CORE STANDARDS, OBJECTIVES, AND INDICATORSStandard 4Students will examine performance enhancement philosophies.

Objective 1: Define terms associated with performance enhancement.a. Cardiovascular enduranceb. Muscular endurancec. Powerd. Speede. Strength

Objective 2: Discuss general conditioning principles.a. Adaptationb. Overloadc. Specificityd. Reversibilitye. Periodization

Objective 3: Examine the roll the cardiovascular / respiratory systems have on fitness/athletic performance.

a. Describe the anatomy of the cardiovascular / respiratory systems.1. Heart – 4 chambers, 4 valves, 4 blood vessels2. Lungs – oxygen exchange from alveoli to capillaries

b. Identify vital signs related to the cardiovascular / respiratory system.1. Describe and accurately measure blood pressure (systolic / diastolic)2. Describe and accurately measure respiratory rate3. Describe and accurately measure pulse rate4. Describe lung volume5. Describe the importance of cardiac output, stroke volume, and heart rate

during exercise c. Examine different types of tests used to quantify cardiovascular fitness.

1. VO2max

2. Harvard step test3. 12 minute run test

d. Describe the effects exercise has on the cardiovascular / respiratory systems.1. Immediate effects of exercise (heart rate, ventilation)2. Long term effects of exercise (heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output)

e. Compare and contrast aerobic / anaerobic training.f. Examine the importance of a warm up / cool down in a training program.g. Examine different cardiovascular training methods.

1. Interval2. Fartlek3. Circuit 4. Continuous

h. Apply general conditioning principles to improve cardiovascular fitness.1. Rate of perceived exertion (BORG scale)2. Target heart rate

Objective 4: Examine the effects of the environment on training and performance.

a. Discuss the effect of high and low altitude.b. Describe the effects of acclimatization.c. Recognize the effects of travel on the body.

Objective 5: Examine the roll strength training has on fitness / athletic performance.a. Compare and contrast the difference between slow twitch and fast twitch

muscles fibers and the type of athletic performance each influence.b. Compare and contrast different types of movements related to strength training

1. Isometric / isotonic / isokinetic2. Eccentric / concentric3. Closed chain / open chain4. Plyometrics

c. Identify methods of resistance.d. Apply general conditioning principles to improve strength.

1. Speed2. Muscular endurance3. Power

Objective 6: Examine the importance of flexibility in fitness / athletic performance.a. Explain the general guidelines of flexibility.

1. Define ROM and how it relates to fitness / athletic performance2. Identify the benefits of flexibility

a. Decrease risk of injuryb. Reduce muscle sorenessc. Improve muscular balance and postural awareness

3. Demonstrate proper timing of flexibility techniquesa. Before activityb. After activity

b. Identify the different methods to increase flexibility and the safety / effectiveness of each.1. Static stretching2. Ballistic Stretching3. Dynamic Stretching4. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Stretching

a. Contract/Relaxb. Hold / Relax

Unit 4 – PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT Lecture Notes

Objective 1: Define terms associated with performance enhancement.

1. Cardiovascular Endurance: The body’s ability, over a sustained period of time during physical activity, to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissues and to remove wastes.

2. Muscular Endurance : the ability of a muscle or muscle group to sustain repeated contractions or to continue applying force against a fixed object.

3. Power : The ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive burst of movement composed of strength and speed.

4. Speed: the quickness of movement of a limb or whole body.5. Strength: The extent to which muscles can exert force by contracting against

resistance.

Objective 2: Discuss general conditioning principles.

1. Adaptation: The body’s ability to react to the training loads imposed by increasing its ability to cope with demands.

a. The purpose of physical training is to systematically stress the body so it improves its capacity to exercise.

b. Physical training is beneficial only as long as it forces the body to adapt to the stress of physical effort.

c. If the stress is not sufficient to overload the body, then no adaptation occurs.

