help understand your audience

Asking the right questions can help you identify and target the audience for your essays. Consider the following:

How much is your audience likely to know about your topic? What do you want them to learn about your topic? Example: If you are writing about parenting to other parents, you’ll

write a very different essay than writing about parenting to first year college students who are not parents.

How much detail (examples, quotes, statistics) do you want them to understand about your topic? What information will they believe is most important? What will convince them to believe your main idea—what your essay will prove about your topic?Example: If you are a construction engineer writing for other

construction engineers about building an expanded highway bridge, you’ll provide different examples, quotes, and statistics than if you are writing for the townspeople where the bridge will be built.

What do you want your audience to learn about you as they read your essay?Example: If you have just moved and are writing a letter about the

strengths and weaknesses of your new community, you’ll share different insights about yourself—your beliefs, tastes, and concerns—than if you have been living in the community for 20 years.

What might surprise your audience? Where he might think: “I haven’t thought about that before?”Example: If you are writing about barrel racing in rodeos, you can

share that your horse, weighing over 1,500 pounds, broke your foot by a misplaced step. If you are writing for other competitive barrel racers, you’ll dig deeper to surprise, perhaps by describing a new technique for circling a barrel.

What is likely to offend, confuse, or lose the audience?

Example: In an essay on marijuana, if you write that “weed is safer and better for you than alcohol,” you will likely offend or confuse an audience of senior citizens. But college students will understand the wording and not take offense.

That doesn’t mean you cannot write a convincing essay that marijuana is safer than alcohol for an audience of senior citizens, or convince an audience of pro-marijuana college students that marijuana abuse can have serious health consequences. However, the word choice and writing style must be different for each audience.

The Masters of Audience: Advertisers

In trying to understand audience in writing, We can turn to ad agencies for help. Marketing companies only make money if they interest people in their clients’ products—knowing their audience is serious business. We can learn from their example.

Practice 2. Identify the target audience in the following ads

Obsession: Trendy toppers under $30

Questions about the target audience in the ad

Age range?

Income range?

Gender?

Ethnic group(s)?

Interests/Tastes?

To what needs, wants, emotions does the add appeal?

What is the advertiser’s reason for choosing the model photographed in the ad?

What is the reason for having her hand on her head?

Why is the photograph only of her upper body?

Analyze the color, style of print, and words in the ad.

What is the ad trying to sell?

Discover why American Girl is more than just a store—plan to visit you favorite location today.

Questions about the target audience in the ad

Age range?

Income range?

Gender?

Ethnic group(s)?

Interests/Tastes?

To what needs, wants, emotions does the add appeal?

What is the advertiser’s reason for choosing the girls photographed in the ad?

What do you notice about the dresses the girls are wearing?

Why is there popcorn with polka dot boxes in each girl’s hand?

What does the background of the room and windows suggest?

Analyze the color, style of print, and words in the ad.

Why is a flower attached to the word summer?

What is the ad trying to sell?

Questions about the target audience in the ad:

Age range?

Income range?

Gender?

Ethnic group(s)?

Interests/Tastes?

To what needs, wants, emotions does the add appeal?

What is the advertiser’s reason for choosing the model photographed in the ad?

What do you notice about the woman’s outfit?

What does the background suggest?

Analyze the color, style of print, and words in the ad.

What is the ad trying to sell?

Questions about the target audience in the ad:

Age range?

Income range?

Gender?

Ethnic group(s)?

Interests/Tastes?

To what needs, wants, emotions does the add appeal?

Why are there no people in the ad?

What does the background suggest?

Analyze the color, style of print, and words in the ad?

What is the ad trying to sell?

View Ted Talk: Social Media and Audience (Click Here).

Your professor is part of your audience

Of course, no matter how you cut it, the person evaluating your essay is your professor. That’s why it’s worth the time and effort to find out what your professor expects, what she likes and dislikes. Some are sticklers for grammar; others are flexible. Some focus on organization; others do not. Some expect lots of research; others are more interested in the logic of your argument. Some professors expect new and original ideas; others want clear communication.

Instructors have pet peeves like beginning a sentence with and; using I or you, serial commas, ending a sentence with a preposition; gender agreement; vague qualifiers; formatting; or slang. When an instructor encounters a pet peeve, it changes their overall impression. Use spinach example.

