Changing Urban

EnvironmentsGCSE Revision Booklet

URBANISATION is a process where an increasing proportion of the population lives in towns and cities.

The urban population of the world has grown rapidly from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014.54% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to 66% by 2050.

Historically, urbanisation occurred in richer countries, like the UK. Today, urbanisation is occurring most rapidly in LEDCs, especially China and India. One day their level of urbanisation may overtake that of MEDCs.LEDCs tend to have less urban areas per country and therefore each individual city is more populated.

Causes of UrbanisationThe fundamental causes of global urbanisation are:

1. Rural-Urban MigrationThis is where people move f rom the countryside to towns and cities.

2. Natural I ncreaseThis is caused by high birth rates and falling death rates in cities.

Timeline of Urbanisation in MEDCs: During the Industrial Revolution towns and cities grew rapidly in the developed world. In

Britain this was in the 19th Century. Machines replaced people on farms and in cities huge factories were emerging. With few job opportunities left in the rural areas people migrated to newly growing cities to

work in industry, e.g. factories and shipyards. This process of movement is called RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION and the result was

rapid urbanisation. This urban growth continued into the twentieth century and now LEDCs, as they develop,

are experiencing the same migration which more developed countries experienced 100 years ago.

Today, in some developed countries people are now migrating away from cities to quieter rural or urban-rural fringe areas: COUNTER-URBANISATION

However, 90% of the UK’s population is currently classified as urban.Urbanisation in LEDCs:Urbanisation in poorer countries didn’t begin until the 1950s, but is now happening at a much faster rate than MEDCs.

Global Urbanisation

In LEDCs families tend to be larger with each female giving birth to more children, on average. Many of those migrating into cities are young adults who will start to have children. This increases the size of LEDC cities even more!

Why do People Migrate to Urban Areas?Reasons why people leave rural areas and

move to cities (push factors)Reasons why people are attracted to

towns and cities (pull factors) There are few job opportunities, usually

only working on the land. Increased use of machinery reduces job

opportunities in farming. Pressure on the land – there is not

enough land for people to live on. Natural disasters such as droughts or

floods can cause crops to fail and create famines.

Lack of investment from the government.

Poor infrastructure – e.g. electricity, water, sewage services.

Large families mean that there is not enough land for each child.

Lack of education, health and welfare facilities.

Poor road infrastructure and public transportation links.

Poor quality housing. Poor quality of life – hard work, long

hours, little pay for farmers.

Availability of healthcare services such as dentists, doctors and hospitals.

Children have the chance of a good education and may benefit from the advantages this might bring.

Access to shops and entertainment. Improved quality of life and standard of

living. A wide variety of job opportunities in

many different sectors. Improved employment opportunities -

jobs in factories pay more than farming.

Expectations of improved housing with services such as electricity and water.

Urban models show the pattern of land use and different functions within a town or city.

The Burgess Model (MEDC urban areas)

The Hoyt Model (LEDC urban areas)

The Structure of Urban Areas

Central business district (CBD) Shopping, entertainment,

offices Civic buildings, e.g. town hall Often pedestrianized High land value and rental

costs

Inner City Terraced housing Little or no green space Previously industrial areas Often run-down

Inner suburbs Residential (post-WWll

housing) Semi-detached houses with

gardens and parking More open space Less congestion

Outer suburbs Newer housing estates Often expensive Lots of green, open spaces

Rural-urban fringe Out of town retail or business parks Agriculture or industrial land uses Stricter planning controls Newest housing estates (urban sprawl)

MEDC Urban Problems and Solutions Birmingham Case Study

Birmingham Key Facts Birmingham is located in the West Midlands. 160 miles from Norwich. Second most populated city in the UK, with just over 1 million people. Almost 7 times the size of Norwich (270 km2). Main functions include education, commercial services, transport, retail, events and

conferences. Second largest urban economy in the UK.

The Decline of the Central Business DistrictOur CBD’s have become neglected and deteriorated in recent years and this is due to four main reasons:

1. The rise of out-of-town shopping centres in the 1960-80s. Land on the outskirts is cheaper. It was encouraged to ease congestion and parking issues. Easy access to suburban areas.

