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THESIS

PREDICTING THE EFFECTS OF PRESCRIBED FIRE ON

CULTURAL RESOURCE VISIBILITY IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN

NATIONAL PARK

Submitted by

Lisa S. Hanson

Department of Anthropology

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the Degree of Master of Science

Colorado State University

Fort Collins, Colorado

Spring 2001

COLORADO STATE UNIVERSTIY

Mo Day, 2001

WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER OUR

SUPERVISION BY LISA S. HANSON ENTITLED PREDICTING THE EFFECTS OF

PRESCRIBED FIRE ON CULTURAL RESOURCE VISIBILITY IN ROCKY

MOUNTAIN NATIONAL PARK BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING IN PART

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE FO MASTER OF ARTS.

Committee on Graduate Work

Adviser

Department Head

ABSTRACT OF THESIS

PREDICTING THE EFFECTS OF PRESCRIBED FIRE ON CULTURAL RESOURCE

VISIBILITY IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL PARK

The process of managing archaeological resources on federal lands often begins

with an inventory generated by pedestrian survey. In many National Parks and other

federally managed lands in the western United States, the visibility of cultural resources

is obscured by live and dead vegetation- primarily duff and forest litter which combine to

form a layer of dead organic material directly above mineral ground surface. It is

difficult to manage cultural resources if those resources are wholly unknown.

The National Park Service (NPS) is administers a program of vegetation

monitoring on Park lands, in the form of the Fire Effects Monitoring Program; this

program is a required component of management for every NPS unit with burnable

vegetation, and is a companion program to the required prescribed burn program.

Among the measurements taken on plots throughout the Park are duff or forest litter

thickness. The prescribed burn program identifies a five year burn plan for any given

NPS unit; index plots are installed in different vegetation monitoring types that are

scheduled to burn according to this five year plan. Plots are installed and monitored to

assess the effectiveness of the prescribed burn in meeting stated burn objectives. Data is

collected from these plots prior to burning, immediately post-burn, and at one, two, five,

and ten years post-burn; After ten years, monitoring data is collected every ten years until

the plot burns again. Archaeologists can utilize this vegetation monitoring data to predict

the increase in ground surface visibility; this can be directly related to the visibility of

cultural resources located on the ground surface.

The current project proposes a model for predicting how much the visibility of

cultural resources will be improved after the execution of prescribed burns in the Front

Range Ponderosa pine vegetation type (FPIPO1T09) of Rocky Mountain National Park.

This model is then tested on three prescribed burn units in the Park. Pre- and post-burn

pedestrian surveys were completed, with cultural resources recorded during both phases.

Analysis of the survey data suggests that even with incomplete duff consumption during

the burn, cultural resources visibility improves after burning.

Applications of this model to other vegetation monitoring types in Rocky

Mountain National Park will be discussed. Future research questions and implications

will also be offered.

Although many factors influenced the behavior of prehistoric and historic

humans, visibility of the resources is critical to managing these material remains on

federal lands.

Lisa Suzanne HansonAnthropology DepartmentColorado State UniversityFort Collins, CO 80523Spring 2001

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

1 INTRODUCTIONBackground: Historic Preservation LawCompliance with the National Historic Preservation Act in Rocky Mountain National ParkProject Overview

2 CREATING A PREDICTIVE MODEL FOR INCREASED CULTURAL RESOURCE VISIBILITY

Vegetation Monitoring in the National Park ServiceIncreased Ground Surface and Cultural Resource VisibilityFront Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Monitoring TypeA Model for Predicting the Effects of Prescribed Fire on Cultural Resource Visibility in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Monitoring Type in Rocky Mountain National Park

3 TESTING THE PREDICTIVE MODELMethods Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey Results and Vegetation Conditions

Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn UnitDeer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn UnitMoraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit

Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey Results and Vegetation ConditionsGlacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn UnitDeer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn UnitMoraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit

Discussion of Pre- and Post-Burn Archaeological Survey Results and Vegetation Conditions

Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn UnitDeer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn UnitMoraine park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit

4 APPLYING THE MODEL TO OTHER VEGETATION MONITORINGTYPES IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL PARK Rocky Mountain National Park

Ponderosa Pine Savannah (FPIPS1T02)Lower Montane Mixed Conifer (FPICM1T08)

Monitoring

5 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND ADDITIONAL RESEARCH QUESTIONSConclusionsFuture Research Questions and Problems to Address

Management Implications

References Cited

APPENDICES

Appendix A. Fire Effects Monitoring Type Descriptions for Rocky Mountain National Park (FMH-4s)

Appendix B. Litter and Duff Monitoring Records for Front Range Ponderosa Pine, Ponderosa Savannah, and Lower MontaneMixed Conifer Fire Effects Monitoring Types (FMH-20s)

Appendix C. Site and Isolated Find Records for Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey

Appendix D. Site and Isolated Find Records for Cultural ResourcesRecorded During Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey

Appendix E. Annotated Bibliography of Selected References ???

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Location of Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado

3.1 Map of Rocky Mountain National Park showing location of Glacier Creek # 1, Deer Ridge #5, and Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Units

3.2 Map of Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey

3.3 Map of Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey

3.4 Map of Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey

3.5 5LR3822 – Kid’s Lodges, Pre-Burn Condition

3.6 Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre- and Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey

3.7 Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre- and Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey

3.8 Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre- and Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey

3.9 5LR3822 – Kid’s Lodge, Post-Burn Condition

3.10 5LR3822 – Structural and Path Remains Identified Post-Burn

3.11 Moraine Park IF K

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Fire Management Strategies and Minimum Acceptable Standards (MAS)

2.2 Burn Severity Coding Matrix

2.3 Front Range Ponderosa Pine Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and Duff Measurements

3.1 Glacier Creek # 1 Plot FPIPO1T0902 Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and Duff Measurements

3.2 Moraine Park # 2 Plot FPIPO1T0903 Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and Duff Measurements




4.1 Ponderosa Savannah Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and Duff Measurements

4.2 Lower Montane Mixed Conifer Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and Duff Measurements

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Within the discipline of anthropology, the subdiscipline of archaeology seeks to

understand human activities and behavior of the past through the material remains of

those cultures. Basic to the study of archaeology is the concept that those material

remains are accessible; without these artifacts, structures, features, and their context, it is

nearly impossible to develop and test hypotheses regarding past human behaviors.

When considering such topics as settlement patterns, trade networks, and general land

use, it is imperative to know what archaeological resources exist within a study area.

Although archaeologists realize that components of sites, and entire sites remain

inaccessible and unrecorded because they are buried, professionals also recognize that

many site components, and entire sites are located at present ground surface and also

remain inaccessible and indeed unknown, due to dead and live vegetation cover. While it

is not often feasible to remove the overburden of large areas to expose sites, it is possible

to design a survey strategy to identify and record resources located at ground surface but

obscured by duff and litter. This strategy allows for the potential identification of more

cultural resources than traditional compliance surveys in support of specific projects.

Several laws, executive orders, and implementing regulations guide protocol for

considering the effect of proposed projects on archaeological material on Federal lands.

In many cases in the western United States, consideration includes pedestrian survey,

either new or previously completed. This project proposes a method for determining the

most efficient way to complete new survey during compliance efforts in support of

Federal prescribed burn projects on National Park Service land, and considers pre- and

post-burn inventory efforts.

This study consists of four parts; creating a predictive model for increased cultural

resource visibility after prescribed burning, testing the predictive model, applying the

model to different vegetation types, and drawing conclusions and developing additional

research questions. Applications of this model are currently limited to National Park

Service lands with prescribed burn and vegetation monitoring programs, due to the data

required for the model.

In order to understand how Federal archaeologists develop survey strategies, it is

helpful to have a basic understanding of legislation guiding their decisions.

Background: Historic Preservation Law

Protection of archaeological and cultural material on Federal land is directed by a

variety of Federal laws, policies, and guidelines. Cultural resources on Federal lands

have been subject to several legislative actions, beginning with since the Antiquities Act

of 1906.

The Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 U.S.C. 431-433; codified in 43CFR Part 3) was the

first law enacted to provide protection of historic and prehistoric resources on federal

lands. Criminal sanctions against excavation, injury to, of destruction of such resources

were defined. A permit system was also established to allow scientific investigations to

proceed. Protection provided by this law was largely intended to accommodate tourism

in the western United States. Although protection of cultural resources now relies

primarily on subsequent laws, the Antiquities Act has recently been used by then-

President Clinton to designate several National Monuments, including some (Black

Canyon and Perry Mesa in Arizona) for the specific protection of archaeological

resources.

The Historic Sites Act of 1935 (16 U.S.C. 461-467) was a New Deal initiative to

preserve for public use, significant historic buildings. The 1960 Reservoir Salvage Act

was the first law to acknowledge the inevitable destruction of cultural resources by

certain federally sponsored projects such as dam and reservoir construction. This law

requires that efforts be made to salvage the resources present prior to their destruction.

The Department of Transportation Act of 1966 (49 U.S.C. 303 and Section 15 of the

Federal Highway Act, 23 U.S.C. 138) directed the Department of Transportation to

minimize or avoid impacting archaeological sites. This effectively required a cultural

resource inventory, and potential design changes to accommodate avoidance of

archaeological sites.

The primary piece of legislation employed for the protection of cultural resources on

federal lands continues to be the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended

(16 U.S.C. 470; codified in 36CFR800 1979). This law, and the implementing

regulations, builds upon prior legislation to develop an inventory of significant sites (the

National Register of Historic Places), and to create a governing body (the Advisory

Council on Historic Preservation) and it’s designated representatives in each State (the

State Historic Preservation Officer) to oversee implementation of the various sections of

the regulations. The 1992 amendments to the National Historic Preservation Act are the

most recent; revised regulations took effect in January of 2001 (these revised regulations

are available at the Federal Register website, at:

frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getydoc.cgi?dbname=2000_register&docid=00-31253-

filed). The 1992 amendments focus on streamlining procedures, and involving interested

parties earlier in the process. Specific attention has also been given to enhancing the role

played by Native Americans. Alan L. Stanfill (1999:65) of the Advisory Council on

Historic Preservation notes that regarding Native American participation, “the

amendments clarify, reinforce, and in some places enhance their role and the

responsibilities of federal agencies to consider and accommodate their participation and

concerns”. Stanfill (1999:66) continues by stating that the “amendments are not

fundamental changes in the ways that federal agencies should go about carrying out their

responsibilities under the act with regard to Indian tribes”.

Among the most significant parts of the implementing regulations is Section 106,

which details how a federal agency should consider the impacts of a proposed project on

cultural resources. Section 106 is the primary regulation that drives federal land

management compliance programs.

Among the remaining sections, Section 110 stands out as having significance to

federal land managers. Section 110 is derived from Executive Order 11593 (1971),

which directs federal agencies to protect and enhance the cultural environment. Under

this Executive Order, land managers were to locate, inventory, and nominate to the

National Register all historic resources under their jurisdiction or control. Although the

requirement of complete inventory of all federal lands was dropped in Section 110, this

section requires agencies to maintain cultural resource management programs aimed at

non-compliance inventory and research.

The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321-4347) requires

project proponents to consider the environmental impacts of projects, including impacts

to the cultural environment. The 1974 Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act, or

Moss-Bennett Act (16 U.S.C. 469) not only reinforces the salvage intent of the Reservoir

Salvage Act of 1960, but authorized the transfer of money to pay for archaeological

salvage work. Up to one percent of the project budget was authorized for cultural

resource salvage work.

The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 (16 U.S.C. ???) was passed to

protect and preserve Native American, Eskimo, Aleut, and Native Hawaiian spiritual

beliefs and practices; this is accomplished by providing access to traditional use sites, and

providing for the use of sacred objects.

The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 (16 U.S.C. 470aa-470II) was

passed to protect archaeological resources and sites that are on public land, and to foster

cooperation between land managers, the professional archaeological community, and

private parties who may have collected material from federal land prior to the

implementation of this law. This law carefully defines terms, and provides a detailed

permitting process for excavation or collection of archaeological resources on federal

lands. Also defined are penalties to be imposed on violators of this law.

In 1990, the Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act was passed.

This Act requires all federally funded, associated, or owned facilities to inventory human

remains and associated funerary objects that originated on federal land. Inventory lists

and summaries are then provided to culturally affiliated tribes. Repatriation can then be

requested by tribes with cultural affiliation.

Although this list does not include all legislation pertaining to archaeological sites and

cultural resources, the primary laws are highlighted. As indicated above, the

implementing regulations to the National Historic Preservation Act, as amended guide

most compliance related federal projects. Section 106 of the implementing regulations

details the process used to consider the effects of a proposed project on cultural

resources.

(I think that the review of statutory history is not particularly gemane to your thesis – you

could cut it way back – it may distract the reader from the direction of your thesis).

Compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act in Rocky Mountain

National Park

An undertaking is any project, activity, or program funded in part or wholly by the

Federal government that can result in changes in the character of use of historic

properties, if any such historic properties are located in the area of potential effect (16

U.S.C. 470f.). The project, activity, or program must be under the direct or indirect

jurisdiction of a Federal agency. Undertakings include new and continuing projects,

activities, or programs and any of their elements not previously considered under Section

106 (36 CFR 800.2(o)). This includes projects, activities, or programs funded in whole

or in part by a Federal agency, including those carried out by or on behalf of the agency,

those requiring a Federal permit, license, or approval, and those subject to State or local

regulation administered pursuant to a delegation or approval by a Federal agency (16

U.S.C 470f.).

Prescribed burn projects may include construction of fire containment line, staging

areas for heavy equipment, helipads, and portable water tank locations, as well as impacts

sustained from fire. Clearly, prescribed burns are undertakings as defined by the

National Historic Preservation Act implementing regulations. As undertakings, these

projects are subject to Section 106 review.

The Advisory Council’s regulations require the Federal agency considering an

undertaking to “make a reasonable and good faith effort to identify historic properties

that may be affected by the undertaking and gather sufficient information to evaluate the

eligibility of these properties for the National Register [of Historic Places]” (36CFR

800.4(b)). The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for Identification

(19??) provide guidance on how to design a project that will meet the codified

requirements; a “reasonable and good faith effort” could also be a strategy agreed upon

by the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) and the agency archaeologist in a

formal agreement document..

The Rocky Mountain National Park Research Design for Archeology (Butler 1997:48)

states that “ [pedestrian] surveys will be conducted at no more than 10 to 15 meter

intervals between crew members”, and that “State of Colorado inventory and

management forms will be completed for all historic and prehistoric archeological sites

and isolated finds”. Butler (1998:2) defines a site as “ten or more artifacts and/or features

found in a 100 square meter area reflecting two or more functions”; some structural

remains “such as irrigation ditches, wickiups, or other structures may also be considered

to be sites even if no other artifactual remains are found and if the potential for buried

remains is likely”. Butler (1998:2) defines isolated finds as “a single feature or less than

ten artifacts in a 100 square meter area suggesting a single function”.

The current project seeks to utilize methodology employed by archaeologists and fire

personnel working in Rocky Mountain National Park in order to determine if ground

visibility and cultural resource visibility change in the process of implementing

prescribed burn projects in the Front Range Ponderosa pine vegetation monitoring type in

Rocky Mountain National Park. This prediction will allow cultural resource managers to

design a survey strategy to maximize the number of resources observed.

Pre-burn pedestrian survey was conducted according to the guidelines listed above.

Efforts were made during the post-burn pedestrian survey to replicate the pre-burn survey

as nearly as possible.

