Impact of New Crops from the Americas on China An important reason for China’s rapid population increase in the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries was the introduction of new crops from the Americas The Columbian Exchange, the great global cultural diffusion of crops, diseases,

animals, and people that occurred with the accidental arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, led to the introduction of crops from the Americas to Europe, Asia, and Africa

Crops from the Americas like potatoes and corn were highly caloric These crops grew in difficult conditions and were crops that peasants could afford

and consume These new crops from the Americas led to fewer people dying from starvation and

therefore increased population in China

Social Consequences of Industrialization in the 1800s [Think Class System – New Social Classes]

The Industrial Revolution began in England in 1750 and spread to continental Europe and the United States

Industrialization involved machines and factories or the mechanization of industries – the first industry mechanized was the textile industry

Industrialization led to changes in society as peasants left the farms and moved to cities (urbanization) to work in factories

The creation of a wage-earning working class concentrated in urban areas was a widespread social consequence of industrialization in the 1800s

Industrialization also led to the decline of the aristocracy as a class – not in wealth but in power – the rise of the bourgeoisie or middle classes and the cult of domesticity or the idea that a woman resides in a separate sphere – away from the workplace and the rat race – she resides at home as wife and mother

The Impact of the French Revolution on the Haitian Revolution The French revolutionaries shouted, “Liberté, égalité, fraternité” or liberty,

equality and brotherhood They espoused the ideas of John Locke – natural rights – and believed in the

equality of men These ideas spread to Haiti – a French colony in the Caribbean – a sugar colony

with a large slave population Indeed the French Revolution was most closely associated with the revolution in

Haiti When the slaves of Haiti rebelled and declared their freedom and independence,

they had been influenced by the French revolutionaries; so that when Napoleon tried to reclaim the island and reimpose slavery, they would not be enchained again

Beliefs of Confucianism Confucian social order included loyalty to the ruler, filial obedience to one’s father,

and respect for the old Confucius encouraged individuals to follow appropriate roles in society

Confucius believed that when individuals acted according to appropriate roles, peace and harmony would ensue

A wife must obey her husband, according to Confucius, a father must be benevolent and set a good example for his son

Of course, marital fidelity by husbands was not required as Confucianism was patriarchal and only a woman had to be faithful to her husband but a man could do as he pleased

The Impact of Enlightenment Ideals on the North and South American Independence Movements

The European Enlightenment – also known as the Age of Reason – occurred primarily in the 1700s in France as philosophers applied reason to develop new ideas about government and laws (yet John Locke wrote earlier in the late 1600s)

New ideas like John Locke’s natural rights or that all men are born with the right to life, liberty, and property or Montesquieu’s separation of powers to ensure that power is divided and does not reside in one individual thereby leading to tyranny or Voltaire’s ideas regarding religious freedom and freedom of speech

These ideas greatly influenced the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and Latin American independence movements

Indeed, the North and South American independence movements of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries shared revolutionary demands based on Enlightenment political ideas

In the Enlightenment, absolute monarchy and the power of kings were challenged as individuals began to speak of consent of the governed and popular sovereignty or the idea that a government’s power comes from its people – the people rule as in “We the People…” – the Preamble to the U.S. Constitution

Footbinding In the nineteenth century, women’s use of bound feet (China), white face paint

(Japan), and corsets (western Europe) were examples of practices that inhibit female activities

It was difficult to walk with bound feet and painful but a small foot was considered beautiful and so, it was expected that women would have their feet bound

Ideas regarding beauty differ according to cultural norms and values Some ideas regarding beauty harm women and limit their ability to move freely In a patriarchal society – a society of male dominance – women are considered

inferior and often only valued for their physical appearances and their childrearing responsibilities; these attitudes may lead to practices that harm the bodies and minds of women

Definition of Extraterritoriality “Extraterritoriality” can best be described exemption of foreigners from the laws of

the country in which they live After the Opium War, the British included a provision regarding the right of

extraterritoriality in the Treaty of Nanjing – the treaty that ended the war

The right of extraterritoriality allowed a British man in China – a man who committed a crime – to be charged and tried in a British court in China and not a Chinese court in China