2. Overload: A greater than normal stress or load on the body is required for training adaptation to take place.

a. In order for a muscle (including the heart) to increase in strength, it must be gradually stressed by working against a load greater than it is used to.

3. Specificity: Sports training should be relevant and appropriate to the sport for which the individual is training in order to produce a training effect.

4. Reversibility: There is a gradual loss of training effects when the intensity and duration is reduced.

5. Periodization: The process of varying a training program at regular time intervals to bring about optimal gains in physical performance. Using periodization a competitive athlete is able to peak physical performance at a particular point in time.

a. Pre-season (preparatory) phasei. High volume, low intensityii. Focus on proper exercise techniqueiii. Power and strength workouts are introduced in the second half of

the pre-season phase.b. In-season (competitive) phase

i. Low volume, high intensityii. Focus on technique during event

c. Post-season (transition) phasei. Active rest – low volume, low to moderate intensityii. Engage in recreational activity – allows for physiological and

psychological break.

Objective 3: Examine the roll the cardiovascular and respiratory systems have on fitness/athletic performance.

1. Describe the anatomy and function of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

a. Functions of the cardiovascular system i. Deliver oxygen and nutrients to body tissues ii. Carry waste from the cells to the organs that excrete them.

b. Anatomy of the cardiovascular system i. Atrium – receiving chambers from the body (right atrium) and lungs

(left atrium)ii. Ventricles – pumping chambers to the lungs (right ventricle) and

body (left ventricle)iii. Tricuspid valve – between right atrium and right ventricleiv. Bicuspid (mitral) valve – between left atrium and left ventriclev. Pulmonary and aortic Semilunar valves – separate the right and left

ventricles from pulmonary and aorta arteries respectively.vi. Superior and inferior vena cava – bring deoxygenated blood to the

heartvii. Pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein – take blood to the lungs

from the heart and to the heart from the lungs respectively.viii. Arteries – carry blood away from the heartix. Veins – carry blood toward the heartx. Capillaries – microscopic vessels which are one cell thick. Oxygen

and nutrient exchange takes place with the body cells via these tiny blood vessels.

c. Functions of the respiratory system i. Respiration – gas exchange, the addition of oxygen to and removal

of carbon dioxide from the blood. Takes place between the alveoli and the capillary system in the lungs.

ii. Ventilation – process of inhaling and exhaling air into and out of the lungs

d. Anatomy of the respiratory system i. Nose ii. Pharynx (throat) – passageway for both air and foodiii. Larynx (voice box) – connects pharynx with the trachea. Serves as

the organ of voice by vibration of the vocal cords

iv. Trachea (wind pipe) – tubular passageway for airv. Bronchi – tubes that branch off the trachea and extend into the

lungsvi. Bronchioles – smaller and smaller tubes that branch into the lungs

off of the bronchivii. Alveoli – air sacs at the end of the bronchioles that are surrounded

by tiny capillaries, where gas exchange takes place between the air and the blood. Through diffusion, oxygen moves from the alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli.

2. Identify vital signs related to the cardiovascular/respiratory systems. a. Describe blood pressure

i. The pressure exerted by blood on the walls of the blood vessels. Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mmHg

ii. Systolic pressure is the numerator and identifies the pressure when the heart is contracting.

iii. Diastolic pressure is the denominator and identifies the pressure when the heart is relaxed.

b. Describe respiratory rate i. The number of breaths per minute

ii. Average adult – 12 – 18 bpm c. Describe pulse rate

i. The number of times the heart beats per minutesii. As the heart pushes blood through the arteries, they expand and

contract with the flow of bloodiii. Average adult resting rate – 60 – 100 bpm iv. Common arteries – carotid (neck), brachial (upper arm), radial