How do you discover your professors’ expectations? First, listen to what she says. Often, she will tell the class what she thinks is important in the essay assignment. Second, make sure to read the textbook. The textbook, especially in English classes, will list what is expected in essay assignments. For example, reading this textbook you see that organization is very important. In fact, all the chapters on essay writing share a specific organization. It makes sense to follow that organization when writing essays for this English class. Third, carefully read the essay assignment. Some professors provide a simple outline of the assignment; others give detailed instructions on what they expect you to write about, how extensively the essay should be researched, and how the essay should be organized. Fourth, ask questions about the assignment to learn what your professor expects. Usually

professors want to help you do well. They’ll answer as best they can. And remember, there is never a dumb question. Your professor was once a lost and insecure first-year college student. One thing’s for sure: if you don’t ask, you won’t find out.

Keep in mind that professors do not expect you to write as if you are a literature major. Professors understand that your audience resembles you—not people with degrees, credentials, and professional expertise.

Even though your professor will be reading your essay—for example, on the importance of social-economic status in educational attainment (sociology); the effects of chemical stimulants on success in college (psychology); the causes of the Civil War in the United States (history); or the effects of pesticides on gene mutation in mammals (biology)—in each case, she does not expect you to be an expert. You are writing for students, motivated students, but not experts; your professor will review your essay with that in mind.

To determine your audience, imagine another student in the class—a student who is motivated and enjoys learning—as your reader. True, your professor will be evaluating your essay, but she’ll look at the writing as if she were that motivated student, just as you imagined.

Here are some characteristics that motivated students are likely to have:

They can be persuaded with evidence and common sense (Stott). They will not accept the statement: “I have no evidence, but trust me on this.”

They are unlikely to have expertise in what you are writing about.

They expect you to communicate clearly without showing off.

They don’t like to be talked down or lectured to. Try not to sound self-important. It annoys readers.

They expect an essay in which the tone is more formal than how they talk with friends, but not so formal as to come across as self-important.

Here’s some good advice: Don’t try to copy the complex sentences and vocabulary many of your professors use. You might not be using the words correctly, and the writing will not sound like you.

Purpose

The audience you choose to write for often is related to the purpose of your essay. What do you hope to accomplish? Here are some possibilities:

Purpose of the Essay Audience Style1. To entertain2. To express your

feelings3. To relate your

experiences

4. To inform5. To persuade

Friends, family, fellow students (can include some assignments in an English class)

Students in an academic discipline: sociology, psychology, history, economics, biology, English, etc.

Informal

Formal

Role

As with purpose, the narrative role you assume in writing helps to reach your audience. Consider the following relationships you might have with your readers:

Family member: brother, sister, wife, husband, child, parent Employer, employee Friend: a close friend, or someone you just talk with from

time to time after class Student or expert in an academic discipline

In almost all essay assignments (other than in English classes), your instructor assumes that your role is a student in an academic discipline, and your audience are other students. In short, your audience is a lot like you. They will be learning about the subject, but they will also have a basic foundation in the discipline because they too have been paying attention in class and reading the textbook.

If you are writing as a friend, family member, or fellow college student, the essay can be more informal; in fact, students often write an essay as if the reader were a friend. But remember, it’s your professor who will be reading your essay, and she will be annoyed if the writing is too informal. Just as your friends will not want vocabulary they don’t understand, your professor doesn’t want the language that is too informal or too formal. The following essay has three drafts: The first is too informal, the second is too formal, and the third is just right for a college class. The first two versions will lose your reader, and detract from your grade. The last draft does not change in content, but is the right level of formality, and a better grade will result.

Too hot Audience: writing directed to a friend in college instead of a college class.

Facebook and MySpace are way different. MySpace allows u to do cool things to layout while Facebook doesn’t have nothing more than a default, but it’s getting better. Then Facebook wins on looks because of its super clean and lets u find stuff right away, and another thing I like is its start page lets you link to everything you need. It’s just a really together program.

These days you gotta look at media. MySpace lets u to download tons of awesome music and video right to your homepage. Facebook is not up for that. But with Facebook, it’s like you can post videos from YouTube and say stuff on them. Facebook also has Instagram, the max photo program. You can post your pictures and videos right from your smart phone. Look at it like this. MySpace lets u listen to awesome music while you surf the net, and Facebook can’t do that - Just sayin. MySpace wins over Facebook cause its stretch and for music, but Facebook wins hands down for video and looks choice, so it depends on what you’re up to. It’s all good.