As a result of extraterritoriality, the Chinese government had no control over foreigners – Europeans – in China

A government that has no power over some of the people residing in its nation is a government that is weak and at the mercy of foreign interests

Why Europe Was Able to Dominate Much of the World by the Late 1800s The Industrial Revolution began in England in 1750 and spread to continental

Europe and the United States by the 1800s – the Industrial Revolution increased the economic and military power of nations that experienced it

With industrialization came more manufactured goods and of course, more guns and weapons were manufactured too

In addition, Europe’s development of new military technologies facilitated European expansion in Asia in the nineteenth century

The 1800s or the Nineteenth Century is known as the Age of Imperialism (Really the Age of European Imperialism) as the industrialized nations of Western Europe were able to dominate and control other lands as a result of power attained through industrialization

New weapons and the ability to mass produce weapons gave Europeans an ability to conquer other lands

Long-Term Effects of Vasco da Gama’s Voyages In 1498, Vasco da Gama (a Portuguese mariner) arrived in the Indian subcontinent

thereby establishing the first all-water route from Europe to Asia This event allowed the Portuguese to directly enter the Indian Ocean trading

network As the Portuguese had gunpowder and cannons on their ships, they – for a time –

dominated trade in the Indian Ocean and became the primary shipper of goods in the network

Eventually, other European mariners entered the Indian Ocean to trade too Thus, a major long-term effect of Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India in the late 1490s

was that it led to the integration of European merchants into the Indian Ocean economy

An Impact of the End of the Transatlantic Slave Trade on African Societies By 1888, Brazil – the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery – finally

abolished slavery When slavery was abolished in the Americas, there was a great supply of African

slaves with no demand for slaves in the Americas As a result of the end of the transatlantic slave trade in the nineteenth-century,

there was an increased use of slave labor within Africa With no markets in the Americas, African slave traders sold to Africans Slavery increased in Africa when it was abolished in the Americas

An Important Crop in the Plantation System in the Americas

Sugar was an important crop in the plantation system in the Americas Sure there were other crops like cotton and tobacco in the American South but in

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, most plantations in the Americas produced sugar

Sugar was highly demanded as its sweetness was desired by many European and American consumers

But sugar was not sweet for the people who harvested it Slaves were brutally exploited and mistreated on the sugar plantations of the

Americas

When Slavery and Serfdom Were Abolished in the Americas and Russia Respectively Slavery in the United States was formally abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment

in 1865 The Civil War ended in 1865 and three new amendments were eventually added to

the U.S. Constitution (the 13th Amendment abolished slavery; the 14th amendment gave equal rights to male citizens; and the 15th Amendment gave the right to vote to all male citizens)

It took a brutal Civil War to end slavery in the United States In Russia, serfdom was abolished in 1861 by Tsar Alexander II in his Emancipation

Manifesto Slavery and serfdom were abolished in the 1860s in the United States and Russia

Characteristics of the Meiji Restoration After Commodore Perry sailing for the U.S. (1853) ordered the Tokugawa shoguns

to end their policy of isolationism (the Tokugawa Act of Seclusion), the Japanese elite knew that change must occur or Japan would experience further humiliations

Therefore, as a kind of “revolution from above,” some reformers instituted the Meiji Restoration

During the Meiji Restoration, the emperor was restored to power (Japan was actually an oligarchy as a handful of elites orchestrated government affairs), feudalism was abolished, and Japan modernized and industrialized

Yes, the policies of the Meiji reformers brought about the promotion of rapid industrialization

By industrializing, Japan could compete with the West and not be humiliated by the West and although Japan lacked natural resources, it followed Western examples when it began to conquer its neighbors (Japanese imperialism)

Facts about the Haitian Revolution The Haitian Revolution was a slave uprising – indeed, it was the world’s only

successful slave rebellion in history Yes, a slave labor force was the most important as a force for change in the Haitian