2. Retailers sell their products online. It is cheaper for the retailer and easier for consumers.

3. The development of out-of-town commercial business parks. They provide more space for businesses and easy access to major transport routes.

4. Recession and slowdown in economic activity.

Birmingham’s Declining CBDBirmingham used to be a huge manufacturing centre. Engineering and jewellery manufacture were particularly important industries for the city. But, by the 1980s, much of Birmingham’s traditional industry had gone. Its factories could not compete with cheaper goods from abroad – and closed down. This had a big effect on the local economy and the CBD.Birmingham, like many other cities with a poor image, has invested heavily in its CBD to revitalise the area and improve the physical environment. REVITALISE means to give new life to an area.The CBD is now more attractive to locals, businesses and tourists. This means that money is continually invested and retains the vibrancy and appeal of the area.

A Summary of Birmingham’s Key Redevelopments to Improve its CBD

The Bullring Shopping Centre Redevelopment began in 2000. The

1960s shopping centre was run-down, unattractive and a magnet for crime.

Cost over £600 million. Includes major retailers including

Debenhams, Hugo Boss and Selfridges. Over 140 shops and 3,100 parking

spaces. It attracted 90 brand new retailers to

the city. Promotes leisure and dining in the CBD

and has 28 places to eat, including Jamie’s Italian.

Has helped the city become a major retail centre, moving from 12th to 3rd in national rankings.

Modern architecture and inviting outdoor spaces.

The Mailbox Formally a Royal Mailing sorting office

built in the 1960s. An ugly, concrete ‘box’ originally. The redevelopment involved

modernising the building with bold colours and sleek glass facade, and lighting it at night.

Now a mixed-use building which comprises of offices, high-quality retailers, leisure facilities and luxury apartments.

Incudes a cinema, two hotels, BBC Birmingham and 40 designer shops, such as DKNY and Ralph Lauren.

Cost £150 million. Connected to key parts of the city,

including Brindley Place, through the building of a new road and bridge.

Brindleyplace This was the area of Birmingham’s

industrial and manufacturing past. By the 1970s industries went into decline and factories shut down, becoming derelict.

Redevelopment began in 1993 and includes mixed-use buildings built around three attractive public squares.

A popular leisure and business area, which is over 17 acres.

Tree-lined squares, international cuisine and an enviable canal side location.

Attractions include a live music bandstand, canal boat trips, fine-dining restaurants, events and festivals, bars, and the National Sea Life Gallery.

New Street Station/Pallasade Shopping Centre It was an inefficient, unattractive,

cramped and gloomy train station built in the 1960s.

Redevelopment began in 2013 and will be completed during 2015.

Modern, accessible, spacious and bright station which is able to cope with high numbers of passengers.

3.5 times larger than the old station. Environmentally-friendly features

including low-energy light bulbs, water saving taps and rainwater collection for toilet flushes.

The adjoining shopping centre is being redesigned to house 40 new shops, including the largest John Lewis store in the country.

Redeveloping the Inner CitySince the 1990s, the UK government has implemented a variety of nationwide strategies to help struggling inner city areas.

Birmingham’s Inner City

Birmingham has received funding and support for a number of schemes and regeneration projects. REGENERATION means improving an area that has been experiencing decline.

Three major government strategies have contributed to the regeneration of Birmingham’s inner city:

New Deals for Communities (NDC), Aston Pride- Aston Pride is an area in NW Birmingham which was experiencing high levels of

deprivation (poor education, low employment, crime and poor health).- Between 2001 and 2011, the area underwent intense regeneration. It was one of 39

national government-funded NDC programmes: total funding was £54 million.- It involved 135 different initiatives and projects, designed to improve the lives of

the area’s 17,300 residents.- Successes included: £8m investment in a brand new health centre with longer

opening hours and provision of a wide range of health services; increases in attainment levels at primary and secondary schools; helping 1,325 people into employment; working with West Midlands Police to dramatically reduce burglary rates so the area is now the third safest place in the UK; £3.8m investment in Aston Hall & Park, a new sports facilities and rooms for community use.

