Challenges for the Planet

The causes of climate change:

Changes in the earth’s orbital geometry:

The Milankovitch Mechanism theory suggests that the Earth’s orbit around the sun is variable, this means that the distance between Earth and the sun is not always the same, when Earth is further away it is colder and vice versa. The theory also suggests that the Earth wobbles on it axis and the angle of tilt of the axis also varies; this can affect the amount of sun light the Earth receives which can have an impact on the global temperature.

Changes in solar output:

The amount of energy the sun transmits is not constant and varies by small amounts. This can have a minor impact on the global temperature.

Catastrophic events:

Volcanic activity and solar collisions between meteors and comets result in large quantities of material in the atmosphere; evidence suggests that this reduces the Earth’s temperature as it blocks the solar radiation. Research also shows that dramatic events are linked to changes in the Earth’s temperature.

The Laki volcanic eruption 1783 – A case study of a catastrophic event effecting global temperature:

Location: Southern Iceland, off the North East coast of Western Europe

Background:

The eruption lasted 8 months spraying millions of tonnes of poisonous gasses over Iceland

It was the largest lava flow for a thousand years at 13KM3 which spread over 500KM2

The smaller particles combined with water vapour to form a dense fog

Effects of the eruption:

The eruption killed much of the local vegetation, which resulted in the death of many animals which lead to a famine which killed a third of the population

The death of animals meant that there were fewer methane emissions which means lower carbon emissions

The eruption resulted in 322 000 000 000 KG of greenhouse gasses being released into the atmosphere; resulting in an increased global temperature

The particles released into the atmosphere blocked solar radiation leading to a lowered global temperature

The current causes of climate change:

In the past 40 years there has been growing concern about the human contributions to global warming. There are two parts to the discussion:

The impact of greenhouse gasses The role of humans in the increase in greenhouse gasses

Life on earth is sustained by five ‘greenhouse gasses’ which are:

Water vapour Methane Carbon dioxide

Nitrous oxide CFC’s

Without these gasses Earth would be too cold for human survival; however too much of these gases can make the earth too hot. These gasses work by absorbing the radiation going back out from Earth, this makes the atmosphere warmer.

Methane:

The Methane is 24 times more harmful to the environment than carbon. Methane is produced by animals mainly the ones that are grown for human consumption. As people are earning more there is an increased demand for livestock; this means that there is more methane producing animals around which results in an increase in methane levels. Research shows that 15 to 20% of the global methane emissions come from livestock.

Carbon dioxide:

The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing at a rapid rate. Experts believe that this is a major challenge for the future of humanity.

Greenhouse emissions by human activities:

The increase in wealth around the world has led to an increased demand for:

Energy Transport

Food Consumer goods

These have been the main contributors to the global greenhouse gas emissions. The graph below shows the percentage composition of all greenhouse gas emissions of different human activities.

How LICs can increase emissions:

As LICs such as India and China are now starting to develop into MICs the wealth of their people is rising. This means that their people are going to want to pursue the lifestyle of those in HICs. These nations are unlikely to listen to lectures from HICs about emissions as their argument will be that the HICs have had their turn and now it is the turn of the LIC/MIC.

The problem is that the population of these LIC/MICs are much larger than those of the current HICs; this means that there will be an exponential increase in global emissions. One example would be in car ownership. As we see currently in India there is one car for every 100 people; however if the car ownership value increases to match the USA then carbon emissions will increase rapidly.

21%

4%

10%

10%

11%

13%

14%

17%

Contribution to greenhouse gas emissions

Power Stations

Waste disposal and treatment

Land use and biomass burning

Residential

Fossil fuel retrival, processing and distribution

Agricultural by-products

Transportation fuels

Indistrial processes

Country Population Cars/1000 peopleUSA 300 million 87India 1.1 billion 1

The effects of climate change:

The future impacts of climate change is not clear as it is mainly based on carbon emissions in the future; there is also not enough evidence to prove or disprove a theory. However climate change will affect the weather in many parts of the world. Some experts also suggest that hazardous weather events such as hurricanes will occur more frequently. Changing temperatures and rainfall patterns will also have an impact on the natural environment. However some argue that the impacts of global warming are not all negative.