Too cold Audience: trying to copy the complex sentences and vocabulary you read and hear your professors use.

Facebook and MySpace are diverse in design and media, with the scheme of MySpace allowing multivariate customization to the layout and profile while Facebook’s schema has disappointed connoisseurs of the profession by possessing little more than an elemental default format. Conversely, the latter program’s unpretentious schematic has “a clean layout that allows you to find everything right away, and its start page is a link to everything you need in neat and tidy boxes” (Mashable).

In regards to media, which increasingly is becoming the raison d’etre of sophisticated users of the computer and a make or break marketing angle for the casual user, MySpace allows for seamless music and video downloads to the homepage. MySpace users can attend to music of their choice while they effortlessly surf the Internet, yet Facebook users cannot even commence to try such prodigious computer gymnastics. With Facebook, users can post diverse videos from You-Tube and make comments on them, communicating to and from friends anywhere, anyplace, anytime. Facebook also has Instagram, the consummate program for uploading depictions and videos directly from the user’s sleekly, styled smart phone. Comparing and contrasting design and media features, MySpace triumphs over Facebook for its flexible, sophisticated design and for the gamut of available and downloadable musical choices, but

Facebook has a clean, chiseled look and is obviously better for pictures and video. Which program you select is dependent upon your end goal for utilizing it.

Just right Audience: writing directed for motivated students and your instructor in a college class.

Facebook and MySpace are different in design and media. The design of MySpace allows customization to the layout and profile while Facebook has little more than a default design, but its design has “a clean layout that allows you to find everything right away, and its start page is a link to everything you need in neat and tidy boxes” (Mashable).

In regards to media, MySpace allows music and video downloads directly to the homepage. MySpace users can listen to music of their choice while they surf the Internet, and Facebook users cannot. With Facebook, users can post videos from You-Tube and make comments on them. Facebook also has Instagram, the top program for uploading pictures and videos directly from your smart phone. Comparing design and media features, MySpace wins over Facebook for its flexible design and for music, but Facebook has a cleaner look and is much better for pictures and video. Which program you choose depends on your goals for using it.

The Goldilocks Planets — Not too hot, not too cold, but just right

A "Goldilocks planet" is a planet that falls within a star's habitable zone, and the name is often specifically used for planets close to the size of Earth. The name comes from the children's fairy tale of Goldilocks and the Three Bears, in which a little girl chooses from sets of three items, ignoring the ones that are too extreme (large or small, hot or cold, etc.), and settling on the one in the middle, which is "just right." Likewise, a planet following this Goldilocks Principle is one that is neither too close nor too far from a star to rule out liquid water on its surface and thus life (as humans understand it) on the planet. However, planets within a habitable zone that are unlikely to host life (e.g., gas giants) may also be called Goldilocks planets. The best example of a Goldilocks planet is the Earth itself.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldilocks_planet

In a study published in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics, researchers say that they've discovered a solar system with not just one, but three Goldilocks

planets, Goldilocks planet, meaning that they’re not too close, not too far, but just the right distance from its sun to potentially sustain life. The planets are only 22 light-years away from Earth. These planets were discovered through an approach known as the radial velocity method. This is a method by which we observe the star, actually, move in response to the gravitational pull of the planet. So we've monitored the position of the star, and if we see it start to move and those movements seem consistent with the presence of a planet, then we can say, aha, there is, in fact, a planet there. And in this case, we saw lots of different signals. And so we were able to determine that they were, in fact, three of these planets in the Goldilocks zone. Rory Barnes, the lead U.S. author of the study, talks about how it's possible to find multiple "Goldilocks planets" around one star. (Click Here) to listen to the story.http://www.npr.org/2013/06/28/196594980/not-one-but-three-goldilocks-planets

Artist drawing of a Goldilocks planetby Sara Diaz, age 14, Madison, Wisconsin.

http://www.simpsonstreetfreepress.org/space-science/first-goldilocks-planet

Your audience is also important in deciding how much background to give, and which vocabulary terms to explain. If, for example, your audience is other college students, they are likely to have a good idea of what it’s like to be in college, including what it’s like to register for classes, decide on a major, or talk to an advisor. It’s your job to predict what questions your readers might have and supply the needed answers. If your audience has never been to college — say a group of high school students — you may need to explain basic college terms and experiences.