Urban Development Corporation (UDC), Birmingham Heartlands- Urban Development Corporations were a major strategy introduced in the 1980s by

the national government. They were large-scale regeneration projects where major changes occurred with the help of both public and private investment.

- The Birmingham Heartlands UDC was established in 1992. The area includes Nechells neighbourhood which, in the 1980s, consisted of run down housing, derelict wasteland and former industries.

- Total cost of the regeneration was £300 million, with £100m from the UK Government and £200m from private investments and EU grants.

- It aimed to reclaim contaminated land, provide infrastructure, and encourage investment from external organisations.

- Successes include: over 3m square feet of non-housing development and 802 housing units were built, and around 4,656 new jobs were created; Bordesley ‘urban village’ was built on brownfield land and provided over 1,000 homes, a school and numerous community facilities; Fort Retail Park an out-of-town shopping area was built and increased economic activity; brownfield land was turned into Star City a leisure and entertainment complex at a cost of £6.8 million.

Big City Plan (BCP)- Launched by Birmingham City Council in September 2010, is a 20 year vision for

Birmingham’s city centre supporting transformational change to create a world class city centre.

- Covering an area of 800 hectares, the BCP involves a series of regeneration schemes at a total value of £17 billion. This includes the Bullring shopping area and New Street Station in the CBD.

- Over the next 20 years the aims to grow its population by 100,000, create new jobs, improve its connectivity to the rest of the region and beyond, deliver a transformation of the physical environment.

- A major element of the BCP is a multi-billion pound development plan to regenerate Eastside, an area south east of the city centre.

- At Eastside there has been a focus on education in the area, with the completion of several campuses and student residences. The developments also include green spaces, trees and water features on campus.

- Future plans in Eastside include creating a lake, providing 60,000 new homes, and transform large areas of land into Eastside City Park.

- The overall regeneration cost of Eastside is expected to be £6–8 billion over ten years and it will create 12,000 jobs.

Housing Need in the Inner CityThere is an increased need for housing in the inner city because:

Social Factors Economic Factors Political Factors Divorce is on the increase,

resulting in separate homes.

British couples are having smaller families (just 1.6 children) so smaller homes are necessary and more affordable.

People are now marrying later in life, from 24 in 1960, to 30 in 2010.

The population is ageing, many elderly people continue to live in their homes into their 80s and 90s.

40% of British people live alone, taking up valuable homes.

People can afford to rent properties at an earlier age and no longer have to live with their parents.

Homes are very expensive, mortgage companies will only lend four times annual salary, and the average home is £180,000. Whereas the average salary is £25,000.

Homes in urban areas are expensive so people are forced to live further away in rural areas where there is little work, causing high commuting costs.

The Government has promised to build 3 million new homes due the predicted increase in population.

The Government has to give up greenbelt land in order to accommodate the new homes.

Meeting Housing Demand in the CBD

Meeting Housing Demand in the Inner City

Advantages of Building on Brownfield Sites

Disadvantages of Building on Brownfield Sites

- Easier to get planning permission as councils want to see the sites used

- Roads already exist- Near to facilities in town centres e.g.

shops, entertainment, and places of work

- Reduces commuting time- Sites in cities are not left derelict

and/or empty- Utilities such as water and electricity

are already provided

- Expensive to clear polluted land- Often has unattractive surrounding- Polluted sites may pose long-term

health issues for residents- Developments can be cramped, with

small houses and restricted parking- May not be suitable for larger families

Advantages of Building on Greenfield Sites

Disadvantages of Building on Greenfield Sites

- New sites do not need clearing so can be cheaper to prepare

- Some shops and business parks on outskirts provide local facilities

- Pleasant countryside environment may appeal to potential home owners

- Land is cheaper on outskirts so plots can be larger

- Loss of valuable farmland- Removes natural habitats for wildlife- Destroys attractive natural scenery- Loss of green space for recreation

activities such a dog walking- Often high opposition from locals and

environmental activists

- More space for gardens

Multi-cultural CitiesThe largest ethnic group in Birmingham is White British at 53%. England’s average is 80%. Most Birmingham residents (86%), regardless of ethnicity, consider themselves to be British.

Why does ethnic segregation exist?

SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS are:

A SQUATTER is:

In recent years LEDC cities have grown dramatically. People have left rural areas to search for wealth: RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION. When they arrive in the cities they have little money to afford housing and often no skills for the modern jobs of the cities.This rapid rural-urban migration creates vast slums in the cities of many poorer countries.Squatter settlements are often found on the cheapest, least desirable land in a city:

Floodplain Next to sewage works Steep hillsides

LEDC Urban Problems and Solutions Dharavi (Mumbai, India) Case Study

Next to wealthy areasThere is no preparation for the building of squatter settlements. The houses are not provided with basic infrastructure such as sanitation, piped electricity and road access. Governments struggle to meet the demand for housing, clean water, schools, healthcare, etc.Many people work for themselves in the INFORMAL SECTOR. Their pay is low and irregular: they make, sell and recycle goods and services ‘unofficially’. People have no job security - no job contract, health and safety protection, health insurance or pension scheme.

Where is Dharavi?

What is Dharavi Like?

Strategies to Improve Squatter Settlements1. Residents’ Action

Residents will try to improve their living conditions even if support is not provided. This may involve ‘doing up’ their original shelters by replacing flimsy materials with more permanent brick and concrete; catching rainwater in a tank on the roof; or obtaining an electricity supply, often by illegally tapping into a nearby source. These improvements are very slow and residents may have to save tiny amounts from their small wages over a long period of time to afford resources.

2. Self-helpThis is where local authorities support residents in improving their homes, by giving them the tools and training. Grants or low-interest loans may be used to help people fund these changes. People may be given legal ownership of the land. There

is often co-operation between residents to work together and remove rubbish. Pipes are likely to be provided for access to water supply and sanitation. The residents, with help from local authorities, may also build schools and health centres.

3. Site and ServiceThese are a more formal way of helping squatter settlement residents. Land is identified for the scheme and is usually connected to the city by transport links. Water, sewage pipes and electricity lines are then supplied to marked plots. People then build homes with affordable materials at the time, or build their homes using money from a low-interest loan. They can then add to and improve these at a later date if they can afford to.

4. Local Authorities (Dharavi is an example of a large-scale redevelopment scheme)‘Vision Mumbai’, the city authorities’ extensive redevelopment plan, was first introduced in 2004. Its overall aim is to make Mumbai a “world class city”, with a focus on economic development. As part of this plan, Mumbai’s Slum Rehabilitation Authority (SRA) intends to rehouse and relocate all eligible residents and businesses in a sustainable manner through the Dharavi Redevelopment Project (DRP). It will cost will be over £2 billion.

The DRP involves: 14-storey apartment blocks on the outskirts of the city. Each family is entitled to 21 square meters of housing, with its own indoor

plumbing. Each will come unfurnished and have shared bathrooms. Only people who have lived in the slum since 2000 will be relocated. It will only accommodate 72,000 families in total, leaving 28,000 families without a

home. Too small for families of 5-10 people (which is currently the size of most families). New community and individual workspaces will be provided in specialised

commercial and industrial areas. This will boost the local economy as the average

family income is estimated to increase to at least $3,000 per year from the current average of $1,200.

Currently, people live and work in the same space. In the new housing, this will not be possible. It will separate communities and make people work away from where they live.

This new, imposed lifestyle will destroy all the enterprises that flourish today in Dharavi.

Other improvements include: Strengthening the existing road network by widening two main roads to permit the

movement of heavy vehicular traffic. Also, making secondary roads in built-up areas only accessible to smaller vehicles, and pedestrianizing some narrow roads but ensuring they are wide enough to allow passage of emergency vehicles.

Upgrading the existing open recreational spaces. These smaller intimate spaces would be under the control of local neighbourhood communities. Educational institutions will be placed adjoining these spaces, so that the grounds can also be used as playgrounds.

Environmental Problems in LEDCsRapid urbanisation and industrialisation are the key drivers of environmental problems in poorer urban areas. Key factors involved include:

Slum areas are growing too fast for the city councils to provide the basic amenities that new arrivals need. Often, cities are not wealthy enough to provide clean and fresh water, electricity, paved roads, street lights and sewers. This leads to environmental issues in areas of slum housing which can lead to health problems.