Revolution Toussaint Louverture was a significant leader of the Haitian independence

movement that began during the French Revolution Haiti had been a French colony with a plantation economy; slaves were terribly

exploited

On January 1, 1804, Jean Jacques Dessalines proclaimed himself ruler of the new nation, which was called Haiti, a “higher place”

The Impact of Nationalism on Germany and Italy in the Nineteenth Century Italian and German unifications occurred during the late 19th century and were

both inspired by nationalism Germany became a modern, unified nation under the leadership of the “Iron

Chancellor” Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who between 1862 and 1890 effectively ruled first Prussia and then all of Germany

Bismarck was a master strategist and initiated decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France to unite 39 independent German states under Prussian leadership; although an arch-conservative, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms – including universal male suffrage and the establishment of the first welfare state – in order to achieve his goals

Although the Italian peninsula remained fragmented through the mid-1800s, the concept of a united Italy began to take root; the final push for Italian unification came in 1859, led by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and orchestrated by Piedmont-Sardinia’s Prime Minister, Count Camillo di Cavour

Giuseppe Garibaldi, a native of Piedmont-Sardinia, was instrumental in bringing the southern Italian states into the unification process; Garibaldi and his men turned over the southern territories to Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia

The Enclosure System in Great Britain To enclose land was to put a hedge or fence around a portion of this open land and

thus prevent the exercise of common grazing and other rights over it Enclosure occurred in the period from 1750 to 1860 in Britain, when it was done for

the sake of agricultural efficiency By the end of the 19th century the process of the enclosure of common lands in

England was virtually complete When landlords enclosed their lands, many poor peasants had no land to farm and

had to seek work elsewhere Thus, the enclosure movement in Britain most directly impacted the development of

the Industrial Revolution by providing a ready labor supply for factories

Sugar in the Americas In the period between 1600 and 1700, the principal product in the Atlantic trade

was sugar In the mid-17th century sugar began to change from a luxury spice, classed with

nutmeg and cardamom, to a staple, first for the middle class, then for the poor. Every few years a new island – Puerto Rico, Trinidad – was colonized, cleared, and

sugar was planted When the natives died, the planters replaced them with African slaves Sugar and slavery were tragically linked

The Impact of the Potato on Europe and Asia Due to the Columbian Exchange

The introduction of the Incan staple crop of potatoes outside South America led to an increase in northern Europe’s population

Today the potato is the fifth most important crop worldwide, after wheat, corn, rice and sugar cane but in the 18th century the potato was a startling novelty, frightening to some, bewildering to others – part of a global ecological convulsion set off by Christopher Columbus known as the Columbian Exchange

Compared with grains, potatoes are inherently more productive And potatoes provide lots of calories Thanks to potatoes, many Europeans did not die from hunger and starvation

The First Industry to Industrialize in Great Britain The first Industrial Revolution in great Britain was initially based on textiles The textile industry produces cloth and clothing The textile industry, in particular, was transformed by industrialization; before

mechanization and factories, textiles were made mainly in people’s homes (giving rise to the term cottage industry), with merchants often providing the raw materials and basic equipment, and then picking up the finished product

In the 1700s, a series of innovations led to ever-increasing productivity, while requiring less human energy

Around 1764, Englishman James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny (“jenny” was an early abbreviation of the word “engine”), a machine that enabled an individual to produce multiple spools of threads simultaneously; the spinning jenny was improved upon by British inventor Samuel Compton’s spinning mule, as well as later machines; and another key innovation in textiles, the power loom, which mechanized the process of weaving cloth, was developed in the 1780s by English inventor Edmund Cartwright

How the Wars of Independence in Latin America Changed the Class Hierarchy When independence occurred in Latin America, creoles (individual born in the

Americas of European ancestry) replaced peninsulares (individuals born in Spain) as the new elite

However, mestizos, Indians, and Africans were still denied full equality and still faced discrimination

Thus, the wars of independence in Latin America in the early nineteenth century resulted in few changes in social structure

The class hierarchy was only minimally modified with the elevation of creoles But the remaining classes were still oppressed

A Goal of the Mexican Revolution Emiliano Zapata, a revolutionary in the Mexican Revolution, once said, “Tierra y