If you’re a mechanical engineer writing an essay about a proposed bridge construction, and your audience is other engineers, you won’t have to explain vocabulary like abutment, anchor span, or camber. On the other hand, if you are writing for citizens who will use the bridge, you’ll need to explain these terms and more, as well as simplify your writing to make sure you don’t lose your audience.

Here are some examples from essays where writers explain terms and ideas their audience may not understand.

Example 1: Illustration Essay

Working with Children Requires Important Skills

One important skill I need to have is patience. [Explanation for Target audience]: It is very important because children can be a lot of work. I need to be able to listen to children and have patience when they're doing something. For example, the other day at work the kids were rushing to put on their jackets to go outside. One child, Miguel, was especially slow. He did not have his jacket on even when all the other kids were outside and playing. Yet, it was a cold day, and I couldn’t let him go out without his jacket. Instead, I made a game of it so that Miguel could have some fun putting on his jacket. So even though it took him longer, he didn’t feel bad or left out. In fact, when he finally got his jacket on, he just beamed with pride. Having patience and not getting frustrated with him made all the difference.

In this paragraph, the target audience is first year college students who know little about parenting, so it’s important that the writer explain that “children can be a lot of work.” On the other hand, if the essay is targeted at parents, who spend all day, every day raising children, the statement is not needed.

Example 2: Narrative Essay

I now figured that Merle was going through a double bind: He didn't want to soil his house, but he also didn't want the moose to trap him in the deep snow to the side of the path. [Explanation for Target audience]: Moose are famous for rearing back and striking dogs on the head with their sharp hooves, and most dogs don't survive the incident. In fact, in North America more humans are injured each year by moose than by bears.

Without any warning, he ran at the moose, making a soft explosive woof while simultaneously bouncing to a stop with his front paws, as if he were trying to shoo the great deer away. The moose, an easy twelve times larger than Merle, lowered his antlers and charged…

In this example, the target audience is people without a lot of experience about Western wilderness areas. They are not likely to know much about the temperament of moose, so the writer needs to explain “in North America more humans are injured each year by moose than by bears.” If the essay is targeted at experienced hikers and hunters, the statement is not needed.

Practice. The following are two drafts of the same essay. Both serve as introductions to a longer essay. In the first, the writer assumes her readers are knowledgeable about dream research, while in the second draft, her target audience know little about dream research. Read the two examples and answer the questions that follow.

Draft 1: Lucid Dreaming

Dr. Stephen LaBerge of Stanford University has devised break-through techniques for lucid dreaming (LaBerge, Stephen (1985); LaBerge, Stephen; Rheingold, Howard (1990); LaBerge, Stephen (2004). The first is the DILD technique, and the second is referred to as the WILD technique. Even though they have a similar goal, the DILD and WILD techniques have important differences.

Draft 2: Lucid Dreaming

Have you ever wanted to control your dreams? Now you can with lucid dreaming. [Explanation for Target audience]: Lucid dreaming is having a dream in which you are aware that you are dreaming. Once you are aware that you are dreaming, you may then take control of your dream. The study of lucid dreaming (Oneirology) is relatively new in the field of sleep science. While many scientists have begun to study this field, Dr. Stephen LaBerge of Stanford University is considered the authority. He devised techniques for taking control of your dreams. Dr. LaBerge discusses these techniques in his book, Lucid Dreaming: A Concise Guide to Awakening in Your Dreams and in Your Life.

The first technique Dr. LaBerge discusses is the DILD technique. [Explanation for Target audience]: DILD is an acronym that stands for Dream Initiated Lucid Dream. DILDs occur when the dreamer realizes they are dreaming from within a dream. To do this, the dreamer must be adept at noticing inconsistencies from real life (dream signs) while dreaming. The second technique Dr. LaBerge discusses is the WILD technique. [Explanation for Target audience]: Wild is an acronym that stands for Wake Initiated Lucid Dream. WILDs occur when the

dreamer enters the dream from the state of being awake and remains aware that they are asleep. Even though they have a similar goal, to help a person gain more control over their dreams, the DILD and WILD Techniques have important differences.