(wrist, preferred site during exercise), femoral (2/3 of the way in from the hip)

d. Describe lung volume i. Tidal Volume – amount of air breathed in and out during normal

breathingii. Vital Capacity – amount of air breathing in and out with maximal

inspiration and expiration.iii. Spirometer – an apparatus for measuring the volume of air inspired

and expired by the lungs. Records the amount of air and the rate of air that is breathed in and out over a specified period of time.

e. Describe the importance of stroke volume, cardiac output, and heart rate during exercise.

i. Stroke Volume – the amount of blood the heart ejects from one left ventricular contraction. At rest about 50-70 ml/beat. During intense exercise can increase up to 110-130 ml/beat. The stronger an athlete’s heart is, the larger the stroke volume is. The more blood the heart can circulate, the more oxygen is available to muscles to generate energy.

ii. Cardiac output – the amount of blood the heart can eject in one minute, a function of stroke volume and heart rate. Rest – about 5L/min. during intense exercise can increase to 20-40 L/min.

iii. During exercise oxygen demands to working muscles increases driving the increase of stroke volume and heart rate, therefore increasing cardiac output.

3. Examine different types of tests used to quantify cardiovascular fitness. a. VO 2max – Measures the efficiency which someone can use oxygen while

exercising. Those who are fit have higher VO2max values and can exercise more intensely than those who are not as well conditioned. Average VO2max for male athletes is about 35 ml/min and for female athletes is about 27 ml/min.

b. Harvard Step Test – Step up and down on a platform (20 in. high) at a rate of 30 steps per minute (every 2 seconds) for 5 minutes or until exhaustion. Take heart rate 1 minute after finishing, 2 minutes, and 3 minutes. Determine fitness index – (100 X test duration in seconds) / (2 X sum of hearts beats in the recovery periods). Excellent = ≥ 90, good = 80 – 89, high average = 65 – 79, low average = 55 – 64, poor = ≤ 55.

c. 12 minute run/walk test – The objective of the test is to measure the maximum distance covered by the individual during the 12 minute period. Calculate estimated VO2max. VO2max = (22.351 X kilometers) – 11.288.

4. Describe the effect exercise has on the cardiovascular/respiratory systems. a. Cardiovascular System

i. Increased heart rateii. Decreased blood flow to non-muscular tissueiii. Dilation of the capillaries to increase blood flow to muscle tissueiv. Increased arterial pressurev. Increased body temperature

b. Respiratory System i. Increased respiration rateii. Expiration requires energy instead of being primarily passive

c. Long term effect i. Reduction in blood pressureii. Increase of HDL cholesteroliii. Decreased total cholesteroliv. Decreased body fat storesv. Decreased feelings of anxiety, tension, and depressionvi. Increased heart function

5. Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic fitness a. Aerobic

i. Activity in which the body’s large muscles move in a rhythmic manner for a sustained period of time.

ii. Also called endurance activity improves cardiovascular fitnessiii. Examples: walking, running, swimming, bicycling, hiking, etc.

b. Anaerobic i. Activity in which the body is working so hard that the demands for

oxygen and fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the stored reserves of fuel.

ii. The muscles, being starved of oxygen, take the body into a state known as oxygen debt.

iii. The body’s stored fuel soon runs out and activity ceases.iv. Examples: weight lifting, sprinting, interval training, etc.

6. Examine the importance of a warm up and cool down in a training program. a. Warm up

i. Helps prepare the body for training by increasing muscle and body temperature.

ii. A warm up may include walking, jogging, slow cycling, or anything that will allow the athlete to gradually increase the intensity of their specific sport.

b. Cool down i. Gradually slowing of exercise to allow all body systems to return to

a resting state.ii. Best time to use static stretching and increase flexibility.