Libertad” or land and freedom In Mexico, most Mexicans were landless peasants Foreigners owned much of Mexico’s productive land and resources One of the main goals of the Mexican Revolution (1910 – 1920) was to end the

unequal system of land ownership

For a peasant farmer, not owning land often means paying high rents to landowners and living in poverty

Reasons for the Fall of the Aztec Empire Conquistador Hernán Cortés traveled to Mexico with about 500 men and 11 ships in

1519, setting his sights on overthrowing ruler Montezuma II in the Aztec capital of Tenochitilán

The Aztecs eventually drove the Spanish from Tenochitilán, but Cortés returned to defeat the natives and take the city in 1521

Many factors helped Cortés in his conquest of the Aztecs – Cortés received the military assistance of Mesoamerican peoples as many feared the Aztecs or hated the Aztecs for their conquest of the region before Cortés’ arrival – little did they know that the Spaniards would be very cruel and harsh

Cortés was also helped by epidemic disease – the Aztecs lacked immunities to smallpox and other epidemic diseases carried in the body of the Spaniards as the Aztecs and the peoples of the Americas lacked domesticated animals

Mesoamerican traditions also helped Cortés as the Aztecs believed that a god would arrive on the date that Cortés arrived – thereby mistaking Cortés initially as a god

Superior weaponry of the Spaniards also helped But not economic weakness – the Aztecs had a vibrant economy – their markets

astounded the Spaniards

Reasons for a History of Fragmentation in the Indian Subcontinent The reasons for India’s history of fragmented government have included all of the

following religious diversity, variety of economic activity, varied landscape and its caste system

But its cycle of monsoons is definitely not a reason for fragmentation – the monsoons or seasonal winds can be used by navigators in the Indian Ocean and bring much needed rain for farming but do not impact fragmentation

To be fragmented means many kingdoms and principalities as opposed to one central unifying government for the entire region

Local rulers had tremendous power Yes, there were exceptions like the Mauryan Empire and the Gupta Empire but

fragmentation was the norm in India early years

Facts about the Indian National Congress and Facts about the Young Turks Indian nationalists in the British-dominated India and Turkish nationalists had

certain similarities Indian nationalists believed India belonged to Indians and Turkish nationalists

believed Anatolia belonged to the Turks and not Europeans The Indian National Congress also agreed with the Ottoman Empire’s Young Turks

that reform was necessary to withstand European imperialism As the Ottoman Empire was collapsing and Europeans were encroaching on

Ottoman lands, the Young Turks wanted to resist European conquest and establish a modern Turkish state – to do this, reforms were necessary – the nation and its peoples had to modernize and industrialize

The Indian National Congress also recognized the need for reforms to ensure independence from the British – though members differed as to what those reforms would be with Mohandas Gandhi favoring village life and handicraft production and Jawaharlal Nehru favoring modernization and industrialization

Why England was the First Country to Industrialize There are certain factors that help a nation industrialize England was the first country to industrialize because it already had a developed

trade system and manufactured goods need to be traded The depletion of timber caused it to rely more heavily on coal and coal was essential

for industrialization It had a well-developed transportation network and goods that were produced

needed to be distributed It was already heavily urbanized – many people lived in cities –and industrialization

and urbanization go together as factory workers are congregated in cities where factories are located

Internal Forces that Weakened the Ottoman Empire Beginning in the 1600s Weak rulers and state corruption were internal factors or forces weakened the

Ottoman Empire beginning in the 1600s The once mighty empire began to decline by the 1600s There were a number of factors that led to the decline of the empire but after the

reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire’s rulers were never quite as skilled The Ottoman Empire reached its height under Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned

1520-66), when it expanded to cover the Balkans and Hungary, and reached the gates of Vienna

The Empire began to decline after being defeated at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) and losing almost its entire navy; it declined further during the next centuries, and was effectively finished off by the First World War and the Balkan Wars

Why the Manchus Met with Popular Discontent in the 1800s The Manchus established the last dynasty of China By the early 1800s, Manchu leaders in China met with popular discontent and

widespread reaction against corruption and economic malaise The once thriving nation was beginning to decline and the Manchu rulers were

blamed It appeared that the Manchus had lost the Mandate of Heaven Rebellions were justified