The impact on food production:

The world’s most important foods are wheat and rice which is grown in distinct regions

A small number of countries are responsible for the production of a majority of the crop that is sold in the market

However these countries are likely to face changes in their climate but it is not clear if or if not this will have an impact on the crop yield

At any time the world has about 40 days’ worth of food stocks in store If climate change does have an impact on crop yield prices of food will rise which will

badly effect some populations especially in sub Saharan Africa

The impact on infectious diseases:

A change in the climate will increase the spreading of certain diseases One example is malaria in Italy, which has recently made a return after eradication in

1970

The impact on sea level:

The sea levels will rise due to two processes:o The addition of water from the melting of ice capso The expansion of water due to heat

This will result in low lying islands and coastal areas being at risk of flooding There are three models that predict the rates of global warming which are used to

predict the rise in sea level The most pessimistic model shows that there will be a metre rise in sea level if CO2

levels rise uncontrollably The most optimistic model shows that there will be a rise of 20cm or less if the CO2

level stabilises at 550 ppm

Bangladesh – A case study of the effects of climate change:

Location:

Background: South Asia, East of India

Bangladesh is a hazard spot with cyclones and flooding posing a threat to its population

The GDP per capita is only $1900 with 20% of the population living in extreme poverty

Many of these people are threatened by climate change without contributing to it

Impacts of climate change in Bangladesh:

Tropical cyclones are becoming more frequent – however it is unclear if this is due to climate change

Rising sea levels are also a threat to Bangladesh as most of the land has an elevation of less than 10m

In November 2007 a super cyclone (Sidr) devastated southern Bangladesh with wind speed of 223KM/H

The cyclone killed more than 3000 people and effected another 7 million There were also secondary impacts from the seawater being driven inland and

effecting groundwater and sewage systems The effects could have been worse however the country was prepared with good

early warning systems and shelters

Hockerton housing project – A case study of a local response to climate change

Location: Hockerton, Nottinghamshire, Central England

Background:

The UKs first self-sufficient ecological housing development Consists of 5 terraced houses as the law dictates that more than this will require a

road with streetlights The aim of the project is to reduce the environmental impact of everyday living The site is 10 ha The typical energy use for the house is about 10kWhrs/day

Eco features:

The roofs, walls and floors are all insulated with CFC free polystyrene The roof is covered in soil so that no part of the house freezes in cold weather; in

addition to this in the summer the soil has a cooling effect – thus reducing the need for AC

Skylights and windows control the temperature as there are no ACs or heaters on the site

A reservoir collects rainwater which is filtered and treated with chlorine for non-consumption purposes

Drinking water is captured from the roods and stored in a tank where it is treated with UV light

70% of the energy used on the site is from a self-made sustainable resource including 2 wind turbines and a solar panel system

A reed bed sewage system is used to process waste water A heat recovery unit is used to heat the homes during the winter along with a water

pump that heats water from the greenhouse

Limitations and commitments of residents:

The lease allows each family to one just one car Residents must also grow their own food Residents must also commit to 300 hours unpaid a year to manage and maintain the

site

Tackling climate change on a global level:

Governments try to convince people to be more environmentally friendly through national campaigns; however it is difficult. This is mainly due to the fact that the main aim of governments is to develop the country’s economy. Developing an economy means that there is increased use of resources. As a result it is hard for governments to get elected if they asking people to become poorer in order to be save the environment.

The following is the ‘live sustainably’ policy which is a national campaign in the UK:

Policy Benefits Costs/ProblemsBuy locally produced foods

Supports local economy and reduces carbon footprint

In poor weather conditions it can be more damaging to the environment to grow food (e.g. heating in winter)

Reduce unnecessary luxuries

Reduces waste of resources Potential job losses

Using a bike Cars are great polluters; in this way we are reducing emissions

The elderly cannot use bikes and this may impact the economy

Recycling and conservation

There are huge material savings

There is a very small impact on global warming

In the USA conflict between protection of the environment and the desires of the population is well illustrated across several cities. Nowhere is the conflict more obvious than in Las Vegas.