7. Examine different cardiovascular training methods a. Interval – series of repeated bouts of strenuous exercise alternated with

period of relatively lighter exercise or resti. Advantages

1. Precise control of stress2. Systematic day-to-day approach3. Easily observable progress4. Can be performed almost anywhere5. Requires no special equipment

ii. Overload is accomplished through the manipulation of 5 variables 1. Rate and distance of interval2. Number of repetitions3. Rest time between intervals4. Type of activity during rest5. Frequency of training per week

iii. Example: running 4 X 200 meters on the track at 75% max speed with a 4 minute walking rest between each attempt.

b. Fartlek – Swedish word meaning “speed play.”i. Involves alternating fast and slow running over natural terrain.ii. Can be thought of as an informal interval training program.iii. Work and rest intervals are not precisely timediv. Builds both aerobic and anaerobic capacities.v. Example: Going out for a jog, after a warming up, picking up the

pace to the point that it is difficult to maintain, run at this pace for as long as possible, when the pace can no longer be maintain, decrease the pace to recover. Continue to alternate between fast and recovery paces.

c. Circuit – series of exercise stations with brief rest intervals between each station

i. The number of stations can vary from 4 – 10 or more.ii. Stations can be adjusted to maximize specific sport skillsiii. Example stations: pushups, sit-ups, jumping jacks, burpees, wall

sits, ski jumps, lunges, squat jumps, etc.d. Continuous – activity without rest intervals.

i. Usually between 60 – 80% max heart rateii. Should last at least 30 minutesiii. Distance/time/speed can be varied based on goals

1. Threshold pace – a pace that is comfortably hard that can be maintained.

2. Long slow distance – slower pace that can be maintained for longer periods of time

8. Apply general conditioning principles to improve cardiovascular fitness a. F.I.T.

i. Frequency – how often training occurs during a week (3 X wk, 7 X wk, 10 X wk)

ii. Intensity – how hard the athlete is training1. Target Heart Rate = 220 – age = estimated MHR (max heart

rate). Moderate intensity = 50-70% MHR. Vigorous intensity = 70-85% MHR

2. Rate of Perceived Exertion (BORG scale) – Intensity based on perceptions of physical sensations a person experiences during physical activity, including increased heart rate, increased respiration rate, sweating, and muscle fatigue. Scale = 6-20. Rating between12 – 14 suggests physical activity is at a moderate level of intensity.

iii. Time – how long the training lasts (20 minutes, 5 miles, etc).

Objective 4: Examine the effects of the environment on training and performance

1. Discuss the effect of high and low altitude a. Definition: at high altitudes (above 8,000 ft.) the concentration of oxygen

decreases, therefore decreasing the amount of oxygen the body is able to bring into the body.

b. A number of physiological changes take place in the body. Just a few are:

i. Immediate 1. Respiratory rate increases2. Heart rate increases3. Unable to reach VO2max

ii. Longer term 1. Increased number of red blood cells (body’s adaptation to

increase oxygen saturation)c. Research has shown that the increase of red blood cell production will

allow the body to intake more oxygen, which in turn allows the athlete to work harder. More effective with endurance sports.

d. Several theories regarding high altitude in which they all utilize the concept of the body receiving more oxygen (increased red blood cell production) allowing the athlete to achieve increased performance.

i. Live high, train lowii. Live high, train highiii. Live low, train high

2. Describe the effect of acclimatization a. Definition: Physiological adaptation of an athlete to changes in climate or

environment such as light, temperature, or altitude.b. Altitude – Several approaches

i. Compete within 24 hours of arrival at altitude, most symptoms will not have had time to manifest themselves

ii. Train at higher altitude for at least 2 weeks prior to competitioniii. Spend a greater percentage of training time at sea level to

endurance training several weeks prior to competition. Helps to raise athlete’s VO2max to a peak allowing performance at lower relative intensity without significant loss to overall performance.

c. Temperaturei. Heat training directed to improving athletic performance in warm

climates. 1. Volume and intensity reduce for first exposure to hot

environment2. Volume and intensity are increased as the athlete adapts3. Important to closely monitor body mass and hydration rates4. Extreme care is required to ensure proper hydration5. Complete acclimatization requires up to 10 - 14 days