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is considered to be the father of modern Turkey The country known as Turkey emerged out of the ashes of the Ottoman Empire When the empire collapsed after the First World War, Atatürk and other Turkish

nationalists formed the nation of Turkey Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was a nationalist and believed in the modernization of the

new nation

In 1923, Turkey became a secular republic with Atatürk as its president; Atatürk launched a program of revolutionary social and political reform to modernize Turkey; his reforms included the emancipation of women, the abolition of all Islamic institutions and the introduction of Western legal codes, dress, calendar and alphabet, replacing the Arabic script with a Latin one; and in 1935, when surnames were introduced in Turkey, he was given the name Atatürk, meaning “Father of the Turks”

Japan and Commodore Perry but Not Conquered – Why? In 1853, Commodore Perry sailing for the U.S. arrived in Japan with a letter asking

the Tokugawa shogun to end Japan’s policy of isolation Of course, with the letter came guns and cannons on the ship which encouraged the

Tokugawa shogun to end the nation’s Act of Seclusion But Japan – unlike Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Vietnam – was not conquered

and colonized by Western powers Japan lacked natural resources and this may have saved Japan from conquest in

this Age of European imperialism – and by not being colonized, Japan modernized and industrialized in its Meiji Restoration and ultimately became an imperial power in its own right

The Importance of the Suez Canal Control over the Suez Canal was contentious (controversial) in the late 1800s

because the canal linked Europe and the Mediterranean with the Red Sea and Indian Ocean

On November 17, 1869, the Suez Canal connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas was officially opened in a lavish ceremony at Egypt’s Port Said

When finally completed, the 101-mile-long waterway permanently transformed international shipping by allowing vessels to skip the long and treacherous transit around the southern tip of Africa

In 1875, Great Britain became the largest shareholder in the Suez Canal Company when it bought up the stock of the new Ottoman governor of Egypt

The Suez Canal greatly reduced shipping costs

Why the Late 1400s Mark the Beginning of a New Period in World History The incorporation of the Americas into a broader global network of exchange

justifies the claim that the late 1400s marked the beginning of a new period in world history

In 1492, world history experienced a seismic change The Americas had been previously isolated but were now integrated into the global

trading network The incorporation of the Americas had devastating effects on the indigenous peoples

of the Americas and greatly benefitted the Europeans The Columbian Exchange, the great global cultural diffusion that began with

Columbus’ arrival in the Americas, transformed the world as crops, peoples, diseases, and animals moved all around the world

Akbar the Great and the Mughal Empire in the Indian Subcontinent The Mughal Empire was an empire with a Muslim minority ruling a Hindu

majority in the Indian subcontinent Akbar the Great was the most significant ruler of the Mughal Empire Akbar the Great was a tolerant ruler – he married a Hindu princess, was religiously

tolerant, and abolished the jizya, the tax on non-Muslims Indeed, the most remarkable aspect of the reign of Akbar the Great was his

dedication to the ideal of religious tolerance Akbar reigned from 1556 to 1605 and extended Mughal power over most of the

Indian subcontinent

Characteristics about the Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire is best described as a system in which an Islamic minority

ruled over a Hindu majority The Mughals were Muslims who ruled a country with a large Hindu majority;

however, for much of their empire they allowed Hindus to reach senior government or military positions

The Mughals brought many changes to India: centralized government that brought together many smaller kingdoms, the Persian language mixed with Arabic and Hindi to create Urdu, experienced periods of great religious tolerance; developed a unique style of architecture ( the Taj Mahal)

Babur the first Mughal Emperor was a descendent of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane The third Emperor, Abu Akbar, is regarded as one of the great rulers of all time,

regardless of country

Facts about the Feudal System in Japan The feudal hierarchy in Japan consisted of Shogun (the most powerful lord of

Japan), Daimyo (lords), Samurai (skilled warriors on horseback), and peasants The emperor reigned but did not rule as all political decisions were made by the