Project Overview

The goal of this thesis is develop a method to determine the most efficient survey strategy for

compliance in support of prescribed burns on National Park Service administered lands. The objective is to

use existing fire effects monitoring data to predict post-burn ground surface and cultural resource visibility.

Efficiency is critical, because it allows the archaeologists to make the most accurate inventory of surface

material, given the existing conditions. First, fire effects monitoring data will be analyzed to

determine the average amount of litter and duff (dead and decomposing vegetation)

reduction for the Front Range Ponderosa Pine vegetation monitoring type (Appendix A)

in Rocky Mountain National Park. This average will allow for a prediction of reduction

of litter and duff on future prescribed burns in the same vegetation monitoring type.

With a reasonable prediction of average surface vegetation reduction, a correlation can

be hypothesized between reduction of surface litter and duff, and the increase in ground

surface visibility. Archaeological material visibility is directly related to ground surface

visibility, and can therefore also be predicted.

The prediction of increased ground surface and therefore cultural resource visibility

post-prescribed burn can be tested by performing pre- and post-prescribed burn

pedestrian survey across the burn area. Three prescribed burn units in the Front Range

Ponderosa Pine vegetation monitoring type in Rocky Mountain National Park will be

tested for this project.

This predictive capability could allow federal land managers to design survey

strategies that take advantage of increased post-burn cultural resources visibility to obtain

more complete inventories of project areas. The method described above could be used

in different vegetation monitoring types, and at different geographical locations (i.e.

Other National Park Service Units).

Finally, conclusions about the current study, and concerns about using this method

will be discussed. Inherent in this discussion will be the identification of additional

research questions, and practical implications for land managers.

CHAPTER TWO

CREATING A PREDICTIVE MODEL FOR INCREASED

CULTURAL RESOURCE VISIBILITY

In order to build a predictive model to determine the extent of increased cultural

resource visibility after a prescribed burn, the following steps must be taken. An general

understanding of the National Park Service vegetation monitoring and prescribed burn

programs must be obtained; this understanding will allow for manipulation of the data

collected under these programs. By using fire effects monitoring data on litter and duff, a

prediction of the amount of ground surface visible after a prescribed burn can be made.

Hypothetically, cultural resource visibility can also be predicted, based on the reduction

of the ground obscuring litter and duff.

Vegetation Monitoring in the National Park Service

Fire management on Federal lands administered by the National Park Service are

guided by Director’s Order # 18: Wildland Fire Management (DO-18, November 17,

1998); Reference Manual 18 (RM-18) identifies implementation procedures for policy

outlined in DO-18. Prior to D.O. # 18, management was guided by NPS-18 (1990).

Policy guides management actions for both wildland fires and for prescribed fires, and

requires monitoring of all fires. Procedures for implementing monitoring are found in the

National Park Service Western Region Fire Monitoring Handbook (1992). This

handbook was developed by the Western Region Prescribed and Natural Fire Monitoring

Task Force, and is the standard for all National Park Service (NPS) units.

Table 2.1. Fire Management Strategies and Minimum Acceptable Standard (MAS)Monitoring Levels (NPS 1992:8)

MANAGEMENT STRATEGY MAS LEVEL____________

Suppression Fire: unplanned or natural fire that must 1. Reconnaissancebe suppressed

Prescribed natural fire (wildland fire use): natural fire 1. Reconnaissanceburning within prescription 2. Fire conditions

Simulated natural fire: fire set within a prescription window 1. ReconnaissanceTo simulate a lost natural ignition (One class of prescribed 2. Fire conditionsBurn) 3. Immediate postfire effects

4. Long-term change

Prescribed burn: fire set to reduce fuel, modify vegetative 1. ReconnaissanceStructure, or for any management purpose. Burn is 2. Fire conditionsconstrained by a prescription window 3. Immediate postfire effects

4. Ling-term change__________________________________________________________________________________

Four levels of monitoring are identified in the Monitoring Handbook and levels are

specific to management strategies (Table 2.1). Each level has Minimum Acceptable

Standards (MAS), and the levels are cumulative to the next higher level. The lowest

level of monitoring is Reconnaissance, which is used in cases of unplanned fires that will

be suppressed. Reconnaissance level monitoring “provides a basic overview of the fire

events, [and] is essential to all types of fire” (NPS 1992:12). Data collected to satisfy the

MAS for Reconnaissance level monitoring includes the following:

1. fire cause, location, and size

2. Fuel and vegetation type

3. Relative fire activity

4. Potential for further spread

5. Current and forecasted weather

6. Resource or safety threats and constraints

7. Smoke volume and movement

It is interesting to note that apart from the Section 106 compliance process (NHPA 1976,

as amended), the guidelines set forth in the Monitoring Handbook (1992:24), (number

six, above) provides for consideration of threats to resources, including cultural

resources. Data collected for the Reconnaissance level of monitoring is also required for

the three higher levels of monitoring.

The second level of monitoring is Fire Conditions: this level is required when a Park

unit has a naturally ignited fire burning within prescription (Table 2.1). Generally, this

level of monitoring requires collection of data on ambient conditions and smoke and fire

characteristics, and is used to “predict fire behavior and to identify potential problems”

(Monitoring Handbook 1992:12). Data collected to satisfy Fire Condition MAS include

specific elements in the following categories:

1. Fire monitoring period

2. Ambient conditions (including topographic and fire weather variables)

3. Fuel model

4. Fire characteristics

(Refer to the Monitoring Handbook (1992:13; 27-36) for specific data to be collected)

Monitoring level three is Immediate Postfire Effects, and must be completed for all

management ignited fires. This level of monitoring requires collection of fuel loading,

vegetation structure, and composition data, as well as objective-dependent variables (as

identified in the burn plan).

Monitoring requires a pre-burn effort at this level. In addition to data collected at

levels one and two, level three monitoring requires the installation of Index Plots in

variable vegetation monitoring types (defined in FMH-4s, Appendix A). In addition to

Index Plots, which are located within units to be burned, Control Plots may also be

installed at this level of monitoring. Control plots for a given monitoring type

(vegetation type) are randomly distributed through out that monitoring type. These plots

are located outside of the projected burn area, are used to measure the success or failure

of burn objectives as identified in site specific burn plans and in the vegetation

monitoring type descriptions. Although Control plots are not required, they are

recommended unless a Park has an ongoing research program that can address

management concerns, or that sufficient fire effects information is present to start or

continue a burn program (Monitoring Handbook 1992:56).

Immediate Postfire Effects monitoring is the lowest level at which specific vegetation

elements are monitored both before and after a prescribed burn. Measurements of duff

and litter depths are collected, as are live surface vegetation volumes, and numerous other

variables. Litter is identified as the top unconsolidated and undecomposed layer of dead

vegetation, while duff is the fibrous, consolidated, decomposed layer of organic material

directly above mineral soil (NPS 1992:112). Litter and duff depths are measured to the

nearest 1/10th of an inch, at ten points on each of four transects (for a total of 40 point

measurements) in each plot. Duff and litter measurements for each plot (both index and

control plots) are recorded on form FMH-20 (Appendix B). This form is used to record

pre-burn, immediately post-burn, and all subsequent post-burn measurements of litter and

duff.

Burn severity assessments are also made for level three monitoring (Table 2.2). These

assessments are useful to cultural resource managers when considering large scale

severity of burning by vegetation type in a Park unit. For example, if the majority of

index plot data for the spruce-fir vegetation type are coded as “scorched”, cultural

resource managers may approximate the results of pre-burn and post-burn pedestrian

survey to be very similar. This assumption might allow managers to conclude that there

would be no real value in completing both pre- and post-burn pedestrian survey of a burn

unit in the spruce-fir vegetation type. Conversely, if index plot data from the ponderosa

pine vegetation type is coded as “moderately burned”, a cultural resource manager might

conclude that there is a reasonable chance archaeological material to have been

“uncovered” by the fire, thus making post-burn survey a potentially valuable project.

The burn severity assessment may be viewed as a complimentary tool to give a gross

understanding of average organic material consumption in a given vegetation monitoring

type. Burn severity was not considered in the present model development.

Table 2.2. Burn Severity Coding Matrix (NPS 1992:119)

Unburned

(5)

Scorched

(4)

Lightly

Burned

(3)

Moderately

Burned

(2)

Heavily

Burned

(1)

Not

Applicable

(0)

Substrate

(litter/duff)

(S)

NotBurned

Litter partially blackened;Duff nearlyUnchanged; wood/leaf structures unchanged

Litter charred to partially consumed; upper duff layer burned; wood/leaf structure charred, but recognize-able

Litter mostly to entirely consumed, leaving coarse, light colored ash; duff deeply burned; wood/leaf structures unrecogniz-able

Litter and duff consumed, leaving fine white ash; mineral soil visibly altered, often reddish

inorganic

Vegetation

(understory/brush/herbs)

(V)

Not Burned

Foliage scorched and attached to supporting twigs

Foliage and smaller twigs partially to completely consumed

Foliage, twigs and small stems consumed

All plant parts consumed leaving some or no major stems/ trunks

None present

Level four, or Long-Term Change monitoring, utilizes the same variables as level

three, but in an extended temporal setting. Level four monitoring is always required for

prescribed fires. The objective of level four monitoring is to “reveal change in conditions

sampled” (Monitoring Handbook 1992:47), which might indicate trends that should be

brought to the attention of Park managers. Data is collected from index plots pre-burn,

immediately post-burn, and at 1, 2, 5, and 10 years after the burn. The plot is then

monitored every ten years until it burns again.

Level three and level four monitoring, required for all prescribed fires on National

Park Service lands, collect data on duff and litter depths that are used to build the

predictive model proposed in this study. These variables are monitored prior and

subsequent to the burn.

Increased Ground Surface and Cultural Resource Visibility

Fire is largely recognized as a ubiquitous force of nature in the western United States;

many of the forest and prairie ecosystems have evolve with fire as an integral component

(Ackerman 1993:18; Barrett 2000:23-25; Buchanan et al 1996:4; Floyd-Hanna and Budd-

Jack 1992:2; Jackson 1997:5-7; Lewis 1973:10-11; Pilles 1984:1; Pyne 1982:84-86, 144-

146, 201-202, 252-254, 334-335, 413-415, 511-512, and 2000:4-6; Sampson 1994:15;

Scott 1979:2-5; Swan and Francis 1991:21; Traylor et al 1990:99; USDI Interagency

Team 1996:91). The Ponderosa Pine forests of the southern Rocky Mountains are one

example of fire dependant system (Veblen et al 2000:1188-1189); fire history data

suggest that the ponderosa pine forests and savannas of Rocky Mountain National Park

have a historic fire return interval of about 20 – 30 years (Stephen n.d.:2). Lodgepole

pine forests in Rocky Mountain National Park have a fire return interval of 50+ years for

low intensity fires, and 100- - 300 years for high intensity (stand replacing) fires (Stephen

n.d.:2).

American Indian burning certainly contributed to maintenance of the ecosystem

present in the pre-contact period (Anderson 1999; Barrett 2000; Blackburn and

Anderson1993; Brown 2000; Conner and Cannon 1991; King 1993; Lewis 1973 and

1993; McCarthy 1993; Ortiz 1993; Roper-Wickstrom 1987; Shipek 1993; Timbrook

1993; Williams 2000, 2000a, and 2000b). Both intentional ignitions, and management of

lightning caused fires were likely utilized to achieve a variety of desired results, including

(but not limited to): improved forage for game (hunting), improved growing conditions

for food plants such as berries, roots and corms, and nuts, trail clearing, visibility of

approaching enemies, and to reduce the risk of catastrophic wildfire (Anderson 1999:79-

109; Blackburn and Anderson 1993:19; Brown 2000:29-30; McCarthy 1993:220; Morris

1992:82-86; Ortiz 1993:204; Shipek 1993:382-384; Timbrook et al 1993:117; Williams

2000:8-11, 2000a:18-19). Research has been presented that indicates that in some cases,

“wilderness” areas observed by early euro-american explorers were carefully maintained

ecosystems that were dependant upon human caused and managed burning (Bean and

Lawton 1973:xxvii-xxxi; Lewis 1973:10-12; Pyne 2000:4-6; Williams 2000:8 and

2000a:18).

The combination of the policy to suppress wild fires and the removal of American

Indian burning practices between the late 1800s and the early 1970s, have resulted in

dramatic changes to these fire-dependant ecosystems (Barrett 2000:24; Deal 1999:18;

Cruz 2000:10; Jackson 1998:1,4; Lewis 1973:12; Mahoney and Zimple 1997:1; Morris

1992:86; Pilles 1984:1; Pyne 2000:4-6; Scott 1979:2). In vegetation types where pre-

contact burning occurred approximately every 1 – 25 years (Barrett 2000; Pyne 1982;

Sackett 1980; Veblen 2000) (prairie grasslands, shrublands, lower elevation ponderosa

pine savanna and forests), exclusion of fire can represent five or more “missed” burn

cycles, which has resulted in large accumulations of duff, and encroachment of open

spaces by shade tolerant species such as lodgepole pine. In vegetation types with fire

frequencies of 75-200+ years (Barrett 2000Connor and Cannon 1991; Pyne 1982; Veblen

2000) (lodgepole pine, mixed conifer, supalpine fir in the front range), this fire exclusion

may be relatively insignificant to date, but will become critical in the near future.

Vegetation types with lesser fire frequencies often fail to capture a record of low-

intensity burns (Barrett 2000:23), which are not stand replacing events. Therefore, even

these forests with lower fire frequencies may be subjected to an increase in ground

surface fuels due to fire suppression efforts over the last 120 years (Barrett 2000:23; Deal

1997:7).

Ecologists and foresters have long noted the reduction of ground surface fuels (duff,

litter, and live herbaceous material) after wildfires, and prescribed (intentionally ignited)

fires (Barrows et al 1977, Roudabaugh 1978, Knight et al 1999, Veblin et al 2000, Clegg

1975, Pyne 19823). This fuel reduction is usually viewed in one of two ways: either it is

beneficial, because it has reduced overall fuel loading and the potential to carry a ground

fire, or it is seen as detrimental, because it renders the soils bare, and susceptible to

erosion and other geomorphologic forces.

Archaeologists and cultural resource managers have also noted the lack of surface

cover following fires (Anderson and Origer 1997:18; Cartledge 1996:10-11; Deal 2001:2;

Hester 1989:4; Hull 1991:v, 95; Jackson 1998:2, 18 and 2000:A-7; Johnson et al

1991:45; Kelly and Mayberry 1979:2; Manuel 1980:1; Lissoway 1987:2; Parkman

1994:14; Pilles 1984:13; Racine and Racine 1979:76-79; Sampson 1994:14-15; Switzer

1974:6; USDI Chapin #5 BAER Team 1996:37-39; Welch and Gonzales 1982:2),

although this has been more frequently documented for wildfires than for prescribed

burns. This removal of surface cover has been alternately noted as a detriment because

increased site visibility leads to site vandalism, and the potential for on-site erosion (Deal

2001:2; Hester 1989:4; USDI Chapin # 5 BAER Team 1996:37-39), and a benefit

because the increased cultural resource visibility provides the opportunity to obtain a

more complete inventory of cultural resources present (Jackson 1998:4-5 and 2000:A-7;

Swan and Francis 1991:21).