3. Recognize the effects of travel on the body. a. Athletes involved in international competitions must learn to deal with the

effects of long air travel and changing time zones. This can lead to a disturbance of circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles

b. Symptoms of jet lag:i. Sleep lossii. Headachesiii. Dizzinessiv. Fatiguev. Decrease in energyvi. Decrease in alertnessvii. Decrease in cognition

c. Before a flighti. Be well rested

ii. Gradually shift sleep schedule to match final destination time a few days before the flight

d. During a flighti. Drink plenty of water, limit caffeineii. Stretch and walk aroundiii. Use earplugs to minimize noise and improve sleep

e. Upon Arrivali. Perform low-intensity exercise to reduce muscle stiffnessii. Avoid heavy training for the first few daysiii. Can use correctly timed light to shift circadian rhythms

Objective 5: Examine the roll strength training has on fitness/athletic performance.

1. Compare and contrast the difference between slow twitch and fast twitch muscle fibers and the type of athletic performance each influences.

a. Slow twitch i. More efficient at using oxygen to generate more fuel for

continuous extended muscle contractions over a long time.ii. These fibers contract more slowly, but can continue for a long time

before they fatigue.b. Fast twitch

i. Generate short bursts of strength or speedii. Fatigue quickly

c. Fiber type and performance i. Fiber type may influence what type of sports an athlete is naturally

good at.ii. Most athletes have a fairly even mix of fibers, but some have more

of one that the other which predisposes them to certain types of sports/activities.

iii. Slow twitch muscle fibers are better suited to aerobic activities such as cycling, jogging, swimming, etc.

iv. Fast twitch fibers are better suited for anaerobic activities such as weight training, sprinting, jumping, and other explosive type activities.

2. Compare and contrast different types of movements related to strength training

a. Isometric i. Does not result in any movement of the joint.ii. Performed against a fixed resistance.iii. Least effective form of strength improvement.iv. Examples: wall sit, stationary press

b. Isotonic i. A joint is moved through the full range of motion against a

fixed weight, speed is variable.ii. Greatest gain is in the initial movement of the muscle, least is at

the mid-point.iii. Examples: bench press, bicep curls, squats

c. Isokinetic i. Variable resistance with fixed speedii. Resistance accommodates to match the force applied.iii. Machine is required

d. Eccentric i. Negative workii. Muscle is lengthened or stretched while the weight is lowerediii. Produce great strength gains, but results in more muscle sorenessiv. Example: down movement of the bicep curl

e. Concentric i. Positive workii. Muscles shortens as weight is liftediii. Example: up movement of bicep curl

f. Closed chain exercises i. Distal segment is fixed, the hand/foot remains in constant contact

with the surfaceii. Allow strength gains of several muscle groups at one timeiii. Examples: body squats, lunges, push ups

g. Open chain exercises i. Distal segments are not fixed and are freely moving in spaceii. These types of exercises are good at targeting one set of muscles,

but increases the forces transmitted to the involved jointiii. Examples: bench press, bicep curls, knee extensions, any

throwing movementsh. Plyometrics

i. Muscles are repeatedly and rapidly stretched (loaded) and then contracted.

ii. The aim is to improve muscle poweriii. Maximize the stretch reflex. The greater the stretch put on the

muscle from its resting length immediately before the concentric contraction, the greater the load (power generated) the muscle can lift.