Shogun Under the Japanese system of feudalism after 1600, the emperor served as the

symbol of authority while real power was held by the shogun The three significant shogunates were the Kamakura Shogunate, the Ashikaga

Shogunate, and the Tokugawa Shogunate A rigid system of discipline, honor and loyalty were highly valued

Status of Merchants in Han China Merchants had low status in Han China Merchants were considered social parasites – benefitting from the labor of others Indeed, in Han China, merchants and traders were placed in a lower social class

than farmers and artisans Merchants also violated filial piety as they traveled far from parents and ancestral

graves to conduct business and therefore could not honor and obey parents and ancestors

Land and being connected to land was highly valued in Han China and merchants were movers of goods and objects and not connected to land

Pastoral Nomads in Pre-Islamic Arabia Pre-Islamic Arab society is best characterized as pastoral nomadic Arabia is mostly desert and therefore nomadism was the norm – yes, there were

several trading cities but most Pre-Islamic Arabas were nomads They were also pastoralists – raising animals when the land allowed it Pre-Islamic Arabia was also polytheistic and animistic Pre-Islamic Arabia was a peninsula located on critical point in Indian Ocean trade

Urbanization and Increased Trade in the Post-Classical Era Trade and urbanization go together Urbanization is movement to cities Trading centers often become cities as many services are located where traders meet

and trade and these centers become densely populated and eventually cities Indeed increased interregional trade represents the most significant cause of the

growth of cities in Afro-Eurasia in the period 1000–1450 In fact, the Indian Ocean Trade Network gave rise to an “archipelago of towns” as

merchants founded cities throughout the region

The Inca and Storehouses of Agricultural Surplus It is said to save for a rainy day but really when it goes to farming, it is best to save

for a day with no rain The Inca stored agricultural surpluses in storehouses to ensure food in times of

drought or other agricultural nightmares The Inca government maintained storehouses of agricultural surplus for public

relief and social welfare It was indeed a brilliant strategy for the Inca rulers could provide for their people

even in difficult time An agricultural storehouse ensures that there is food even when the rains do not

come

The Last Prophet According to Islam According to Islam, Muhammad is the “Seal of the Prophets” – the last prophet Muslims believe that there will be no prophets after the Prophet Muhammad Indeed like sealing or closing an envelope, no more can go into the envelope – it is

closed Muhammad is therefore very important to Muslims as he is the last prophet Muhammad, according to Muslims, received the final revelations from God

Merit Examinations in T’ang China The examination system was a meritocracy in that a candidate for government

service had to pass an examination for a government job The examination system was open to all men and therefore allowed for a modest

measure of social mobility – it was possible but difficult for a poor man to receive the necessary funding for an education to pass the examination

China under the T’ang Dynasty filled positions in the bureaucracy by means of merit examinations

A bureaucracy refers to government officials in various departments of the government

Characteristics of the Neolithic Revolution During the Neolithic Revolution, people learned to farm and domesticate animals The Neolithic Revolution was a profound turning point in world history as farmers

settled and established permanent settlements Gender divisions and class divisions also emerged in agricultural societies as

women’s work became less valued than men’s work (men plowed the fields as plows were heavier implements than digging sticks) and property was accumulated by some individuals leading to class divisions (nomads have few possessions because possession are hard to carry)

Of course, the major effect of the Neolithic Revolution was the establishment of sedentary village communities

Being settled led to many other changes like the accumulation of property and class divisions

Facts about the Congress of Vienna At the Congress of Vienna, post-Napoleonic treaties were decided on The Congress of Vienna was a meeting headed by Metternich, an Austrian

statesman, to address European concerns after the defeat of Napoleon The map of Europe was redrawn as the Napoleonic Empire collapsed Kings were returned to their thrones – kings who had been deposed by Napoleon –

and conservative values were emphasized The concept of the “balance of power” was emphasized or the idea that the nations

of Europe should be equally strong to ensure that another Napoleon could never arise again – thus, alliances were emphasized