In dealing with wildfires, cultural resource managers strive to complete pedestrian

survey on areas impacted by fire suppression and rehabilitation areas to satisfy

requirements set forth in Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (1966 as

amended). If areas are seen as particularly vulnerable to vandalism or erosion they may

also receive pedestrian survey to document and monitor resources (USDI Chapin # 5

BAER Team 1996:24). No instances of completing post-burn pedestrian survey for the

explicit purpose of obtaining a more complete inventory (Section 110, National Historic

Preservation Act (NHPA) 1966 as amended) was found; this may well be attributed to

funding restraints, and the reality that many federal Cultural Resource Management

programs are driven by the compliance-oriented requirements of section 106 rather than

the research-oriented requirements of section 110 of the NHPA (1966, as amended).

Although “increased ground surface visibility” is not usually an objective of

prescribed burning, surface fuel reduction (duff, litter, herbaceous vegetation) is often an

explicit objective (See Appendix A: Vegetation Monitoring Type Descriptions,

“prescribed fire objectives”). Surface fuel reduction often results in increased ground

surface visibility, which can lead to an increase in the visibility of cultural resources.

When post-burn pedestrian survey is completed, this increase in the visibility of cultural

resources can lead to a more complete inventory of resources present. Any improvement

on the completeness of inventory is helpful to land managers and researchers alike; the

more that is known about resources present, the better those resources can be managed,

and the better they can be incorporated into local and regional understanding of the

behavior of people who lived in prehistoric, protohistoric, and historic times.

Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Monitoring Type

Rocky Mountain National Park encompasses approximately 265,316 acres in the

southern Rocky Mountains in northern Colorado (Figure 2.1). The Park includes area on

either side of the north-south trending continental divide; elevations in the Park range

from a low of about 2317 meters (7,600 feet) near the town of Estes Park, to a high of

4345 meters (14,255 feet) on the top of Longs Peak (Emerick 1995:1). The mountains in

the Park are granitic and metamorphic blocks that were uplifted during middle and late

tertiary times; the topography observed today is largely the result of Pleistocene

glaciation (Butler 1997:2).

For the purpose of fire effects monitoring, five unique vegetation types (called Fire

Effect Monitoring Types) are recognized in Rocky Mountain National Park (Appendix

A). These vegetation types include Front Range Ponderosa Pine (FPIPO1T09),

Ponderosa Savannah (FPIPS1T02), Lower Montane Mixed Conifer – Front Range

(FPICM1T08), Big/Common Sagebrush (FARTR1D05), and Lodgepole Forest – West

Slope (FPICO1T08).

Rocky Mountain National Park operates both prescribed burn and fire effects

monitoring programs. As part of the fire effects program, index plots have been installed

within projected burn units, in a variety of vegetation types. Duff/litter measurements

(among many others) have been collected on these monitoring plots. 17 plots have been

installed in areas containing the Front Range Ponderosa Pine monitoring type

(FPIPO01T09) in Rocky Mountain National Park. Of these 17 plots, 7 have been burned,

while 10 are scheduled to be burned in the next two years. Pre-burn litter and duff

measurements for all plots in this fuel type in Rocky Mountain National Park may be

found in Table 2.3.

According to the FMH-4 Monitoring Type Description Sheet, Rocky Mountain

National Park for vegetation monitoring type FPIPO1T09 (Duhnkrack and Buhler

1998:1; Appendix A), this vegetation may be found at “7,800 to 9,800 feet in elevation in

a variety of terrain ranging from level ground and rolling hills to steep hillsides with

slopes up to 60%. [This vegetation type] [o]ccurs on all aspects but most common on

south and west aspects on the eastern slope of the Continental divide. Soils consist of

well drained sandy/gravelly loam of granitic origin with occasional barren rocky

outcrops”. Additionally, the biological description from the same document provides the

following information:

“Overstory dominated by Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) with a total canopy

cover, of all species, ranging from 30 to 100%. Other overstory and understory

trees may include Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Rocky Mountain

juniper (Jiniperus scopulorum). Deciduous trees are uncommon, but may include

quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) and cottonwood (Populus agustifolia).

Shrubs may include: Oregon grape (Mahonia repens), common juniper (Juniper

communis), wax current (Ribes cereum), mountain gooseberry (Ribes inerme),

dwarf rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), fringe sagebrush (Artemisia

frigada), mountain sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), antelope bitterbrush

Table 2.3. Front Range Ponderosa Pine Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and Duff Measurements (inches)

Plot identification number Average pre-burn depth Average post-burn depth

FPIPO1T0901 1.96 1.74

FPIPO1T0902 1.09 0.82

FPIPO1T0903 0.85 0.62

FPIPO1T0904 1.36 1.18

FPIPO1T0905 1.46 1.26

FPIPO1T0907 1.84 Not burned

FPIPO1T0908 1.49 1.05


FPIPO1T0909a 0.91 Not burned

FPIPO1T0910 1.78 0.32







FPIPO1T0924 1.33 Not Burned

Average for PIPO1T09 1.48 (1.43 for plots burned) 1.00 (average of plots burned)

(Prushia tridentata), and wild rose (Rosa woodsii). Herbaceous species may

include: mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana), blue gramma grass

(Bouteloua gracilis), Rocky Mountain sedge (Carex ssp.), needle and thread grass

(Stipa comata), June grass (Koeleria macrantha), western wallflower (Erysimum

asperum), pussy paws (Antennaria parvifolia), wild geranium (Geranium

caespitosum), yarrow (Achillea millefolia) and golden banner (Thermopsis

divaricarpa) (Duhnkrack and Buhler 1998:1).

The first stated objective for prescribed fire in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine

(FPIPO1T09) vegetation monitoring type is to “reduce total fuel load, including all

woody material, litter and duff, by 40-80% immediate post fire” (Duhnkrack and Buhler

1998:4). The first stated fire monitoring objective is to “measure the total fuel load,

including all woody material, litter and duff, pre-burn and immediate post-fire, with a

sufficient sample size to be 80% confident that the results are within 25% of the mean

found within the monitoring type” (Duhnkrack and Buhler 1998:4). Clearly, the

reduction of ground surface cover in the form of duff and litter are objectives of the

Rocky Mountain National Park prescribed burn and fire effects programs.

A Model for Predicting The Effects of Prescribed Fire on Cultural Resource

Visibility in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Monitoring Type in Rocky

Mountain National Park

Fire Effects Personnel at Rocky Mountain National Park have installed 17 index plots

in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Type in the Park, in anticipation of

planned prescribed burns. Although the Fire Effects Program at Rocky Mountain

National Park does not currently include installation of control plots, for the purpose of

this study (short-term litter and duff measurements) data from unburned plots in the same

vegetation type may be used as control data.

Table 2.3 provides litter and duff measurements for all of the 17 plots installed in the

Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Type. As noted on Table 2.3, the average pre-

burn litter and duff depth for the Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Type in Rocky

Mountain National Park, is 1.48inches; the average pre-burn litter and duff depth

measurements for the seven plots that have burned in this monitoring type is 1.43 inches.

Table 2.3 also includes post-burn duff measurements for plots that have been burned.

The average of the post-burn duff measurements for the seven plots that have been

burned in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine vegetation monitoring type (FPIPO1T09) is

1.00 inches. By using the average of the pre-burn duff measurements, and the average of

the post-burn duff measurements, a conclusion may be drawn that duff is reduced by an

average of 30% in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Type in Rocky Mountain

National Park.

The Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Type in Rocky Mountain National Park

contains a mosaic of open savannas and closed canopy forests with canopy cover ranging

between 30 and 100% (Duhnkrack and Buhler 1998:1). The duff and litter component of

this vegetation type is correspondingly mosaic in nature. If duff is reduced by an average

of 30%, ground surface visibility will correspondingly increase by an average of 30%.

Archaeological site visibility is certainly influenced by ground surface cover in the

form of duff and litter. Although the percents of duff and litter reduction identified above

are averages, a prediction can be made that if cultural resources are present, they will be

more visible after the implementation of a prescribed burn. It may be estimated that

roughly 30% more ground surface is visible post-burn, and therefore, potentially as many

as 30% more cultural resources may be visible in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine

Vegetation Type in Rocky Mountain National Park. Chapter three will reveal the results

of a test of this model in the Glacier Creek # 1, Deer Ridge # 5, and Moraine Park# 2

prescribed burn units in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation Monitoring Type in

Rocky Mountain National Park.

CHAPTER THREE

TESTING THE PREDICTIVE MODEL

Three prescribed burn units in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine Fire Effects

Monitoring Vegetation Type in Rocky Mountain National Park were selected to test the

predictive model proposed in Chapter two. This vegetation type was chosen because the

majority of prescribed burns in the Park are executed in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine

vegetation monitoring type (FPIPO1T09). The Glacier Creek # 1, the Deer Ridge # 5,

and the Moraine Park # 2 prescribed burn units (Figure 3.1) are all located within the

Front Range Ponderosa Pine Vegetation type, and therefore would be expected to exhibit

a 30% reduction in the duff and litter component, post-burn. A corresponding increase in

surface visibility of 30% is predicted. A post-burn cultural resources inventory is

expected to reveal up to 30% more resources.

Methods

Survey methods for investigations in Rocky Mountain National Park are defined in the

Rocky Mountain National Park Research Design for Archeology (Butler 1997:48-49).

Pedestrian survey should be completed with a 15 meter maximum crew spacing, areas

Figure 3.1. Map of Rocky Mountain National Park with the locations of the Glacier

Creek # 1, Deer Ridge # 5, and Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Units.

with less than about 30% slope should be intensively inspected, while slopes of more

than 30% should be at least cursorily surveyed (Butler 1998:2).

All cultural resources located will be recorded on State of Colorado inventory and

management forms. Butler (1998:2) defines a site as “ten or more artifacts and/or

features found in a 100 square meter area reflecting two or more functions” although

some structures and features without associated artifacts may also be managed as sites.

Isolated finds are remains that suggest a single function, such as artifact clusters of less

than ten objects, or single features (Butler 1998:2). Some modern sites and isolates have

also been recorded in the Park to document these resources for future reference.

Methods for collecting litter and duff measurements are presented in the Western

Region Fire Monitoring Handbook (1992:61-62, 111). From four predetermined points

within the given index plot, 50 meter long transects are laid out in randomly determined

directions. Litter and duff depths are measured at ten points on each transect; these

measurements are recorded to the nearest tenth of an inch on the FMH-20 form

(Appendix B). Forty point measurements of litter and duff depth are recorded for each

plot. Litter and duff depth measurements are collected from these forty points pre-burn

(up to two years before the burn), post-burn (up to two months after the burn), one year

post-burn, two years post-burn, five years post-burn, ten years post-burn, and at ten year

intervals thereafter (NPS 1992:60). The current study utilizes only the pre- and post-burn

measurements. Although all litter and duff measurements are provided in Appendix B,

tables in this report combine the litter and duff measurements.

Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey Results and Vegetation Conditions

Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit. The Glacier Creek #1 prescribed burn unit

is located immediately northwest of Glacier Creek, and southeast of the Bear Lake Road,

approximately one and a half miles east of Hallowell park, along the Bear Lake Road

(Figure 3.2). This 65 acre burn unit encompasses most of the area known as Tuxedo Park

(Longs Peak 7.5’ USGS Quadrangle 1961, photorevised 1978). The legal location of the

burn unit is the NW ¼ of Section 4, and the NE ¼ of Section 5, Township 4 North, Range

73 West, on the Longs Peak, CO 7.5” USGS Quadrangle, 1961 (photorevised 1978).

This burn unit is comprised of the Front Range Ponderosa Pine monitoring type

(FPIPO1T09; Duhnkrack and Buhler 1998), with approximately 30% closed canopy

ponderosa pine forest and approximately 70% ponderosa pine with grass and shrubs

(Stephen 1996). Elevation in the burn unit ranges from 2390 meters (7840 feet) to 2474

meters (8120 feet), with slopes of 0 – 15%. East and southeast aspects dominate the unit

(Stephen 1996).

One fire effects monitoring plot (plot ID FPIPO1T0902) was installed in this burn unit

prior to burning. Forty point measurements (ten each on four transects) of litter and duff

depth were taken (Table 3.1). For the purpose of this study, depths of litter and duff, both

ground obscuring dead organic material, are combined to form the litter/duff depth. Pre-

burn litter/duff depths for this plot range from 0 inches to 3.2 inches, with an average

depth of 1.09 inches.

Figure 3.2. Map of Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of CulturalResources Recorded During Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey

Table 3.1. Glacier Creek # 1, Plot FPIPO1T0902 Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and DuffMeasurements (inches)

Transect

point

1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Transect

average

Transect 1

42 degrees

5% slope

Pre-

burn

0.8 0.6 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.6 1.2 0.0 2.3 0.3 0.86

Post-

burn

0.4 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.4 1.5 0.7 0.0 0.8 0.6 0.63

Transect 2

130 degrees

5% slope

Pre-

burn

3.2 2.1 2.5 2.0 1.2 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.2 1.59

Post-

burn

3.8 1.0 2.3 0.7 0.6 0.8 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 1.1

Transect 3

33 degrees

6% slope

Pre-

burn

0.0 0.5 0.2 0.7 0.9 1.7 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.62

Post-

burn

0.0 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.38

Transect 4

273 degrees

7% slope

Pre-

burn

2.5 2.3 2.0 2.0 1.0 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.0 0.8 1.29

Post-

burn

0.3 2.5 1.8 1.1 1.5 0.8 0.5 1.5 0.0 1.5 1.15

Plot

Average

Pre-

burn

1.09

Post-

burn

0.82

A pedestrian survey of the Glacier Creek # 1 prescribed burn unit was completed

between July and September of 1997 (Butler 1997:2). The entire burn area was

previously surveyed for several projects, and previously recorded sites include 5LR602, a

possible tipi ring, and 5LR611, a hearth with flaked lithic material and a single glass bead

(Butler 1997:3-5). Survey completed by Butler and Hanson for the prescribed burn

project identified two additional sites and three isolated finds (Butler 1997:5-11) (Figure

3.2). The sites and isolated finds (Appendix C) are described as follows (paraphrased

from Butler 1997):

Site 5LR602 – Reported in July of 1979 as a tipi ring with a diameter of 3.5 meters,

comprised of “water rolled quartzite cobbles” (Butler 1997:3), apparently undisturbed.

Ralph Hartley visited the site later in 1979, and proposed the idea that the “tipi ring” was

associated with the historic era activity at Camp Woods Resort (see description of

5LR3699, below). Additionally, Butler and Hanson note that a feature resembling that

described in 1979 is located in front of what was most likely the dining hall of Camp

Woods Resort, and appears to be a decoration possibly associated with a flag pole (Butler

1997:3). Vegetation on site consists of ponderosa pine forest with grasses and shrubs,

while soil is a tan sandy loam with granitic inclusions. On site slope is zero to three

degrees.

Site 5LR611 - This site is described at a hearth with some flakes of chalcedony and

chert, a single bead, and numerous small bone fragments (Butler 1997:5).

Paraprofessional archeologist Emily Buehler recorded this site in 1981, and noted that the

bead and burned bone were likely of recent origin, due to the close proximity of the site

to several cabins. Most of these cabins were built in 1939-40, with a few constructed in

1950 or later. Buehler also notes that the material observed could have been imported

with fill material, again due to the proximity to cabins and associated roads and

subsurface utilities.

Site 5LR2193, a group of four culturally peeled trees is located in the immediate

vicinity of site 5LR611 (see description, below). Butler (1997:5) notes that “the chipped

stone tools are probably prehistoric in age as such tools were likely replaced by metal

tools in late protohistoric and historic times. In addition to the chipped stone material,

the bead and the 1890 dated from the peeled trees suggest a protohistoric or historic (ca.