As Las Vegas is situated in the middle of the desert life is completely dependent on air conditioning; which is one of the least energy efficient appliances found in a home. In addition to this the tourist attractions such as the fountains and golf courses use a large amount of water which is also not likely to be found in a desert. Furthermore the cities rapid unorganised growth as resulted on the population relying on cars for transportation.

As a result even if the population starts to recycle or make other lifestyle changes it will not make much difference to their large carbon footprint. This shows that not all places are designed with the environment in mind. It is said that within the next 10 years the population will have to be evacuated due to a lack of water supply.

International action:

Governments find it difficult to balance economic growth with emissions cuts which makes international action slow. The table shows a timeline of the international climate change debate:

Year Meeting Outcome1988 The UN sets up the

intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC)

The first IPCC report shows that earth has warmed up by 0.5oC in the past century and recommends strong measures

1992 The earth summit takes place in Rio de Janeiro

The UN framework convention on climate change (UNFCC) is signed by 154 nations agreeing to prevent dangerous warming form greenhouse gasses – it sets voluntary targets for the reduction of these emissions

1997 The Kyoto protocol The UNFCC’s voluntary targets are replaced by legally binding controls on emissions – 178 countries sign a treaty that took effect in 2005

2007 The Bali conference The IPCC confirms that there is >90% chance that climate change in the past 50 years is caused by human activity – All nations agreed to negotiate a deal to tackle climate change but have still not finalised the details

Sustainable development:

The official definition of sustainability is from the Our Common Future, which is a report from the 1987 UN world commission on environment and development. The UN definition of sustainable development is:

This definition suggests that development needs to meet our current needs and the needs of future generations to be sustainable. Since the publication of this report the focus of sustainable development has shifted to future generations with much less said about the present generation. As the global gap between the rich and the poor has increased some say the original meaning of the report has been lost as there is little evidence that LICs have benefitted from the concept of sustainable development.

Large organisations have different interpretations of the word sustainability. This is mainly due to the fact that there is conflict between the businesses interests which are to make a profit and to keep customers happy today while looking after future generations.

The above description of sustainability from BP suggests that sustainability is about a business’s responsibility. This description focuses mainly on how BP plans to continue to stay in business and how it will continue to perform consistently in the future without taking the environment into account.

For Nestle sustainability seems to mean long term as the above description suggests that they strive to continue to provide their customers with affordable products.

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their needs

A sustainable business is by definition a responsible business. Responsibility isn’t an add-on or luxury it’s an integral part of the way we run our business to achieve

profitable, consistent and sustainable performance.

- British Petroleum (BP)

In the 140 year life of Nestle our fundamental approach to business has been the creation of long term

sustainable value for our consumers, customers, employees, shareholders and society as a whole.

- Nestle

Large organisations and their policies for sustainability:

There are some large organisations that have taken the message about environmental damage more seriously, and have successfully embraced a comprehensive view of sustainability.

Interface – A case study of a multinational with a sustainability plan

Background:

Largest manufacturer of commercial carpets The CEO aims to make it the first sustainable corporation

The company has identified 7 goals to improve sustainability:

Eliminate waste in all areas of business Eliminate toxic substances from products, vehicles and facilities Use renewable energy sources Redesigning process and products to stop using materials out of the crust Using resource efficient transport to reduce waste and emissions Create a culture among stakeholders the integrates sustainability principles into

everyday living Create a new business plan that demonstrates the value of sustainability based

commerce

Unilever - A case study of a multinational with a sustainability plan

Background:

One of the world’s largest companies Owns a large variety of brands Have several sustainability policies for each product range They plan to halve their environmental footprint of manufacturing and use of

products by 2020

Unilever Tea Kenya:

Trying to improve wood burning for drying tea leaves Drying wood for longer reduces moisture making it more efficient as a fuel Reduces wood consumption by 25% Higher output leads to a reduction in fuel wood as it is being used Coppicing means that the trees are cut back to stimulate growth Increases wood supply by 15%