1. Which essay is written for a knowledgeable audience?

2. What vocabulary terms are likely to be confused by less knowledgeable readers?

3. Which draft attempts to connect with the reader?

4. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the first draft?

5. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the second draft?

6. Which draft would you rather have to read in a college class?

Practice . Identify the audience in the following paragraph (Warning: it’s a trick question!):

It is my opinion that the ruling of the lower court concerning the case of Haslem v. Lockwood should be upheld by the appellate court. (The appellate court reviews decisions of lower courts when the losing side in a court case files an appeal.) I believe the appellate court should deny the appeal of the plaintiff—the person who brings a case or lawsuit against somebody in court). The main point supporting my point of view concerns the tenet, or principle, of our court system which holds that in order to win his case, the plaintiff must prove that he was somehow wronged by the defendant (the

person being sued). In other words, the burden of proof rests on the plaintiff. He must show enough evidence to convince the court that he is right.

Joseph M. Williams Style Toward Clarity and Grace Chicago Guides to Writing, Editing, and Publishing 1990 page 121

The essay was written by a first-year law student. The audience should have been other law school students, who already have a strong foundation in the law; instead he wrote the essay as if his audience were undergraduate students who know very little about the law. While his explanation of terms like plaintiff, appellate court, tenet, defendant, and burden of proof would be helpful for undergraduate students, the explanations are unnecessary and obvious in law school, especially obvious to the law school professor who evaluated the essay. Consequently, an essay that would have received an “A” in college was given a “C” in law school. The writer had targeted the wrong audience.

Practice. In the following scenarios, predict what questions your audience might have about your subject, and what information you need to give to make sure they understand.

1. Explain your instructor how to sharpen a pencil to someone whose never seen a pencil or a pencil sharpener. (Your instructor will ask guided questions if she determines that you’re leaving out steps in the process.)

2. Partner with a student. You instructor will pass out a picture to either you or your partner. Your job (or your partner’s) is to explain how to draw the picture when your partner (or you) can’t see it.

3. You need five items in the grocery store. Prepare a list that you will give to the grocery store clerk (your instructor) who will get the items for you. Also, prepare a list of specific information the clerk will need to fulfill this task. (Your instructor will ask guided

questions if she determines that you’re leaving out information needed to get the items for you.)

As you finish the chapter on audience, here’s a take away quote from Bill Stout, the author of the popular text, Write to the Point and Feel Better about your Writing:

Everything is written in a context. It is written at a certain time, for a certain purpose, and for someone of some group of people….When you write you must ask yourself, ‘Who am I writing for? What do they know about the topic? What do they think they know? What can I tell them that’s different but still believable? How can I teach them a thing or two?

View Ted Talk: How Scientists and Engineers (and lawyers!) can excite, rather than bore, an audience (Click Here).

Chapter Review

As you consider audience in your writing, here are some important points to remember:

1. We adopt different styles depending on who we are writing for, just like we adopt different styles depending on who we are talking with. When we don’t know our audience, that’s when we are likely to make mistakes that can cause miscommunication and frustration. Knowing your audience reduces miscommunication.

2. Asking the right questions can help you identify and target the audience for your essays. Consider the following:

How much is your audience likely to know about your topic?

What do you want them to learn about your topic?

What detail (examples, quotes, statistics) is most likely to convince them to believe your main idea—what your essay will prove about your topic?

What can you write that might teach your audience something new? Something they haven’t thought about before?

What is likely to offend, confuse, or lose your audience?

3. The person who reviews your essays in college is your professor. It’s worth your time and effort to find out what your professor expects, what she likes and what she dislikes.

Keep in mind that professors do not expect you to write as if other professors are your audience.

Your professor will evaluate your essay as if she were a student in the class—a student who is motivated and enjoys learning; a student who is open to be persuaded with evidence and common sense; and a student who has a basic foundation in the discipline because they too have been paying attention in class and reading the textbook.

4. Your instructor will expect an essay in which the tone is more formal than how you talk with friends, but not so formal as to come across as pretentious and stilted.

5. Credibility—How do you convince your reader, that what you have to say is believable?

What are some phrases that undermine your credibility?