1890?) component (s) at the site”. No evidence of site 5LR611 was observed during the

survey completed for the Glacier Creek #1 prescribed burn unit.

Site 5LR2193 – This site consists of four culturally peeled trees, located in the vicinity

of site 5LR611, described above. All four of the trees are ponderosa pine, and range in

diameter (at breast height) from approximately 50 to 70 centimeters. All four trees

exhibit cultural scarring on the west face; scars range in size from 100 centimeters high

by 35 centimeters wide. The depth of all scars was recorded as 4 centimeters. The scars

occur from 4 centimeters below present ground surface on one tree, to 60 centimeters

above present ground surface (Butler 1997:5-6).

Butler (1997:6-8) extracted core samples from these four culturally scarred trees in an

attempt to dendrochronologically date the scars. Dates clustering around 1890 and

1930/1950 are assigned, although the confidence level is only fair, due to a variety of

reasons (Butler 1997:7). The 1890 dates fit Martorano’s (1989:11) general

characterization of culturally peeled trees occurring pre-1890. The 1930 dates may be

associated with Camp Woods Resort, or a 1950 date may be associated with the cabins

(noted in site 5LR611 description). Martorano (1989:9) notes a variety of uses for

ponderosa pine outer bark, and inner bark, including the use of inner bark “if most

varieties of pine has also been used by Native Americans for food in cases of impending

starvation”. Butler (1997:8) assigns a likely Ute cultural affiliation to the peeled trees,

based on consultation visits to the site by Northern Ute and by Northern Arapaho tribal

members.

This area is relatively closed, with ponderosa pine canopy cover of about 80%, and

sparse grasses and forbs with few shrubs covering the ground. Soil is tan sand and

decomposing granite. On-site slope is zero to three degrees.

Site 5LR3699 – This site is the remains of the Camp Woods Resort. Little written

documentation regarding this property exists; it appears that the earliest building was the

camp store, which was constructed in 1915. Jack Woods was the proprietor until 1932,

when it was purchased by the government; operations were continued until 1958 as a

franchise (Butler 1997:8-9). The camp was apparently removed by the National Park

Service some time after 1958, and presumably when the Thompson River Entrance to the

Park was closed.

Physical remains of the camp include rock cabin foundations, ceramic septic pipes,

and a five foot long row of fired common bricks, as well as scraps of metal, ceramic

dinnerware fragments, and other non-flammable remains from the tourist camp. The area

of the camp is partially open, with about 50% ponderosa pine cover, and forbs, grasses

and shrubs covering most of the ground surface. Soil is tan sand to silty sand with

granitic inclusions. On site slope is zero to three degrees.

Isolated Find 5LR3702 – Two bifacial thinning flakes of a brown/peach colored chert

comprise this find. The flakes were located on a terrace 10-15 meters above Glacier

Creek, about 30 meters north of a picnic area just off of the Bear Lake Road. The area is

relatively open, with sagebrush and a few scattered ponderosa pine trees; soil is sand and

decomposed granite. Several “social” trails cross the area in which these flakes were

located. On site slope is zero to five degrees.

Site 5LR3703 – This site is wholly described and located based on written and verbal

information, primarily garnered from a report of the Toll expedition through what is now

Rocky Mountain National Park in 1914 (Toll 1962). The reported Arapaho camp dated

to 1860, and was described as a “big hunting camp” with “buffalo and elk bones, and

partly buried charcoal ashes which marked the fires which had been built in the center of

the tents” (Toll 1962:15).

According to Butler (1997:11), the described location of this Arapaho camp coincides

with the northern half of Camp Woods (5LR3699, described above). No cultural material

associated with this camp was observed during the 1997 survey.

Isolated Find 5LR3704 – This historic trash dump is located approximately 10 meters

north of the picnic area noted in the description of IF 5LR3702. The dump consists of

cans and bottles and glass fragments in a 3 by 2 meter area, up against a granite boulder.

Dated material suggest a post-1930 date for this dump. Like IF 5LR3702, this find is

located in an open area with only scattered ponderosa pine trees, and ground cover of

sagebrush and grasses. Soil consists of tan sandy loam; on site slope is zero to five

degrees.

Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit. . The Deer Ridge # 5 prescribed burn unit is

located immediately south of the Deer Ridge Junction on the Trail Ridge Road,

approximately 3.25 air miles northwest of the Beaver Meadows Visitor Center and Park

Headquarters building (Figure 3.3). This 70 acre triangular shaped burn unit is bordered

on the east by the Beaver Meadows – Deer Ridge Trail, on the west by an intermittent

Figure 3.3. Map of the Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Located During Pre-Burn Pedestrian Survey

stream that feeds Beaver Brook, and on the north/northwest by the Trail Ridge Road.

The legal location of the burn unit is the SW ¼ of the NE ¼ , and the SE ¼ of Section 19,

the SW ¼ of the SW ¼ of Section 20, and the NW ¼ of the NW ¼ of the NW ¼ of the

NW ¼ of Section 29, Township 5 North, Township 73 West on the Estes Park, CO 7.5’

USGS Quadrangle, 1961 (photorevised 1977).

This burn unit is comprised of the Front Range Ponderosa Pine vegetation type

(Duhnkrack and Buhler 1998), with approximately 15% grass, approximately 30%

shrubs, approximately 53% ponderosa pine and ponderosa pine with grass and shrubs,

approximately 0.5% heavy dead and down timber, and approximately 1.5% rock and dirt

(Stephen 1998). Elevation in the burn unit ranges from 2609 meters (8560 feet) to 2743

meters (9000 feet), with slopes of 15 – 25%. A south aspect dominates the unit (Stephen

1998).

Fire effects index plots are randomly placed within fire effects vegetation monitoring

types; no index plots were installed in the Deer Ridge # 5 prescribed burn unit. This burn

unit should conform to the average litter and duff depth reduction predicted for the Front

Range Ponderosa Pine monitoring type, which is 30%.

A pedestrian survey of the Deer Ridge # 5 prescribed burn unit was completed on

March 11, 1999 by Park archaeologist William B. Butler and archaeologist Lisa S.

Hanson (Hanson and Butler 1999). Previous survey in the burn area consists of a 200

meter wide corridor along the Trail Ridge Road, which was resurveyed for the prescribed

burn project. No cultural resources were noted in the prescribed burn area during

previous surveys (Hanson and Butler 1999:3). The survey completed for the prescribed

burn recorded one site and ten isolated finds (Figure 3.3). The site and isolated finds

(Appendix C) are described as follows (paraphrased from Hanson and Butler 1999):

Site 5LR4459 – This site consists of several fence posts, an associated, unattached

gate, barbed wire, wire nails, and an excavated pit (ca. 40 feet long by 15 feet wide).

Thirteen intentionally assembled piles of pole sized logs are located in the immediate and

surrounding area. This site may represent the remains of Budge Rumley’s Deer Ridge

Chalet Livery (Pedersen 1993:167). Most operations associated with the Deer Ridge

Chalet (5LR2177; located on the north side of Trail Ridge Road) were removed with the

Chalet in 1960; the material observed could not confirm that this site was part of the

commercial livery operation.

This site is located in ponderosa pine savanna, with immature ponderosa pine,

meadow grasses, mountain mahogany, and a few immature fir trees on site. The slope on

site is 3-5%, and soil is tan sand and decomposed granite.

Isolated Find 5LR4449 – This rock pile likely represents a cairn or possibly a hearth.

The feature consists of eight granite cobbles in a rough circle measuring 1 meter north-

south, and 90 centimeters east-west. Lichen is well established at and above present

ground surface, indicating that the rocks have been in their current position for some

time. No charcoal was observed.

This feature is located in a clump of ponderosa pine trees on a relatively open slope.

Soil consists of light brown sandy silt, with a heavy duff layer. On site slope is 0%.

Isolated Find 5LR4450 – This find is a 150 meter long segment of two-track road.

This road segment runs from the edge of a meadow up to a small ridge top; tracks have

been eroded by water and wind. Tree limbs and branches have been placed in the

tracks/gullies in an apparent attempt to control the erosion. The destination and purpose

of this road segment are unknown.

Vegetation on site consists of ponderosa pine forest with sparse grass cover. On site

slope is 70%, and soil is tan sand and decomposed granite.

Isolated Find 5LR4451 – This rectangular shaped wildlife exclosure was installed by

the National Park Service in order to study vegetation without the effects of grazing and

foraging animals. The fence is about 12 feet high, and the area encompassed by the

exclosure is 140 feet by 100 feet. The fence is constructed of 6” square smooth wire,

braced at the corners, and supported at intervals with metal fence posts.

Vegetation within the exclosure consists of one mature ponderosa pine tree with thick

grasses and shrubs. Soil is a tan sandy silt with a heavy duff layer. On site slope is 30%.

Isolated Find 5LR4452 – One white porcelain telephone wire insulator was observed

nailed to the east side of a small, dead ponderosa pine tree, about two feet above the

current ground surface. This may have been a component of a line running north/south,

associated with the Deer Ridge Chalet (5LR2177), and/or the Hupp homestead in Upper

Beaver Meadows. The insulator has a profile of three steps indenting to the middle from

either end, and may date from the 1930’s or ‘40s.

Vegetation on site consists of ponderosa pine forest, with few grasses and shrubs. Soil

is light brown sandy silt with a heavy duff layer; slope is 10% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR4453 – Two fence posts and an associated coil of smooth wire

comprise this find. The posts are located about 100 feet apart in a NW/SE direction , and

appear to be ponderosa pine trees that have been cut. Posts are 50 and 60 inches high,

with axe marks on the top, but are otherwise unmodified. A coil of approximately 10 feet

of galvanized smooth wire is located on the ground. Wire nails were observed embedded

in the fence posts. These materials may be associated with the Hupp Homestead in

Upper Beaver Meadows, or possibly the Deer Ridge Chalet Livery (also see site

5LR4459).

Vegetation consists of aspen trees and wet meadow grass and sedge species. The soil

is very dark brown silty meadow sediments, and the slope on site is 2%.

Isolated Find 5LR4454 – This trash scatter includes one clear condiment bottle with a

missing neck, one modern sanitary seal ham-shaped can, and barbed wire wrapped

around an adjacent tree. Objects are located in a shallow excavated pit approximately 1.5

meters by 1 meter. Heavy duff may obscure additional artifacts. This scatter may be

associated with site 5LR4459 (see description above), or possibly with the historic Lynch

cabin remains, located to the west.

Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine forest, with sparse grasses and shrubs, and a

heavy duff layer. Soil on site is tan sandy silt, and on site slope is 3%.

Isolated Find 5LR4455 – This find consists of three water bars that appear to have

been created with a small bulldozer or bobcat. The water bars are between one and two

meters long, between one and 1.5 meters deep, and run perpendicular to the slope. They

are presumed to have been used either to channel water in a certain direction or to

temporarily hold water. These water bars may be associated with site 5LR4459.

Vegetation on site consists of grasses and forbs, surrounded by ponderosa pine

savanna. Soil is tan sand and decomposed granite, and on site slope is 3%.

Isolated Find 5LR4456 – Two pieces of heavily weathered milled, curved wood

comprise this find. Each piece is 83 inches long, three inches wide, and ½ inch thick;

both pieces are notched on one end. Pedersen (1993:167) identifies this as the general

area of Budge Rumley’s Deer Ridge Chalet Livery, and these timbers may be associated

with the commercial livery.

Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine savanna with grasses and shrubs, and a heavy

duff layer. Soil is tan sand with decomposed granite, and the on site slope is 3%.

Isolated Find 5LR4457 – This find consists of three square concrete pads and smooth

wire wrapped around an adjacent ponderosa pine tree. The concrete pads are about 15

inches square, and are aligned perpendicular to Trail Ridge Road. The pads each have a

square hole in the middle, and are spread over a distance of 95 inches; they may have

been the footings for a sign or kiosk based on their proximity and orientation to Trail

Ridge Road. The smooth wire wrapped around a ponderosa pine tree is located about 20

meters southeast of the concrete pads.

Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine savanna with a grass and shrub understory.

Soil is tan sand and decomposed granite, and on site slope is 2%.

Isolated Find 5LR4458 – A three inch diameter survey monument was located just

south of Trail Ridge Road and is probably associated with the construction of the road.

No information has been stamped on the marker, which is the case with other similar

markers found elsewhere along the roads in the Park The marker contains the pre-

stamped information: “U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUR

R.P. N0.

+

ELEVATION

HIGHWAY ROUTE SEC.”

Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine savanna with grasses. Soil is tan sand and

decomposed granite, and slope on site is 2%.

Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit. . The Moraine Park # 2 prescribed burn

unit is located immediately south of Upper Beaver Meadows, and immediately northeast

of Moraine Park, adjacent to the Moraine Park Museum (Figure 3.4). This burn unit has

been divided into eight subunits, six of which will be considered for this report. Subunits

A, B, C, E, G, and H total 160 acres. Roads and trails border the western and southern

edge of the burn unit, while Upper Beaver Meadows form the north boundary. The east

boundary is made up of the Bear Lake Road and a trail. The legal location of the burn

unit is the SW ¼ of Section 28, the SE ¼ of Section 29, the NE ¼ of Section 32, and the

NW ¼ of Section 33, Township 5 North, Township 73 West on the Estes Park, CO 7.5’

USGS Quadrangle, 1961 (photorevised 1977).

This burn unit is comprised of the Front Range Ponderosa Pine vegetation type

(Duhnkrack and Buhler 1998), with approximately 60% ponderosa pine, approximately

25% mixed conifer, approximately 10% ponderosa pine with grass and shrubs, and

approximately 5% dense mixed conifer with a heavy dead and down vegetation

component (Stephen 1998). Elevation in the burn unit ranges from 2742 meters (8110

feet) to 2553 meters (8375 feet), with slopes of 0 – 25%. South and northeast aspects

dominate the unit (Stephen 1998).

Four fire effects monitoring plots were installed in the Moraine Park # 2 prescribed

burn unit prior to burning. Plot FPIPO1T0903 had a range of litter/duff depth

measurements from 0 inches to 2.5 inches, with an average depth of 0.85 inches (Table

3.2). Plot FPIPO1T0904 had a range of litter/duff depth measurements from 0 inches to

3 inches, with an average depth of 1.36 inches (Table 3.3). Plot FPIPO1T0905 had a

Figure 3.4. Map of the Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations ofCultural Resources Recorded During Pre-Burn Survey

Table 3.2. Moraine Park # 2, Plot FPIPO1T0903 Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and DuffMeasurements (inches)

Transect

Point

1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Transect

average

Transect 1

75 degrees

4% slope

Pre-

burn

0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.0 0.5 0.4 0.0 1.3 0.44

Post-

burn

0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.5 0.4 0.0 1.3 0.43

Transect 2

49 degrees

2% slope

Pre-

burn

1.8 2.5 0.0 1.8 0.5 1.5 0.8 2.5 0.0 0.0 1.04

Post-

burn

0.7 0.5 0.0 0.3 0.5 1.5 0.8 2.5 0.0 0.2 0.7

Transect 3

84 degrees

2% slope

Pre-

burn

1.3 1.5 0.3 0.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 0.9 0.6 1.5 1.05

Post-

burn

0.7 0.5 0.3 0.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 0.9 1.0 0.4 0.81

Transect 4

170 degrees

5% slope

Pre-

burn

1.0 0.8 0.2 1.1 0.6 0.9 2.0 0.0 1.6 0.6 0.88

Post-

burn

0.3 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.0 1.6 0.6 0.500

Plot

Average

Pre-

burn

0.85

Post-

burn

0.62

Table 3.3. Moraine park # 2, Plot FPIPO1T0904 Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and DuffMeasurements

Transect

Point

1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Transect

average

Transect 1

106 degrees

6% slope

Pre-

burn

1.5 0.0 0.6 0.8 0.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.3 0.8 1.05

Post-

burn

1.5 0.0 0.6 1.3 0.0 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.3 0.8 0.7

Transect 2

126 degrees

2% slope

Pre-

burn

3.0 0.6 1.3 0.8 1.3 2.0 1.1 0.6 0.4 0.8 1.16

Post-

burn

0.0 0.4 1.3 0.8 1.3 2.0 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.88

Transect 3

268 degrees

5% slope

Pre-

burn

1.5 1.0 1.1 0.8 1.3 0.9 1.8 2.8 2.0 2.1 1.53

Post-

burn

0.6 1.0 0.3 0.8 1.3 1.0 1.8 2.8 2.0 2.2 1.38

Transect 4

84 degrees

4% slope

Pre-

burn

1.5 0.0 1.6 2.3 1.6 3.5 1.6 1.3 1.8 1.6 1.68

Post-

burn

1.5 0.0 1.6 2.3 1.6 3.5 1.7 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.77

Plot

Average

Pre-

burn

1.36

Post-

burn

1.18

range of litter/duff depth measurements from 0 inches to 4 inches, with an average depth

of 1.46 inches (Table 3.4). Plot FPIPO1T0908 had a range of litter/duff depth

measurements from 0.5 inches to 3 inches, with an average depth of 1.49 inches (table

3.5).