Unilever Sustainability Plan:

Unilever believe that the customer has the highest environmental impact Therefore they have developed products which reduce their impact 68% of Unilever’s greenhouse gas footprint is courtesy of its customers One example is the Persil washing concentrate:

o It uses 50% less packaging – this means that fewer lorries are needed for transport

o It required 50% less water when in useo When used it can operate at cooler temperatures which can reduce the

amount of energy consumed by an appliance (up to 40% less energy)o Unilever believe that if everyone used this product they would save 4 million

tonnes of CO2 which is equivalent to taking 1 million cars of the road

Unilever suggest that by becoming more sustainable they may also become more profitable.

Apple – A case study of a company with a sustainability plan

Background:

Apples carbon footprint in 2013 was 33 800 000 metric tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions

Sustainability principles:

Meet or exceed all applicable environmental requirements Where laws and regulations do not provide adequate controls, we will adopt our

own standards to protect the environment Support and promote sound scientific principles and fiscally responsible public policy

that enhance environmental quality Advocate the adoption of prudent environmental principles and practices by our

contractors, vendors, and suppliers Communicate environmental programs to Apple employees and stakeholders Design, manage and operate our facilities to promote energy efficiency, and protect

the environment Strive to create products that are safe in their intended use, conserve energy and

materials, and prevent pollution throughout the product life cycle including design, manufacture, use, and end-of-life management

Ensure that all employees are aware of their role and responsibility to fulfil and sustain Apple’s environmental policy

Apples current/future actions:

No harmful or toxic substances such as mercury, arsenic and lead which are commonly found in electrical appliances are used in products or factories to ensure the safe recycling, disposal and use of the product

Packaging mass has been reduced by 26% since 2007, resulting in a 60% increase in the number of products that can fit in one shipping container; this means that one 747 flight is saved for every 416 667 products they ship

Smarter package design has meant that more units can be packed into one shipping pallet leading to fewer emissions resulting from transportation

Products have become more energy efficient, for example the iMac today uses 97% less energy in sleep mode than the original iMac thus reducing the customers carbon footprint, the total power consumed by their products has reduced by 57

By introducing new, smaller technologies apple is able to reduce the materials used in the production of their products which means their carbon footprint is smaller

In 2013 73% of energy for all facilities was from a renewable source

Future actions:

The new headquarters which is still in construction will feature 1000 shared bicycles which will discourage the use of fossil fuel powered cars further reducing their carbon footprint

The new HQ also offers 300 electric vehicle charging point which encourages the use of electric vehicles to reduce emissions.

The public vs private transport debate:

Congestion charging – A case study of controlling traffic in an urban area

Location: Central London, England

How it works:

The system is operated by transport for London (TFL) Drivers must pay a daily fee to drive in central London (from £10.50

to £14) Drivers can then drive around freely as many times as they wish

within the day A network of cameras read number plates when vehicles enter the

area In 2013 a discount was introduced for electric and plug in hybrid

vehicles

Aims:

To improve London air quality Reduce congestion in central London

Statistics:

The system has reduced the distance driven in central London from 1.2bn km in 2002 to 1bn km 2011

It has raised £1bn for TFL The number of cars entering the area has dropped by 70 000 or 21% Greenpeace who support the system claim that pollution has fallen by 20% The London Ambulance Service reports a tripling in survival rates due to less traffic TFL suggests that since the introduction of the system traffic fell 15% leading to a

30% improvement in journey time

Problems:

Some suggest that the traffic jams have not improved and the price is not worth it Many driving associations are against the system

Boris Bikes – A case study of a scheme to reduce dependence on fossil fuels

Location: Central London, England

Background:

Launched in the summer of 2010 Has 11500 bikes and 742 docking stations The bikes provide Londoners with an environmentally

sustainable method of transport Transport for London (TFL) provide maps

with routes that are suitable for new riders who may be reluctant to use main roads

TFL also provides training to those who do not know how to use a bike

In 2015 the bank Santander took over from Barclays bank as the main sponsor

TFL has contracted the company Serco to operate and manage the bikes

Prices:

An access fee must first be paid in order to receive a key which is £3, this key is used to undock bicycles

o 24 hours - £2 o 1 week - £5o 1 year - £45

A further fee must also be paid for each time the bike is usedo First 30 mins. – free o Each additional period – £2

The bike must be returned within 24 hours or else the user may have to pay a £300 fee, they must also pay this fee if they damage the bike

Problems:

Every night the bikes are collected and redistributed around the city in order to cope with the morning demand, however this uses vehicles which pollute the environment, although most of these vehicles are powered by electricity. It can also be argued that the people hired to do this are an additional cost, without this system the hire will be much cheaper.

Some people also argue that the bikes and the docks to dock them in are not available in the places they want at the times they want

Recent polls suggest that the bikes are the least satisfactory mode of public transport in London

The bikes are also not economically sustainable, this is because there was an initial cost of £100 000 000 to set up. The bikes also cost £15 000 000 each year to run and maintain, however in the first nine months of operation the service made a total revenue of £2 000 000 which is not even enough to break even. Roughly 40% of the revenue comes from £150 late fees.

Resource extraction from tropical rainforests:

Sustainable extraction of non-renewable energy sources is impossible; the extraction can also cause significant damage to the environment. Most tropical rainforests are lightly populated; the people live sustainably off the rainforests resources without depleting them.

Rainforests are ‘fragile’ as vegetation grows quickly and breaks down quickly. When leaves and plants rot, the nutrients are absorbed and used by plants to grow. When vegetation is removed the source of nutrients is removed this makes the soil infertile and useless. Other vegetation such as crops will not help as they are not allowed to break down as they are harvested.

The impacts of resource extraction:

DeforestationCompanies open roads through forests, this brings new settlers who have access to the resources in the forest. They may also engage in slash-and-burn activities and logging.

Local conflictsLocal people living in the forests are forced to move away as their land is used for resource extraction; often they are given little compensation and are not informed of projects.

Biodiversity lossFragmentation of habitats is caused by the installation of pipelines which leads to species being separated, as a result they are unable to mate and their population goes down.

Soil and aquatic pollution

When resources are extracted many things can go wrong. Spills and toxic by-products are sometimes dumped near the site polluting the surrounding land and water.

Air pollution Some of the by-products of natural gas are burned in the open air. The flames pollute the atmosphere and can cause fires.

Oil from Ecuador – A case study of natural resource extraction in a tropical rainforest

Location: Oriente, Ecuador North West of South America

Background:

In 1969 the government started to lease land to large companies for the excavation of oil

First developed in 1972 by Texaco There are few environmental laws and as a result a large amount of damage has

been done to the environment due to the excavation of oil A large amount of tension also exists between companies and locals, as there are

conflicts over land rights and health concerns

Impacts/Effects:

4.3 million gallons of toxic waste is discharged into the environment everyday Toxic contaminants are reaching unsafe levels in drinking water up to 1000 times the

recommended safety standards Local health workers report an increase in ailments they believe to be related to the

contamination of the drinking water

Management initiatives:

Preservation areas set up A new constitution in 1998 meant people had to be consulted on development Education initiatives Replanting areas to re-establish habitats

Palm oil production in Papua New Guinea - A case study of natural resource extraction in a tropical rainforest

Location: Off the north coast of Australia

Background:

Large multinational organisations set up a nucleus estate They then take on local farmers who grow the oil palms These local farmers must first pay to buy equipment and they must sell their harvest

to the nucleus estate company who own the mills needed to produce the oil The farmers must bear all costs including the labour, maintenance and cost of land This is called spreading the risk as the multinational has the least risk The farmers depend on the global palm oil price

Effects/Impacts:

A move away from traditional land use Pollution of water sources Farmers and owners become dependent on the industry, which can be a problem if

the price of oil changes Plantations reduce the biodiversity as habitats are destroyed

Management initiatives:

Introduction of ecotourism helps to encourage locals to preserve the environment Selling of local produce to benefit local economy Educating main importers on the need to protect tropical forests