Beliefs of Judaism Judaism is based on the belief in a covenant between God and the Hebrew people The Jewish people believe that they must obey God’s commandments in order to be

blessed by God and therefore, Judaism is an ethical and moral religion It is also monotheistic – believing in a single omnipotent deity; the Torah is a sacred

and is the first five books of the Bible - in the Torah Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions and was founded over 3500 years

ago in the Middle East; Jews believe that God appointed the Jews to be his chosen people in order to set an example of holiness and ethical behavior to the world

Judaism is the original of the three Abrahamic faiths, which also includes Christianity and Islam

Isolationism and the Tokugawa Shogunate After unifying the fragmented nation, the Tokugawa Shogunate sought to preserve

unity and prevent future division; it aimed to create the Great Peace – which it did and this Great Peace lasted for nearly 250 years

The Tokugawa issued the Act of Seclusion after realizing that diffusion might divide the Japanese people as European missionaries began converting the Japanese to Christianity

The Act of Seclusion stated that no foreigners could enter Japan and no Japanese could leave Japan

Yes, the isolationism of the Tokugawa government included forbidding Japanese from going abroad

Only the Chinese and Dutch were allowed to trade at the Port of Nagasaki

Why Creoles in Latin America were “Cautious Revolutionaries” In colonial Latin America, the social hierarchy – from top to bottom – consisted of

peninsulares, creoles, mestizos, Indians, and Africans When independence movements occurred in Latin America, the movements were

led by creoles Creoles ultimately succeeded and won independence thereby replacing peninsulares

as the new elites However, creoles did not want the entire class system to change and they most

certainly did not want land redistribution to occur that would change their wealth and status – thus, creoles were “cautious revolutionaries”

Creole elites, who yearend for independence from Spain, might be called “cautious revolutionaries” because of their fear that slaves and other oppressed groups would target local elites as part of a general social upheaval and really change the class hierarchy

The Gunpowder Empires in the Early Modern Era The Gunpowder Empires of the Islamic world were Safavid Persia, Ottoman

Turkey, and Mughal India The Tokugawa Shogunate was a gunpowder empire too but although it was Asian, it

was not Muslim Therefore, the Safavid, Ottoman, and Mughal Empires were the Islamic gunpowder

empires Gunpowder allowed these empires to rise and expand Yet tragically, when more innovations occurred in Europe, these empires did not

incorporate the latest military innovations and therefore eventually fell behind

The Impact of Epidemic Diseases on the Americas The largest decline in percentage of global population in history occurred as a result

of Epidemics in sixteenth-century Mesoamerica Yes, there were other deadly epidemics but the percentage of people killed was

greatest in sixteenth-century Mesoamerica The Native American Indians lacked immunities to the diseases Europeans

unknowingly brought to the Americas Lacking domesticated animals, the Native American Indians had never been

exposed to smallpox and other deadly epidemic diseases Having no immunities, these diseases wiped out entire villages

The Feudal Hierarchy in Japan During Japan’s feudal period, the emperor was the symbolic head of the country –

he reigned but did not rule The shogun held effective power – the shogun was the most powerful lord of Japan

and made all important political decisions The samurai class was transformed into a new aristocracy – these skilled warriors

on horseback were highly valued in a culture dominated by military values Shogun, daimyo (lords), samurai, and peasants – this was the social hierarchy of

feudal Japan Land and military values mattered

Facts about the Swahili Language Swahili was a language that came into existence after 1000 as the direct result of

expanding global trade patterns Swahili is a language spoken in parts of East Africa East Africa was part of the Indian Ocean trade network – East Africa provided

ivory, gold and slaves to lands throughout the Indian Ocean basin As great trading cities developed in East Africa, cultures interacted and sometimes

cultural blending or syncretism occurred Swahili is evidence of cultural blending as the language has Bantu and Arabic

elements

The Birthplace of Humanity Africa is the birthplace of humanity The first humans lived in Africa At present, this is still a theory but all archaeological and anthropological evidence

thus far points to the first humans living in Africa As to where in Africa, humans first developed – there is much debate – was it East

Africa where the Leakeys did their work or South Africa The beauty of the past is that there is always more to discover – but as more fossils

are uncovered, more of the mysteries of the past will be revealed