A pedestrian survey of the Moraine Park # 2 prescribed burn unit was completed in

May and June of 1998 by Park archaeologist William B. Butler (Butler 1998). Previous

survey in the burn area covered about ¼ of the prescribed burn project area, and resulted

in no sites or isolated finds being recorded. The entire burn project area was resurveyed.

The survey completed for the portion of the prescribed burn project considered here (six

of the eight sub-units) recorded two sites and six isolated finds (Figure 3.4). The sites

and isolated finds (Appendix C) are described as follows (paraphrased from Butler 1998):

Site 5LR3822 – This site consists of three wooden “lodges, probably constructed by

children using the private Kaley inholding cabin (Figure 3.5). These forts are located on

the top of an east-west trending ridge. Lodges one and two are about eight to ten feet in

diameter, and constructed of pine logs set in a pyramid arrangement over a one to two

foot high circular granite rock foundation wall. The doors to these forts are on the west

sides. Lodge one also includes a three meter long path, lined with granite cobbles.

Lodge three has a four foot high rock as the west wall; the east wall consists of vertical

pine logs about six feet in length, set against a circular row of large rocks. The interior is

oval, and about seven by eight feet. Pine logs are laid in a hipped roof fashion along an

east-west ridge pole. The large door faces south.

Table 3.4. Moraine Park # 2, Plot PIPO1T0905 Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and DuffMeasurements (inches)

Transect

Point

1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Transect

average

Transect 1

306 degrees

3% slope

Pre-

burn

1.6 1.9 1.0 1.8 2.0 2.1 3.0 4.0 2.5 0.0 2.26

Post-

burn

1.6 2.0 1.0 1.8 2.0 2.1 0.6 0.3 2.5 0.0 1.39

Transect 2

54 degrees

4% slope

Pre-

burn

0.8 0.6 1.5 1.3 1.8 2.3 3.0 0.0 2.1 2.3 1.57

Post-

burn

0.8 0.6 1.5 1.3 1.8 2.3 3.0 0.0 2.2 0.5 1.69

Transect 3

227 degrees

2% slope

Pre-

burn

1.6 1.8 2.1 1.3 2.1 0.8 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.5 1.40

Post-

burn

1.6 1.8 2.1 1.3 2.1 0.8 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.5 1.27

Transect 4

118 degrees

2% slope

Pre-

burn

0.3 1.0 1.1 0.6 0.0 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.61

Post-

burn

0.3 1.0 1.2 0.7 0.0 1.2 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.66

Plot

Average

Pre-

burn

1.46

Post-

burn

1.26

Table 3.5. Moraine Park # 2, Plot FPIPO1T0908 Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and DuffMeasurements (inches)

Transect

Point

1

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Transect

average

Transect 1

155 degrees

4% slope

Pre-

burn

1.5 1.3 1.8 2.8 1.3 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.0 1.18

Post-

burn

1.5 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.1 0.6 0.8 1.3 0.0 0.83

Transect 2

73 degrees

1% slope

Pre-

burn

2.5 2.0 2.5 3.5 0.8 1.8 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.8 1.73

Post-

burn

1.8 0.3 1.6 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 0.3 0.94

Transect 3

31 degrees

2% slope

Pre-

burn

1.8 1.0 2.8 0.8 0.6 3.0 1.6 1.1 1.1 0.8 1.46

Post-

burn

0.0 1.8 1.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 1.3 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.21

Transect 4

277 degrees

4% slope

Pre-

burn

1.3 1.8 2.1 3.0 1.8 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.5 0.8 1.58

Post-

burn

1.3 1.8 1.5 1.1 1.3 0.8 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.19

Plot

Average

Pre-

burn

1.49

Post-

burn

1.05

Figure 3.5. 5LR3822 – Kid’s “Lodges”, Pre-Burn Condition

These “lodges” are located in a ponderosa pine forest, with an understory of shrubs

and grasses. Soil consists of a tan sandy loam with decomposed granite, and on site slope

is three to five degrees.

Site 5LR3830 – This cairn is located on a south facing slope near the end of the

moraine, on the edge of a low terrace underlain by granite cobbles. Approximately 15

tabular granite cobbles ranging in size from 20 to 40 centimeters comprise this cairn. The

cairn is about 1.5 by 1 meter, oval in shape, and about 30 centimeters tall. Established

lichen was observed on the exposed surfaces of the rocks, while not was observed on the

undersides of the rocks; no charcoal was observed.

This site is located in a local opening in a ponderosa pine forest, with grasses and

shrubs. Soil consists of a brown sandy loam with some decomposed granite, and on site

slope is 25 to 30 degrees.

Isolated find 5LR3819 – This hearth is located on the first terrace above Beaver

Brook, and is comprised of about 12 – 15 large (20 – 35 cm) granite cobbles. The hearth

is oval and about 80 by 70 cm in size; charcoal can be found in and around the hearth.

Lichen is present on only a few rocks, and there is little soil buildup.

This find isolated in a lodgepole pine forest, with an understory of grasses and shrubs.

Soil consists of a tan to dark brown sandy loam, and on site slope is less than three

degrees.

Isolated Find 5LR3821 – This hearth is located in a small swale, next to a remnant

aspen grove. The hearth consists of eight large granite cobbles, 20-35 centimeters in size.

Circular in shape, the hearth measures 80 by 90 centimeters. Little lichen is present on

the hearth rocks, and there is not much soil development around the rocks. Numerous

chunks of charcoal were noted under one rock.

This hearth is located in a mixed pine (ponderosa and lodgepole) and aspen forest with

an understory of shrubs and grasses. Soil consists of a dark brown loam with some

decomposed granite, and on site slope is less than three degrees.

Isolated Find 5LR3823 – This find consists of a large (4 by 4 by 2 meters high) granite

boulder with about 30 pine logs leaning up against the east side. The logs are about 5

centimeters in diameter. Approximately 39 cobbles (10 – 25 cm) are arranged in a 2

meter diameter circle on the flat top of the large boulder. Two sticks are also located on

top of the large boulder.

This find is located in a lodgepole pine forest with an understory of grass and shrubs.

Soil consists of tan sandy loam with decomposed granite, and on site slope is less than

three degrees.

Isolated Find 5LR3825 – This large and modern hearth is located about 150 meters

from (and is likely associated with) the kaley Inholding Cabin. The hearth is about 6 feet

diameter, and is lined with granite cobbles ranging in size from about 30 to 50

centimeters. The center of the hearth (recently cleaned out) has been excavated to a

depth of about 6 to 10 inches. A pile of pine logs and limbs were noted about 20 feet

north of the hearth.

This hearth is located just below the top of an east-west trending ridge, in an open

ponderosa pine forest, with grasses and shrubs. Soil consists of dark brown loam with

some decomposed granite, and on site slope is less than three degrees.

Isolated Find 5LR3826 – This find consists of the remains of a fence made of

lodgepole pine and aspen logs. A 10 – 15 meter wide flat area is located behind the

fence. This zig-zag fence is two courses high, and runs about 170 feet in a

northwest/southeast direction. This is probably not a corral, as stock could easily ascend

the slope bordering the flat area opposite the fence. This fence is probably associated

with one of the ca. 1900s ranches in the area (Hondius, or Sprague/Stead’s).

This fence remnant is located in a lodgepole pine forest, with a grass and shrub

understory. Soil consists of tan sandy loam with decomposed granite, and on site slope is

less than three degrees.

Isolated Find 5LR3827 – This find is a 15 inch diameter (breast height) ponderosa pin

tree with a blaze with a brand (?) close to (100 meters) the Kaley Inholding Cabin. The

two foot high by 6-8 inch wide blaze faces south, and contains the horizontally inscribed

letters “X”, “B”, and a slash. Bark has grown over the west edge of the letters. A second

modified tree (12 inch ponderosa pine) is located 4 meters northwest of the first tree, and

contains four horizontal scars about 8 inches apart which may have been made by barbed

wire from a fence. The scars are completely overgrown with bark.

These trees are located in a ponderosa pine forest, with grasses and shrubs. Soil

consists of tan sandy loam with some decomposed granite, and on site slope is about 20

degrees.

Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey Results and Vegetation Conditions

Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit. Fire effects monitoring plot

FPIPO1T0902 was read 13 days after this unit was burned. Duff and litter measurements

from this plot range from 0 inches to 3.8 inches, with an average of 0.82 inches (Table

3.1). This amounts to an average litter/duff depth reduction of 0.27 inches, or a 25%

reduction. A visual and subjective characterization of the burn unit determined the burn

to have been patchy, with the fire having burned more intensively in the denser

ponderosa pine areas, and less intensively in the savanna areas. Areas of grass cover

appear to have burned quickly and relatively completely.

Post-fire archaeological survey resulted in the identification and recording of four new

isolated finds, and one new site (Appendix D) (Figure 3.6). Additionally, 5LR3702 was

changed from an isolated find to a site. Resources recorded during the pre-burn

pedestrian survey were visited to complete a visual fire effect inspection.

Site 5LR602/Site 5LR3699 – These sites, a possible tipi ring, and the remains of

Camp Woods, were recorded during pre-burn pedestrian survey. All components of this

site appear to have been unaffected by the prescribed burn. No flammable material was

noted during the pre-burn survey. The substrate (litter and duff) on this site appears to

have been only lightly burned (Table 2.2).

Site 5LR611 – No evidence of this site (hearth with flaked lithic scatter) was noted

during the pre-burn survey. Similarly, no evidence was observed during the post-burn

survey. The area thought to have been the location of this site was not burned, due to its

close proximity to extant structures.

Site 5LR 2193 – This site, recorded during pre-burn survey, consists of four culturally

peeled trees, situated close to a wooden cabin used for Park housing. Post-burn visual

Figure 3.6. Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of CulturalResources Recorded During Pre- and Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey

inspection revealed no affect to the data potential of these trees. Fire personnel were

briefed regarding the significance of this site, and asked to protect these trees. The

presence of sparse ground cover also helped to keep fire in the immediate vicinity of this

site low intensity. The substrate on site was only lightly burned (Table 2.2).

Site 5LR3702 – Originally recorded as an isolated find of two biface thinning flakes

during pre-burn survey, this resource has been reclassified as a site, based on post-burn

observations. Three additional flakes and a biface midsection were recorded during the

post-burn survey. This area contained sparse grass and shrub vegetation pre-burn, and

appears to have burned at low to moderate intensity. All of the material observed post-

burn was located in or immediately adjacent to social trails. Increased potential post-burn

erosion might be responsible for a future increase in artifact movement. The on-site

substrate was lightly to moderately burned (Table 2.2).

IF 5LR3703 – This resource was recorded pre-burn from historic records, as an

Arapaho camp. No evidence of this resource was observed during the pre-burn survey.

Historic records indicated the presence of bone and features that could have been

potentially obscured by forest litter and duff, however, post-burn survey revealed no

evidence of this site. The site may indeed be buried, or alternately, may have been

completely collected by early tourists to Camp Woods.

IF 5LR3704 – This find was recorded during pre-burn survey as a historic refuse

scatter. Pre-burn vegetation consisted of grasses and shrubs; the area substrate appears to

be lightly to moderately burned (Table 2.2). No additional artifacts were observed during

the post-burn survey, and artifacts recorded during the pre-burn survey appear unaffected

by fire.

Site 5LR9653 – This site was recorded during the post-burn survey, and consists of

one sandstone metate fragment, and two pieces of fire cracked river cobbles. These

artifacts were located in and adjacent to an old two-track roadbed. The prescribed fire

appears to have burned the substrate lightly to moderately in this area (Table 2.2). It is

questionable weather the observation of this site during the post-burn survey is

attributable to an increase in ground surface due to the fire. Soil is tan sand, and slope on

site is 0-1%.

IF 5LR9654 – This isolate was recorded during post-burn survey, and consists of a

single sandstone metate fragment. The metate fragment was observed on top of a

bedrock outcrop, next to a modern social trail, and appears to be part of an artificial

modern collection. Vegetation in the vicinity includes burned grasses under a ponderosa

pine savanna. The prescribed burn appears to have burned the substrate moderately in

this area (Table 2.2). Soil is a tan brown silty sand, and slope is 0-3% on site.

IF 5LR9655 – Recorded during post-burn survey, this trash scatter includes clear

bottle glass, one rusted can fragment, one can fragment with a sanitary seal, three metal

crown bottle caps, and one metal can lid. Vegetation consists of a ponderosa pine

savanna; the area substrate appears to be moderately burned (Table 2.2). Artifacts do not

appear to have been affected by the prescribed burn. Soil consists of tan sandy loam, and

on site slope is 0-3%.

IF 5LR9656 – Post-burn survey identified this metal can with a church key opening.

The can is very rusted. Vegetation consists of ponderosa pine savanna; the area substrate

is moderately burned in the site area (Table 2.2). The can appears to be unaffected by the

prescribed burn. Soil consists of tan sandy silt, and slope is 0-1% on site.

IF 5LR9657 – A single fragment of amethyst glass was recorded during post-burn

survey; this glass fragment is small (2 cm x 3 cm), and the surfaces are quite abraded.

This IF was located in a ponderosa pine savanna; The substrate appears to remain

unburned (Table 2.2). Soil is a tan sandy silt, and slope is 0-3% on site.

Pre-burn survey and previously recorded resources account for five sites and two

isolated finds, or a total of seven cultural resources. Post-burn survey accounts for one

new site, four new isolated finds, and conversion of one previously recorded isolated find

to a site. A total of five new resources were located during post-burn survey. This

amounts to a 42% increase in resources observed during the post-burn survey. Excluding

site 5LR9653, and isolated find 5LR9657 since they were likely not revealed by the

prescribed burn, a corrected figure of a 25% increase in resources observed during the

post-burn survey is a more accurate figure.

Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit. A visual and subjective characterization of

the burn unit determined the burn to have been relatively uniform, with good

consumption of grasses and shrubs.