iv. The rate is more important than the magnitude of the stretch.v. Examples: jumps, bounds, skips, hops, medicine ball throws, push

up with clap.3. Identify methods of resistance training

a. Free weight (dumbbells and barbells)i. Variety of exercise selectionii. Athlete in control of range of motioniii. Builds coordination

iv. Recruits stabilizing muscles to control movement

b. Weight machines i. Simple to useii. Relatively safeiii. Don’t require lots of coordinationiv. Limited to targeting one muscle groupv. Body may not anatomically match the movement of the machine

c. Exercise tubing i. Similar advantages to free weightsii. High variety of exercise selectioniii. May not be able to generate enough force to increase strength

gains as much as free weightsd. Body weight exercises

i. Does not require any equipmentii. Exercises can be very functional and sport specificiii. Difficult for experienced athletes to achieve high level of intensity

without high number of repetitions4. Apply general conditioning principles to improve strength

a. General guidelines i. Safety firstii. Allow proper rest between exercisesiii. Weight training program should be balanced to prevent injury and

overuseiv. Use a spotter

b. Repetition: performing the particular exercise one timec. Set: the grouping of a specific exercise into a number of repetitionsd. Resistance: the opposing force to a muscle contractione. Build strength and size: high resistance/low repetitionsf. Build muscle endurance: low resistance/high repetitionsg. Build power: rapid movements

Objective 6: Examine the importance of flexibility in fitness/athletic performance.

1. Explain the general guidelines of flexibility a. Define Range of Motion (ROM) and how it relates to fitness/athletic

performancei. The range through which a joint can be moved, the range of flexion

and extension.ii. If range of motion is decreased through lack of flexibility, form can

be altered, reducing biomechanical efficiency and creating a climate for athletic injuries.

b. Identify the benefits of flexibility i. Decreased risk of injuryii. Reduce muscle soreness

iii. Improve muscular balance and postural awarenessc. Identify proper timing of flexibility techniques

i. Before activity – dynamic stretching is bestii. After activity – best time to use static stretching, greatest gains can

be seen from flexibility routine after the workout.2. Identify the different methods to increase flexibility and the safety/effectiveness of

each.a. Static stretching

i. Consists of stretching muscle tissue to a comfortable position and holding this position for a period of time.

ii. Exercise should be taken to the point of tightness, no motion should be forced

iii. General rule of thumb is to hold a stretch for 10 – 30 seconds, longer time, less intensity

iv. Research agrees that static stretching should be used at the end of a training session and not at the beginning. Regardless it is important that the muscles are warmed up before any stretching is done.

b. Ballistic stretching i. The use of body momentum to bounce at the end range of a stretchii. Has been shown to increase flexibility; however there is the

potential to cause musculoskeletal injuries. iii. Not generally recommended

c. Dynamic stretching i. Active muscular effort are used to in an effort to propel the muscle

into an extended range of motion, not exceeding the athlete’s static stretching ability.

ii. Functional based exercises which use sport specific movements to prepare the body for movement.

iii. Not bouncy or jerky movementsiv. Recognized as a beneficial way to warm up prior to trainingv. Benefits

1. Increases core temperature and peripheral blood flow2. Elongates muscles and tendons3. Enhances coordination, motor learning, & proprioception4. Incorporates balance

vi. Examples: high knees, butt kicks, straight leg kicks, leg swings, lunge walks (can add trunk rotations), inverted hamstring, inchworm

d. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation stretching (PNF) i. The muscle to be stretched is first contracted maximally. The

muscle is then relaxed and is either actively stretched by contraction of the opposing muscle or is passively stretched. Two types

ii. Contract/Relax 1. Athlete’s body part to be stretched is moved passively until

resistance is felt.

2. At this point the athlete contracts the muscle group against the resistance of a partner

3. Resistance is applied as the body part is allowed to travel through a selected range of motion

4. The body part is moved to a new stretch position beyond the original stretch, and the process is repeated.

iii. Hold/Relax 1. Movement does not occur2. The athlete actively stretches to a comfortable position.3. The athlete then applies force against the resistance of a

partner.4. An isometric contraction is applied and the partner allows no

movement after holding for 10-15 seconds. 5. When this phase is completed, the body part is move to a

new stretch position beyond the original stretch starting point.

6. The process is repeatedRapid, beneficial increases in flexibility can be obtained with PNF stretching; however, it is best done with a professional who is trained in PNF techniques.