Causes of Air Pollution- The transport sector is the major contributor of air pollution in the city, followed

by the industrial sector.- Open fires add to the air pollution. It comes from domestic cooking fires using

wood or charcoal, and small-scale industries such as pot-makers burning coal.- City authorities indirectly encourage private vehicle ownership by adding

flyovers and expressways, instead of building or speeding up mass rapid transit systems. Private vehicle numbers have grown by 57% in the past eight years, compared with a 23% increase in public buses.

- The total number of vehicles in Mumbai in 2014 was 23 million.- There a very few regulations to control emissions from factories; carbon dioxide

and sulphur dioxide are major pollutants.- Many vehicles on Mumbai’s roads are old with inefficient exhaust systems. Two

and three wheelers are the worst culprits!- Car emissions are high due to congested roads and chaotic traffic.- There is no formal waste disposal. Increasing amounts of toxic waste from

factories e.g. electronic waste from computer components is melted down releasing unhealthy levels of lead.

Effects of Air Pollution- Asthma is an emerging health hazard.- Leads to breathing difficulties, especially for the elderly and the very young.- Can worsen lung diseases such bronchitis and TB.

Causes of Water Pollution- Old corroded water pipelines and illegal connections to the main pipelines,

faulty fittings, and redundant connections are other reasons for contamination.- Sewage infrastructure is poor and waste is disposed in the Mithi River. 800

million litres every day!- There is no formal waste disposal. The River Mithi receives food waste, cattle

slurry, toxic metals and old batteries.- The River Mithi is used to wash out old oil drums.- Mumbai’s large industries dump untreated waste into the River Mithi. Waste

disposal is not highly regulated.- Mumbai’s biggest landfill site, Deonar, has no measures to control leaching,

which means toxins are allowed to flow through the surrounding marshes and into the Arabian Sea.

Effects of Water Pollution- Waterborne diseases, such as gastroenteritis, typhoid and hepatitis (A and E)

are recorded in Mumbai every year.- Kills river and ocean wildlife and disrupts food chains.- Rivers and waterways contain toxic chemicals.

See your textbook for solutions to the problems!

- Pollutants can build up in food chain and harm humans.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.SUSTAINABLE CITIES are urban areas which meet the needs of people today without putting the needs of the future at risk.For a city to be sustainable, a range of factors must be considered:

Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED)A SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY is a community which is designed to have minimal impacts on the environment. Such communities may make use of energy efficiency, renewable technologies and also make use of local employment and services to reduce the impacts of commuting. BedZED claims to be the UK’s largest sustainable

urban community. Built in 2002, it has 100 homes designed to provide ordinary people with a high quality of life while living within their share of the Earth’s resources.

BedZED, in Beddington, south-west London, was built on a brownfield site on previously industrial land. 50% of houses are for private sale or rent, 25% for shared ownership and 25% social housing for rent.

In a BedZED home energy use for heating and hot water is reduced by 81% by simple things like south-facing windows and triple glazing. Electricity consumption is reduced 45% by low-energy lighting and appliances.

BedZED walls are thicker than average, with insulation between the bricks to prevent energy loss. The building

Making Cities SustainableBedZED Case Study

See your textbook for notes!

materials have used less energy to make and, where possible, are locally produced (within 35 miles). BedZED is built from natural, recycled or reclaimed materials, where possible.

A combined heat and power plant was designed to burn BedZED waste to produce hot water and electricity. Effluent from the buildings is treated on site and the water is used for flushing toilets.

A distinctive feature of the buildings is the wind cowls on the roofs. These cowls ventilate the houses and recover heat from the air coming out. The roofs are covered by solar panels (to generate electricity) and plants (for insulation and a habitat for wildlife)

People separate their waste in their kitchens to make recycling and composting easier. 60% of waste is recycled, three times the UK average. Residents encourage each other to recycle.

BedZED has a green transport plan to reduce car mileage. There is a car-sharing club and electric car charging points. Good public transport links including two railway stations, two bus routes and a tramlink, and cycle storage spaces are also provided.