Post-fire archaeological survey resulted in the identification and recording of two

additional isolated finds, and the revision of one previously recorded isolated find

(Appendix D) (Figure 3.7). Resources recorded during the pre-burn survey were visited

to complete a visual fire effect inspection.

Site 5LR4459 – This site was recorded during the pre-burn survey, and consists of

fence posts, a wood gate, barbed wire, wire nails, a pit, and intentionally assembled piles

of pole sized logs. Fire personnel were asked to protect this site during the prescribed

Figure 3.7. Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre- and Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey

burn project because of its flammable components. Consequently, the area was not

burned.

Isolated Find 5LR4449 – This rock cairn was recorded during the pre-burn survey, in

a clump of ponderosa pine, with heavy duff. Post-burn survey revealed that the rocks in

this cairn were unaffected by the prescribed burn, and that the litter/duff layer was

burned, although not completely consumed. The substrate in this area was moderately

burned (Table 2.2)

Isolated Find 5LR4450 – This segment of two-track road was recorded during the pre-

burn survey, on a slope, in a ponderosa pine forest. Post-burn inspection revealed that the

grass and shrub understory had burned, but that the road segment was unaffected by the

prescribed burn. Tree limbs and branches that were placed in the old road bed to stop

erosion were also unaffected by the burn.

Isolated Find 5LR4451 – This wildlife exclosure was recorded during the pre-burn

survey, and consists of a rectangular shaped area surrounded with a high fence, meant to

keep grazing animals off of the vegetation. This exclosure is part of a long-term study on

the effects of grazing animals on vegetation in the Park. Park managers requested that

the exclosure be protected during prescribed burn activities. Consequently, the area was

not burned.

Isolated Find 5LR4452 – One white porcelain telephone insulator was nailed to a

small dead ponderosa pine tree, and was recorded during the pre-burn survey. Vegetation

on site was recorded as ponderosa pine forest, and post-burn inspection revealed that the

litter/duff layer was burned, although not completely consumed. The tree containing the

insulator appeared undamaged by the prescribed burn. The Substrate in this area was

lightly to moderately burned (Table 2.2).

Isolated Find 5LR4453 – Two fence posts and an associated coil of smooth wire were

recorded during the pre-burn survey. The posts and wire were recorded in an area of wet

meadow grasses and sedges, with aspen trees near by. This area of the burn unit did not

burn, likely due to wet meadow vegetation with high moisture content. Therefore, this

isolated find was not subjected to fire during the prescribed burn.

Isolated Find 5LR4454 – This trash scatter was recorded during the pre-burn survey.

Artifacts noted include one clear condiment bottle, one modern sanitary seal ham-shaped

can, and barbed wire. The scatter was located in a ponderosa pine forest, with a heavy

duff layer. Post-burn inspection of this isolated find revealed additional artifacts in this

scatter, including a dinnerware plate fragment, a clear glass casserole lid, one pepsi-cola

bottle, one key top meat tin, clear glass fragments, one tobacco style round tin, and

approximately 60 – 100 additional cans. The substrate appears to be moderately to

heavily burned (Table 2.2).

Isolated Find 5LR4455 – These three water bars were recorded during the pre-burn

survey. Vegetation was recorded as grasses and forbs with surrounding ponderosa pine

savanna. Post-burn inspection revealed that the substrate was only lightly burned (Table

2.2).

Isolated Find 5LR4456 – These two pieces of milled, curved wood were recorded

during pre-burn survey. Vegetation was recorded as ponderosa pine savanna with grasses

and shrubs, and a heavy duff layer. Post-burn inspection revealed that this area burned in

a very patchy pattern, and these pieces of wood were unaffected by the burn. In general,

the substrate appears to have been scorched to lightly burned (Table 2.2).

Isolated Find 5LR4457 – These three square concrete pads and smooth wire were

recorded during pre-burn survey. Vegetation was recorded as ponderosa pine savanna

with a shrub and grass understory. This area exhibited patterns of patchy burning, with

the grass and shrubs near the pads consumed. The substrate appears to be lightly burned

(Table 2.2), and the isolated find remains unaffected by the burn.

Isolated Find 5LR4458 – This survey monument was recorded during pre-burn

survey, and was located in ponderosa pine savanna with a grass understory. Post-burn

inspection revealed that the substrate was lightly burned (Table 2.2). The survey

monument was unaffected by the prescribed burn.

Isolated Find 5LR9651 – Two pieces of white stoneware fragments were observed and

recorded during the post-burn survey. Vegetation on site consists of ponderosa pine

savanna, and the slope is 0-3% on site. The area does not appear to have burned during

the prescribed fire.

Isolated Find 5LR9652 – This historic trash scatter was recorded during post-burn

survey. Artifacts observed include about 25 cans, about 20 small fragments of

stoneware, amethyst and clear glass fragments. Vegetation on site consists of ponderosa

pine savanna, with a burned duff layer; slope is 25% on site. The substrate in this area

appears to be moderately burned.

Pre-burn survey accounted for one site and ten isolated finds, or a total of eleven

cultural resources. Post-burn survey accounts for two new isolated finds, and additional

artifacts on one of the previously recorded isolated finds. The two new resources located

during post-burn survey amounts to a 15% increase in resources observed during the

post-burn survey. Excluding isolated find 5LR9651, which was not burned and therefore

not revealed by the prescribed burn, a corrected figure of a 8% increase in resources

observed during the post-burn survey is a more accurate figure.

Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit. Four fire effects monitoring plots were

installed and read before the prescribed burn was executed; plot FPIPOT0908 was re-read

four days after it burned, and plots FPIPOT0905, FPIPOT0904, and FPIPOT0903 were

re-read 43 days after they burned.

Post-burn litter and duff depth measurements from plot FPIPOT0908 range from 0

inches to 2.0 inches, with an average of 1.05 inches (Table 3.5). This amounts to an

average litter/duff depth reduction of 0.44 inches, or a 30% reduction.






average litter/duff depth reduction of 0.18 inches, or an 8% reduction.




Litter/duff depth reduction for all four plots in the Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn

Unit is 0.36 inches, or an average of 20% reduction in the litter/duff depth measurements,

post-burn.

A visual and subjective characterization of the burn unit determined the burn to have

been patchy, with areas of high intensity fire, and areas of moderate and low intensity

fire. In general, higher intensity fire was observed in areas of ponderosa pine forests, and

lower intensity fire was observed in areas of ponderosa pine savanna.

Post-fire archaeological survey resulted in the identification and recording of twenty-

two new isolated finds (Appendix D) (Figure 3.8). Records for one previously recorded

site (5LR3822) and one previously recorded isolated find (5LR3827) were revised based

on post-fire observations. Resources recorded during the pre-burn survey were visited to

complete a visual inspection of fire effects.

Site 5LR3822 – This group of three wooden “lodges” was recorded during pre-burn

survey, close to the private Kaley inholding cabin. Lodges one and two were burned

during the prescribed fire, while lodge three was not burned (Figure 3.9). All wood

components of lodges one and two were consumed. Additionally, three more room

outlines (granite cobbles) with associated rock lined trails leading to and through them

were noted east of the originally recorded rooms (Figure 3.10). The trail terminates in

the third room, which is the largest, and contains a hearth (15 – 20 cm diameter).

Vegetation on this site was recorded as ponderosa pine forest with an understory of

shrubs and grass. The substrate in the area was heavily burned, and the vegetation was

moderately to heavily burned (Table 2.2).

Site 5LR3830 – This protohistoric or prehistoric cairn was located during pre-burn

survey, in ponderosa pine savanna. The cairn was not relocated during the post-burn

survey.

Figure 3.8. Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit with Locations of CulturalResources Recorded During Pre- and Post-Burn Pedestrian Survey

Figure 3.9. 5LR3822 – Kid’s “Lodge”, Post-Burn Condition

Figure 3.10. 5LR3822 – Structural and Path Remains Identified Post-Burn

Isolated Find 5LR3819 – This historic hearth was located during pre-burn survey, in a

lodgepole pine forest on the north aspect of the prescribed burn unit. This hearth was not

relocated during the post-burn survey.

Isolated Find 5LR3821 – This hearth was identified during pre-burn survey, in a small

swale, next to a remnant aspen grove. Surrounding vegetation was recorded as a mixed

pine and aspen forest, with shrubs and grasses. This hearth does not appear to have been

affected by the prescribed burn, and in fact the immediate area around the hearth does not

appear to have burned. This may be attributed to the high moisture content of the grasses

in the adjacent aspen grove, which would not support a surface fire.

Isolated Find 5LR3823 – This large granite boulder with a pine pole lean-to, and rock

ring was recorded during the pre-burn survey. Vegetation was recorded as lodgepole

pine forest, with shrubs and grasses. Post-burn inspection of this isolated find revealed

that it was in the same condition as was recorded pre-burn. The area surrounding this

feature appears to have burned in a very patchy pattern, possibly due to the higher fuel

moisture content of the lodgepole pine forest. The substrate is scorched to lightly burned

(Table 2.2).

Isolated Find 5LR3825 – The large modern hearth was recorded during pre-burn

survey, near the private Kaley inholding cabin. Vegetation around this feature was

recorded as an open ponderosa pine forest with grasses and shrubs. Post-burn inspection

revealed that this area appears to have burned at moderate intensity; grasses and shrubs

were consumed, and the pile of wood associated with the hearth was charred. No

additional impacts to the hearth itself were noted. The substrate in the area of this site is

moderately to heavily burned (Table 2.2).

Isolated Find 5LR3826 – The remains of this wood fence were recorded during pre-

burn survey in a lodgepole pine forest with grasses and shrubs. This area does not appear

to have burned in the prescribed fire; post-burn inspection found the fence remains in the

same condition as recorded during the pre-burn survey. Additionally, a “U” shaped wood

structure was recorded 40 meters northwest of this fence, which may be associated (see

5LR9659). One explanation for this area not burning is the relatively higher fuel

moisture content in lodgepole pine forests, which might not have carried the prescribed

burn, depending on burn conditions..

Isolated Find 5LR3827 – This blazed tree and scarred tree were recorded during pre-

burn survey in a ponderosa pine forest, close to the private Kaley inholding cabin. Post-

burn inspection revealed that the substrate in this area was moderately burned (Table

2.2), as evidenced by the burned (but not totally consumed) litter/duff layer, and burned

branches. A second blazed tree was observed and recorded during the post-burn survey;

the second tree is located about 11 meters north of the first tree, and the blazed face each

other. The blaze on the second tree is almost identical to that on the first tree; a metal

section line marker is located between the two trees. The blaze on the southern tree is

located about 12 inches above ground surface, and the blaze on the northern tree is

located about 30 inches above ground surface. The blazes were not affected by the

prescribed burn, indicating flame lengths of less than12 inches in this immediate area.

Moraine Park Isolated Find A – These two glass beer bottles are clearly modern, and

therefore were not given a Colorado State Historic Preservation Office number; however,

these bottles are relevant to the current study, as objects that may have been revealed by

the prescribed burn. These two Anheuser-Busch brown bottles with twist tops were

observed during the post-burn survey, in a burned ponderosa pine savanna. The substrate

in this area is lightly to moderately burned (Table 2.2). The bottles are both intact, and

one retains a part of the paper label. Soil on site is tan brown silty sand with an ash layer

on top; on site slope is 3 – 5 %.

Isolated Find 5LR9658 – This fence line with eleven posts, and clear glass bottle base

were recorded during post-burn survey, in a mixed conifer/lodgepole forest. The fence

line is located parallel to and immediately south of the Moraine park to Beaver Meadow

trail. Fence posts are poles with cut ends, nailed to live lodgepole pine trees; poles are

about five feet tall and two to three inches in diameter. The clear glass bottle base is

about 1 gallon in size, and exhibits no marks. This area does not appear to have burned

during the prescribed fire. Soil on site is tan silt, and slope is about 5%.

Isolated Find 5LR9659 – This “U” shaped log structure was recorded during the post-

burn survey in a mixed conifer forest. The structure is located on the edge of a shallow

bench with a north aspect. The structure is constructed of 6 – 10 inch diameter

unmodified logs, which are stacked at the corners. No nails or wire were observed; logs

are one to two courses high. 5LR3826, the remains of a fence constructed in a similar

fashion, is located about 40 meters southeast of this structure, and may be associated.

This area exhibits no evidence of burning during the prescribed fire.

Isolated Find 5LR9660 – This isolated find consists of a large glacial boulder (4 x 4 x

3 meters) with a ladder leaning against the north side, and a small hearth against the west

side. The hearth consists of 6 – 8 granite cobbles, and is about 30 cm diameter. This

feature was recorded during post-burn survey in a ponderosa pine forest. The substrate in

this area is slightly to moderately burned; fire personnel apparently removed fuel from

around the ladder so that it would not burn. Soil is brown silty sand covered by heavy

post-burn needle cast, and slope is 3 – 5 % on site.

Isolated find 5LR9661 – This group of three features was recorded during post-burn

survey in a swale with sparse grasses and common juniper, surrounded by ponderosa pine

forest. Locus A consists of a modern hearth comprised of about 30 small cobbles; some

cobbles are fire cracked, and piled on top of modern garbage including foil and plastic.

Locus B consists of a potentially historic hearth comprised of nine granite cobbles with

average length of 20 cm, in a circular pattern. Moss covers charcoal on the interior of the

hearth. A wood cache consisting of eight pieces of unmodified wood is located on the

east side of the hearth. One sanitary seal milk can was observed at this locus. Locus C

consists of a 4.5 foot diameter stone circle. This circle is comprised of small granite and

quartz cobbles with average length between 5 and 15 cm. Sixty rocks make up the circle,

which is chinked with smaller rocks. Lichen is well established on the exposed portions

of the cobbles. Small bits of charcoal covered by moss are located on the interior of this

rock ring. This area exhibits evidence of patchy burning; the substrate is scorched to

lightly burned (Table 2.2). Fire cracked rock in Locus A is probably associated with use

as a fire hearth, not from the prescribed burn. Soil consists of brown sandy silt, and slope

on site is 0-1%.

Isolated Find 5LR9662 – This can lid was recorded during post-burn survey, in

ponderosa pine savanna with sparse grasses, and common juniper shrubs. The metal lid

is 3.5 inches diameter, and is embossed with the word “MOUNTAIN …” (the rest is

unreadable). The substrate in this area is lightly to moderately burned (Table 2.2); the

can lid was located in burned duff. Soil is brown silty sand, and slope is 0-2% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9663 – Four cans in a circular depression were recorded during

post-burn survey, in a ponderosa pine forest with grasses and common juniper. Two cans

are sanitary seal 64 oz cans, one can is a 12-15 oz sanitary seal can, and one is a

matchstick soldered milk can. The cans are all located in a one meter diameter and

seven centimeter deep depression, which is partially outlined with small (<10 cm length)

granite rocks. Substrate is lightly burned in this area (Table 2.2). Soil consists of brown

silty sand, and on site slope is 0 – 2%.

Isolated Find 5LR9664 – this survey monument and rock pile were recorded during

post-burn survey, in sparse grass surrounded by ponderosa pine forest. The survey

monument bears a date of 1925, and is a section corner marker for T5N, R73 W, Sections

29, 28, 32, and 33. A small pile of less than 10 granite rocks (15 – 30 cm maximum

length) is located adjacent to the survey monument. One upright slab is leaning against

the pipe that supports the monument; the monument sits about seven inches above

present ground surface on a metal pipe. This area doe not exhibit evidence of burning

during the prescribed burn project. Soil is brown silty sand, and on site slope is 0%.

Moraine Park Isolated Find K – This isolated find is modern. Therefore, no trinomial

was assigned. However, this feature is applicable to the current study because of the

potential that it was revealed by the prescribed burn (Figure 3.11). This trash scatter

consists of two peel-top juice cans (5 oz), three 12 oz sanitary seal cans, one tuna can (6

oz), several pieces of a 1.75 liter clear glass bottle, including the base which is embossed

with the words “Liquor Bottle”, a jug style handle, a clear glass fragment with “1.75

litres” embossed on it, and other clear glass bottle fragments. Vegetation on site is

ponderosa pine forest with grasses and common juniper shrubs. Both the substrate and

Figure 3.11. Moraine Park IF K

vegetation appear to be heavily burned (Table 2.2). Soil is brown sandy silt, and on site

slope is 0 – 3%.

Isolated Find 5LR9665 – A rock cairn and two pieces of green bottle glass were

recorded during post-burn survey, in ponderosa pine forest with common juniper, grasses,

moss, buckwheat, and yarrow. The cairn consists of 12 granite cobbles in a circular/pile

pattern; cobbles are 10 to 20 cm in length. Two pieces of green bottle glass are located

adjacent to the cairn. No charcoal was observed. This area exhibits no evidence of

burning during the prescribed burn project. Soil is brown silty sand, and slope on site is 0

– 3%.

Isolated Find 5LR9666 – A single beer can was recorded during the post-burn survey,

in burned grass in a ponderosa pine savanna. This rusted Pabst Blue Ribbon 12 oz beer

can, with a church key opening is stamped on the bottom with “RC 1146”. The substrate

and vegetation in this area are lightly burned (Table 2.2). Soil is light tan sand and

decomposed granite, and slope is 7% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9667 – Three amethyst glass fragments were recorded during post-

burn survey in burned grass in ponderosa pine savanna. The three pieces of glass can be

retrofitted to a single piece. Tow fragments exhibit raised lettering. The substrate and

vegetation in this area are lightly burned (Table 2.2). The glass fragments could have

been fractured prior to the burn, or fracturing could have resulted from the prescribed

burn. Soil is tan sand and decomposed granite, and slope is 3 – 5 % on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9668 – This survey monument was recorded during post-burn

survey in grass surrounded by ponderosa pine savanna. The survey monument contains

only pre-stamped information: “U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS, DEPARTMENT

OF AGRICUTURE, RP No, ELEVATION, HIGHWAY ROUTE SEC.”. This area

exhibits no evidence of burning during the prescribed burn project. Soil is tan sand and

decomposed granite, and slope is 0% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9669 – This small trash scatter was recorded during post-burn

survey, in grass surrounded by ponderosa pine savanna. The historic trash scatter

contains one rectangular hinged tobacco style tin, approximately ten aqua glass bottle

fragments, approximately ten clear plate glass fragments, two fragments of amethyst

glass, approximately ten ceramic fragments with no makers marks, including one cup

edge with a rose pattern, one with a gold and cobalt floral pattern, and one blue and white

ceramic fragment. The substrate and vegetation in this area are lightly to moderately

burned (Table 2.2). Artifacts may have been fractured before or as a result of the

prescribed burn. Soil is grey brown silty sand, and slope is 3 – 5% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9670 – This survey monument and historic trash scatter was

recorded during post-burn survey, in grass surrounded by ponderosa pine savanna. The

survey monument contains only pre-stamped information “U.S. DEPT. OF

AGRICULTURE, PLEASE DO NOT DISTURB, ELEVATON, +, FEET, 19 ,

BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS”. The monument is cemented on a pipe about three

inches above present ground surface. The trash scatter consists of ten pieces of white

ceramic material, a clear glass “STANFORD S” (embossed) ink bottle with a seam

running from neck to base, eight pieces of aqua bottle glass, unidentified metal

fragments, and one vertical pocket style hinged top tobacco tin. This area exhibits no

evidence of burning during the prescribed burn program. Soil is brown silty sand, and

slope is 0 – 3 % on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9671 - This survey monument was located during post-burn

survey, in ponderosa pine savanna. This monument contains the same pre-stamped

information as was recorded for Isolated Find 5LR9670. The monument is cemented to a

metal pipe about three inches above the present ground surface. This area exhibits no

evidence of burning during the prescribed burn. Soil is brown silty sand, and slope is 0%

on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9672 – A Fire hearth was recorded during the post-burn survey in

grass, surrounded by ponderosa pine savanna. This hearth contains about 20 granite

cobbles, which range in length from 10 to 40 cm. Charcoal was observed inside of the

fire hearth. This area exhibits no evidence of burning during the prescribed burn project.

Soil is brown silty sand, and slope is 0% on site.

Moraine Park Isolated Find T – This shattered green beer bottle is clearly modern

(twist top), and was not assigned a state trinomial number; however, it’s presence is

relative to the current study because of the potential for the prescribed fire to reveal

similar but historic objects. This bottle was found in burned grass in a ponderosa pine

savanna; heat from the prescribed burn may have shattered the bottle, and burning the

grass probably made the bottle more visible. Substrate and vegetation are moderately

burned in this area (Table 2.2). Soil is brown silty sand, and slope is 0% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9673 – Three metal fragments were located during post-burn survey

in an area of burned grass and shrubs in a ponderosa pine savanna. Three rusted and

deteriorated sheet metal fragments, one with a tube-style hinge (4.5 x 5.5 inches) were

recorded. Substrate and vegetation are moderately to heavily burned in this area (Table

2.2). Soil is tan sand and decomposed granite, and slope is 3% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9674 – One cobalt glass fragment was recorded during post-burn

survey in burned grass and sagebrush in a ponderosa pine savanna. This glass fragment

one inch long, 5/8 inches wide and 3/32 inches thick, with no makers marks. The

substrate and vegetation are moderately burned in this area (Table 2.2). A lack of

patination suggests no fire effects to the glass fragment. Soil is brown silty sand, and

slope is 3% on site.

Isolated Find 5LR9675 – One USDI survey monument and one iron fragment were

recorded during post-burn survey on bedrock surrounded by a ponderosa pine savanna.

The survey monument contained the following information: “USDI, MM 7, N.P.S.”, and

is set into the bedrock. The iron fragment appears to part of a ring with diameter of

approximately 28 inches; the ring is 1.5 inches wide, and ¼ inch thick. This area is

inorganic and did not burn. There is no soil on site, only bedrock, and slope is 3% on

site.

Isolated Find 5LR9676 – This trash scatter was recorded during post-burn survey in

ponderosa pine savanna. Two brown beer bottles with twist tops, a steel beer can with

hinged side seam, and a green glass bottle fragment with an applied paint label comprise

this scatter. Grass and heavy duff were noted pre-burn. This area exhibits no evidence of

burning during the prescribed burn project. Soil is brown sandy silt, and slope is 2% on

site.

Pre-burn survey accounted for two sites and six isolated finds, or a total of eight

cultural resources. Post-burn survey accounts for 22 new isolated finds, and revisions of

previously recorded site 5LR3822, and previously recorded isolated find 5LR3827. The

22 new resources located during post-burn survey amounts to a 73% increase in resources

observed during the post-burn survey. Excluding isolated finds that exhibited no

evidence of burning during the prescribed burn project (5LR9658, 5LR9659, 5LR9664,

5LR9665, 5LR9668, 5LR9670, 5LR9671, 5LR9672, 5LR9675, and 5LR9676), a

corrected figure of a 40% increase in resources observed during the post-burn survey is a

more accurate figure.

Discussion of Pre- and Post-Burn Archaeological Survey Results and

Vegetation Conditions

The model for reduction of the ground covering litter and duff layer predicts that

prescribed burns in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine monitoring type (FPIPOT09) in

Rocky Mountain National Park will consume 30% of this litter/duff layer. Data on litter

and duff reduction by specific transects and plots reveals the variable nature of material

consumed during prescribed burns in this vegetation monitoring type in Rocky Mountain

National Park. Cultural resource visibility may be expected to improve in a

correspondingly patchy way.

The current study focuses on how cultural resource visibility is affected by prescribed

burning rather than fire effects to cultural resource. General fire effects information is

presented here as a compliment to discussions of the effects of burning on cultural

resource visibility.

Fire effects to a variety of cultural resource materials have been documented (Rude

2000; Deal 2001; Oster 2001). Glass will fracture, vitrify and exhibit a shiny patina at

temperatures above approximately 600 degrees, centigrade; metal cans will blacken and

warp beginning at around 230 degrees centigrade; flaked lithic material will become

brittle, discolor, become patinated, and possibly fracture at temperatures above about 400

degrees, centigrade; sandstone will fracture at approximately 300 degrees, centigrade

(Oster 2001); and while smudging and some oxidation may occur in ceramics above 350

degrees, centigrade, most changes that effect data potential occur above 600 degrees

centigrade (Jones 2001:33).

Forest litter and duff layers act to insulate cultural resources from the effects of fire;

the duff layer loses its insulating capacity when it begins to burn, and becomes a fuel

source. When fire moves through an area, an initial heat pulse is followed by the

majority of energy in the form of radiant heat, which has the greatest potential to affect

surface artifacts and features. In very broad terms, savannah grass fires that move

through the above ground grass layer reach temperatures of 310 degrees, centigrade

(Ryan 2001:10); ground fires with total consumption of the duff layer will usually not

exceed 500 degrees, centigrade (Ryan 2001:10). A generalization can be made that

ground fires with temperatures above 500 degrees will consume nearly all of the duff

layer (Ryan 2001:10); many exceptions to this generalization exist.

Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit. The combined litter/duff layers in the

Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit were measured in fire effects monitoring plot

FPIPO1T0902. The litter/duff layer measured in this plot was reduced by 25% (Table

2.3). Reduction of the litter/duff layer in the Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit

were within…of the predicted 30% reduction.

The corresponding prediction for improved site visibility for the Front Range

Ponderosa Pine Monitoring Type is approximately 33%; this is an approximate figure,

because it is unknown if additional resources are present but obscured before the burn.

Post-burn survey identified and recorded five additional cultural resources. Two of these

resources exhibited no evidence of burning during the prescribed burn; consequently,

their visibility can not be attributed to reduction in ground cover sustained during the

prescribed burn. The visibility of three of the resources identified during post-burn

survey may be attributed to ground cover reduction resulting from the prescribed burn;

this is a 25% increase in cultural resources identified in this burn unit. Although the

sample size is small and statistically not significant, there is a fair correlation between

reduction of the litter/duff layer and increase in cultural resources observed and recorded

in the Glacier Creek # 1 prescribed burn unit.

The only cultural resource that may have been impacted during the prescribed burn, is

the fire cracked river cobbles on site 5LR9653. Because this site was recorded after the

burn, it is unknown when these cobbles were fire cracked. Cobbles require relatively

high heat to crack – upwards of 300 degrees, centigrade (Oster 2001). It is unlikely that

the prescribed burn exceeded 500 degrees centigrade in this area, based on the remaining

duff layer (Ryan 2001).

Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit. No fire effects index plots were installed in

the Deer Ridge # 5 prescribed burn unit. The litter and duff layer in this burn unit are

expected to follow the average for post-burn reduction for the Front Range Ponderosa

Pine Monitoring Type (FPIPO1T09), which is 30% (Table 2.3).

The corresponding prediction for improved cultural resource visibility for the Front

Range Ponderosa Pine Monitoring Type is approximately 30%; this is an approximate

figure, because it is unknown if additional resources are present but obscured before the

burn. Post-burn survey identified and recorded two additional cultural resources. One of

these resources exhibited no evidence of burning during the prescribed burn; therefore,

the visibility of that resource can not be attributed to reduction in ground cover sustained

during the prescribed burn. The visibility of the resource recorded during post-burn

survey may be attributed to ground cover reduction resulting from the prescribed burn;

this is an 8% increase in cultural resources identified in this unit. This is a poor

correlation with the predicted 33% increase cultural resource visibility. Possible

explanations for this poor correlation include a dearth of resources present, an extremely

patchy burn pattern, and a small, statistically invalid sample size.

Two resources were identified for protection from fire during this prescribed burn; site

5LR4459 which contains wood elements was successfully protected, as was Isolated Find

5LR4451, a grazing exclosure. Two cultural resources may have been affected by the

prescribed burn. Isolated Find 5LR4454 is a trash scatter that was recorded during the

pre-burn survey; additional artifacts were revealed by the fire. Among the post-burn

identified artifacts are glass fragments; the fragmentation may represent a fire effect in

the form of fracturing, which occurs at approximately 600 degrees centigrade (Oster

2001). Isolated Find 5LR9652 is a historic trash scatter recorded during post-burn

survey. Fragmented stoneware and glass may represent the effects of fire. Ceramics

(Jones 2001:33) and glass (Oster 2001) begin to fracture at about 600 degrees centigrade

(Jones 2001:33) so the fire would have had to burn above 600 degrees, centigrade to be

responsible for the fractured nature of these artifacts. The fractured artifacts may have

been deposited in a broken state, or may have sustained impacts from other sources to

account for their fragmented nature. Since not all resources were affected, fracture

impacts might be attributable to forces other than fire. Based on subjective observations

during post-burn survey, it is felt that temperatures on this burn were likely less than the

600 degrees, centigrade necessary to fracture ceramic and glass artifacts.

Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit. The combined litter and duff layers in

the Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit were measured in fire effects monitoring plots

FPIPOT0908, FPIPOT0905, FPIPOT0904, and FPIPOT0903. The litter/duff

measurements were reduced by 30%, 14%, 8%, and 27%, respectively; the burn unit

averages a reduction of 20% of the litter/duff layer. The variability in measurements

from the four plots in a single burn unit highlights the patchy nature of prescribed burns

in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine vegetation at Rocky Mountain National Park. The

average 20% reduction of the litter/duff layer in the Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn

Unit is within … of the predicted 30% reduction.

The corresponding prediction for improved cultural resource visibility for the Front

Range Ponderosa Pine Monitoring Type is approximately 30%; this is an approximate

figure, because it is unknown if additional resources are present but obscured before the

burn. Post-burn survey identified and recorded 22 additional cultural resources. Ten of

these resources exhibit no evidence of burning during the prescribed burn; consequently,

their visibility can not be attributed to reduction in ground cover sustained during the

prescribed burn. The visibility of twelve of the resources identified during the post-burn

survey may be attributed ground cover reduction resulting from the prescribed burn; this

is a 40% increase in cultural resources identified in this burn unit. This figure exceeds

the predicted increase in cultural resources visible after the burn; this might be

attributable to the geographic location containing more cultural resources, to all of the

new resources are small isolated finds that could easily be missed during a survey with 15

meter transect spacing, or to a small, statistically invalid sample size.

Two cultural resources were clearly affected by the prescribed burn. Site 5LR3822

consisted of three wood and rock structures. Two of these structures were burned, while

the third was not; the fire burned hot enough to consume all but the largest pieces of the

wood in the two burned structures. Moraine Park Isolated Find K, a modern trash scatter

was also affected by the prescribed burn. Based on the remains of a skeleton of a

common juniper bush, this scatter was located around the base of the bush, and under the

limbs. The location of this isolated find burned at high intensity, as evidenced by nearly

complete consumption of live woody material. Fire blackening of artifacts and shattering

of glass bottles appear to be the primary fire effects; these effects are usually sustained at

temperatures above about 600 degrees, centigrade (Oster 2001).

Five isolated finds may have been affected by the prescribed burn. Two of these

isolated finds include hearths that contain charcoal; the prescribed burn may have

affected the ability to use this charcoal as a dating tool. The remaining three isolated

finds that may have been affected by the burn contain historic/modern glass, ceramic, and

metal objects. All three of these isolated finds contain fragmented glass, which may be

attributable to the prescribed burn. Heat fractures glass above about 600 degrees,

centigrade (Oster 2001); therefore if the prescribed burn is responsible for these effects,

temperatures would have to have reached 600 degrees, centigrade or more. The fractured

artifacts may have been deposited in a broken state, or may have sustained impacts from

sources other than fire to account for their fragmented nature.

There is a fair to poor correlation between the percent of the litter and duff layer

consumed and the percent of cultural resources revealed by prescribed burns in the Front

Range Ponderosa Pine monitoring type (FPIPO1T09) in Rocky Mountain National Park.

The may well be attributable to small sample size. In order to continue testing proposed

model for predicting post-burn increases in cultural resource visibility, pre- and post-burn

archaeological survey work should be completed.

CHAPTER 4

APPLYING THE PREDICTIVE MODELTO OTHER VEGETATION

MONITORING TYPES IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL PARK

The predictive model developed for this study was tested on the Front Range

Ponderosa Pine monitoring type; this model can be used on any vegetation monitoring

type, and in any land management unit that collects the litter/duff data on which the

model is based (currently this is limited to National Park Service units). In this section,

predictions will be made for the increase in site visibility post-prescribed burn for the

Ponderosa Savannah (FPIPS1T02), and the Lower Montane Mixed Conifer

(FPICM1T08) monitoring types (see Appendix A for monitoring type descriptions) in

Rocky Mountain National Park. Guidelines for monitoring the accuracy of the prediction

will also be presented; because of the small sample size used for the prediction, it should

be assumed that corrections to the model will be required with the collection of additional

data.

Rocky Mountain National Park

Ponderosa Savannah Monitoring Type (FPIPS1T02). The Ponderosa Savannah

monitoring type (FPIPS1T02) is “characterized by an overstory dominated by ponderosa

pine (pinus ponderosa) with a total canopy cover of less than 25%” (Duhnkrack and

Buhler 1999); shrubs, herbaceous species, and forbs comprise the understory. The

Ponderosa Savannah occurs between 7,800 and 9,300 feet above sea level, primarily on

south and west aspects.

Fourteen index plots have been installed in the Ponderosa Savannah monitoring type

in Rocky Mountain National Park. Four of these plots have been burned, and the

remaining ten plots are located in areas scheduled to be burned in the next two to three

years, as presented in the Rocky Mountain National Park Five Year Prescribed Burn Plan

(Duhnkrack 1999). The average of the combined pre-burn litter and duff measurements

for these 14 plots is 0.71 inches (Table 4.1), while the average pre-burn litter and duff

measurements for the four plots that have burned is 0.73 inches (Table 4.1).

Immediate post-burn litter and duff measurements of the 4 burned plots average 0.65

inches (Table 4.1), or a 11% reduction in the litter and duff layer. However,

measurements on one plot appear to be anomalous, and may not have been collected

correctly (See Appendix B, Plot ID FPIPS1T0205). The average of the remaining three

plots is 0.39 inches (Table 4.1), or a 47% decrease in litter and duff in the Ponderosa

Savannah monitoring type. A prediction of the increase in cultural resources visibility

can be estimated based on the percent reduction in duff. If the cultural resources are

present, a post-burn pedestrian survey should provide an increase of somewhere between

11% and 47% in cultural resources visibility. Prescribed fire objectives identified for the

Table 4.1. Ponderosa Savannah Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and Duff Measurements (inches)


FPIPS1T0201 1.19 0.21

FPIPS1T0202 0.78 0.61

FPIPS1T0203 0.30 Not burned

FPIPS1T0204 0.50 0.34

FPIPS1T0205 0.46 1.42









FPIPS1T02LM1 1.51 Not burned

Average for PIPS1T02 0.71 (0.73 for plots burned) 0.31 (average of plots burned)

Ponderosa Savannah monitoring type include reducing total fuel load, including litter and

duff, by 40 – 80 % immediately post-fire.

Rocky Mountain National Park Lower Montane Mixed Conifer Monitoring Type

(FPICM1T08). The Lower Montane Mixed Conifer monitoring type (FPICM1T08) is

characterized by canopy cover of at least 50%, dominated by lodgepole pine (pinus

contorta), but also possibly containing ponderosa pine (pinus ponderosa), and Douglas

fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) (Duhnkrack and Buhler 1999). Other vegetation includes an

a variety of shrubs and herbaceous species. The Lower Montane Mixed Conifer

monitoring type occurs between 7,800 and 9,900 feet above sea level, primarily on north

and east aspects.

Thirteen index plots have been installed in the Lower Montane Mixed Conifer

monitoring type in Rocky Mountain National Park. Two of these plots have been burned,

and the remaining plots are located in areas scheduled to be burned in the next two to

three years, as presented in the Rocky Mountain National Park Prescribed Fire Five Year

Burn Plan (Duhnkrack 1999). The average of the combined pre-burn litter and duff

measurements for these 13 plots is 1.81 inches; the average pre-burn litter and duff

measurements for the plots that have burned is 1.93 inches (Table 4.2).

Immediate post-burn litter and duff measurements for the two burned plots average

1.09 inches (Table 4.2), or a 44% decrease in litter and duff in the Ponderosa Savannah

monitoring type. A prediction of the increase in cultural resources visibility can be

estimated based on the percent reduction in duff. If the cultural resources are present, a

post-burn pedestrian survey should provide and increase of approximately 44% in

cultural resource visibility. Prescribed fire objectives identified for the Ponderosa

Table 4.2. Lower Montane Mixed Conifer Pre- and Post-Burn Litter and DuffMeasurements (inches)


FPICM1T0801 1.54 Not burned

FPICM1T0802 1.82 1.14

FPICM1T0803 2.03 1.04








FPIPCMT0823 1.56 Not burned



Average for PICM1T08

1.81 (1.93 for plots burned)

1.09 (average of plots burned)

Savannah monitoring type include reducing total fuel load, including litter and duff, by

40 – 80 % immediately post-fire.

Monitoring

Monitoring the outcome of these predictions should consist of post-burn pedestrian

survey of the burned area utilizing the same standards as the pre-burn survey, recording

and mapping of new resources located, and completion of fire effects assessment forms

for previously recorded resources (The Chapin # 5 BAER team used one form, which

could be used or modified; USDI 2000:349). A visual assessment of the effects to

resources located should also be made; this could in turn be compared to burn severity

data collected on the FMH 22 form for the fire effects monitoring program. Using the

strategy of adaptive management (Gleason 2001), the predictive model proposed in this

study would be refined/modified as additional data becomes available.

Monitoring requirements should also include time frames for post-burn survey to be

accomplished. Several observations have been made regarding the timing of post-burn

surveys; these observations deal with ground surface conditions at various points in time

after the burn. Johnson et al (1991:45) identifies the period of time between the burn and

regrowth of herbaceous vegetation as ideal for site identification, also noting that post-

fire regrowth is often greater than the vegetation load before the fire due to an increase in

nitrogen in the soil (Johnson et al 1991:45). Personal communications with Balen (2000)

confirms the potential difficulty of relocating sites after one growth season. Switzer

(1974:4-5) notes that post-burn conditions include ash covering the ground that often

exceeded 4 inches. Pilles (1984:13-13) observes improved ground surface visibility after

several wild fires on the Coconino National Forest in Arizona, but also notes that in one

instance, ash obscured 20% of the sites that were ultimately recorded post-fire; Pilles

(1984:13) posits that this problem could be avoided by postponing the post-burn survey

until after a rain storm has passed over the burned area. Jackson (1998:22) suggests that

post-burn survey be completed before erosion begins, but after a rain or wind event that

would expose mineral soil; Jackson (1998:22) also considers the importance of surveying

before revegetation occurs.

Finally, monitoring requirements for cultural resource management purposes should

be identified in the fire management plan for the National Park Service Unit. The Fire

Management Plan supports the unit’s General Management Plan, and is in turn supported

by the site specific Prescribed Burn Plans. Most burn plans also include a section on

cultural resources; cultural resource sections in specific burn plans should contain a

reference to the cultural resources monitoring information in the unit’s Fire Management

Plan.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Conclusions

This report represents an attempt to develop a model for predicting increased cultural

resource visibility after the execution of a prescribed burn. The model includes use of

ground cover data (litter and duff) collected by fire effects program personnel; this data is

collected for monitoring the effectiveness of the prescribed burn in meeting stated

objectives. This model does not account for variables in the burn prescription (wind,

temperature, humidity, firing techniques, etc), the potentially patchy nature of prescribed

burns, or the non-random locations of cultural resources and their relationships to past

vegetation. All of these extenuating factors probably influence the amount of increase in

cultural resource visibility after a prescribed burn; the model was intentionally kept

simple in order to test the basic premise that cultural resource visibility increases after an

area is burned (with prescribed fire in this case). Tests of how and to what extent

additional factors such as those listed above influence the capabilities of the predictive

model can be added to the model and tested individually.

A test of the proposed model was conducted in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine fire

effects monitoring type (FPIPO1T09) in Rocky Mountain National Park. fire effects

monitoring data suggests that the combined litter and duff layer in this vegetation type is

reduced an average of 30% during prescribed burning. This figure can be used to predict

a 30% increase in ground visibility, and potentially a 30% increase in cultural resources

visibility in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine fire effects monitoring type. This prediction

was tested by completing pedestrian survey on three prescribed burn units before the burn

was executed, and within one year after the burn was executed.

Litter and duff measurements are collected along with a plethora of other data on

index plots placed randomly across a given fire effects vegetation monitoring type

(appendix A). Some burn units have multiple plots, while others contain no index plots;

averages of the litter and duff measurements collected should characterize the entire

monitoring type.

One index plot was installed in the Glacier Creek # 1 Prescribed Burn Unit. Litter and

duff measurements from this plot were reduced 25% post-burn, as opposed to the 30%

average for the entire Front Range Ponderosa Pine monitoring type. Cultural resources

observed in this prescribed burn unit also increased 25% post-burn.

No index plots were located in the Deer Ridge # 5 Prescribed Burn Unit. The post-

burn litter and duff is expected to follow the Front Range Ponderosa Pine monitoring type

average of 30% reduction. Cultural resources observed this burn unit only increased 8%

post-burn.

Four index plots were installed in the Moraine Park # 2 Prescribed Burn Unit. Litter

and duff measurements from these plots were reduced an average of 20% post-burn,

although individual plot reduction ranges from 8% to 30%. The Front Range Ponderosa

Pine Monitoring Type average is a 30% reduction, post-burn. Cultural resources

recorded post-burn in this unit increased by 40%.

Although quite variable, the average increase for cultural resources observed and

recorded post-burn in these three prescribed burn units is 24%. Although many factors

could be (and probably are) contributing to the difference between predicted and

observed increase in cultural resource visibility, the small sample size is possibly the

greatest limiting factor.

Future Research Questions/ Problems to Address

In order for this model to be able to be utilized in a variety of National Park Service

units, the following should be completed. First, a larger (statistically valid?) sample size

for the Front Range Ponderosa Pine fire effects monitoring type should be determined;

this valid sample should be tested by completing pre- and post-burn pedestrian survey

which either supports or refutes the predicted 30% increase in post-burn cultural resource

visibility. The 30% figure may change, based on added litter and duff reduction data

collected from future prescribed burns in the Front Range Ponderosa Pine fire effects

monitoring type. Concurrently, the model should be tested in other fire effects

monitoring types in Rocky Mountain National Park.

When the model has been adequately tested, considerations of potentially contributing

factors such as variable prescription, patchy nature of prescribed burns, and preferential

location of cultural resources may be developed. Eventually, it is hoped that this model

will be of use in predicting general increases in post-burn cultural resource visibility

through out National Park Service units.

Romme et al (1993:28) have suggested the development of a risk model for cultural

resources exposed to fire; although this model is proposed in the context of high intensity

fires, it might be applicable to lower intensity fires and prescribed burns as well.

An additional concern raised by fire personnel (Duhnkrack 2001) in Rocky Mountain

National Park involves unusually heavy grazing and bioturbation on post-burn vegetation

by elk. Hundreds of 600+ pound animals milling about in a relatively small area has

great potential for site impact, especially if the site(s) are confined to the surface or the

top several centimeters.

Fire history of specific vegetation types in a geographic area would also greatly

enhance management through prescribed burning. If managers know what a specific fire

return interval is, and the probable intensity of those fires, it is likely that they can

reproduce those conditions with specific prescriptions. Prescriptions are driven by

objectives, which have the potential to positively or negatively impact cultural resources.

Management Implications

The proposed model, and predictions that it generates will hopefully allow cultural

resource managers to design a survey strategy to maximize the number of cultural

resource observed. Although the proposed model supports the value of post-burn

archaeological survey, post-burn survey is not intended to replace pre-project

implementation compliance work.

In Rocky Mountain National Park, resources that will potentially be affected by

prescribed burning include historic wood structures and features, and historic and

protohistoric American Indian wood structures. Other resource types have high enough

threshold temperatures to render them unaffected by burning conducted under the current

prescriptions in the Park. A possible survey strategy might involve a reconnaissance

level pre-burn survey, intended to identify wood structures for protection during the

prescribed burn. This survey could be supplemented with a complete post-burn survey

intended to identify the maximum number of cultural resources visible.

It is important to recognize the potential beneficial effects of prescribed burning to

cultural resources as well. In most parts of the western United States, cultural resources

that are more than 75 – 100 years old have probably been burned in past wildfires or

American Indian burns. Fire suppression for the better part of the 20th century has

resulted in very heavy fuel loads (Deal 2001:11) that will burn much hotter than past fires

if they are not mechanically treated (Deal 1997) or prescribed burned under specific

prescriptions. It is much easier for archaeologists and fire personnel to manage the

variables involved with a prescribed fire, than those inherent in a wildfire; prescribed

burning can reduce the risk from the inevitable wildfire that will eventually burn a given

area.

Another benefit to cultural resources management derived from prescribed burning is

increased visibility of cultural resources, which is integral to the current study. The

opportunity to conduct studies of the effects of fire on cultural resources in a controlled

context is also a stated benefit of prescribed burning (Jackson 1998:23-24 and 2000:A-7).

Overall, prescribed burning provides cultural resource managers with a much more

amenable set of circumstances to deal with than does wildfire. If managers seize this

opportunity to move beyond simple compliance, the long-term benefits of understanding

fire effects to cultural resources might be realized.

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Appendix A

Fire Effects Monitoring Type Descriptions for Rocky Mountain National Park

(FMH-4s)

Appendix B

Litter and Duff Monitoring Records for Front Range Ponderosa Pine (FPIPO1T09),

Ponderosa Savannah (PIPS1T02), and Lower Montane Mixed Conifer

(FPICM1T08) Fire Effects Monitoring Types (FMH-20s)

Note: Measurements should be taken to the nearest tenth of an inch according to the Western Region Fire Monitoring Handbook; if data was not collected correctly, it was rounded up to the nearest tenth of an inch for the purposes of this study.

Note: Some forms originally coded as “FPIPO1T02” were changed by fire effects personnel to “FPIPS1T02”

Appendix C

Site and Isolated Find Records for Cultural Resources Recorded During Pre-Burn

Pedestrian Survey

Appendix D

Site and Isolated Find Records for Cultural Resources Recorded During Post-Burn

Pedestrian Survey