Chapter 10: The Kinetic Molecular Theory

Section 10.1- Temperature, Thermal Energy and Heat

Kinetic Molecular Theory Kinetic Molecular theory:

- Explains that all matter is composed of particles (atoms and

molecules).

- They move constantly in random directions.

- Kinetic energy is the energy of a particle or an object due to its motion.

- When particles collide, kinetic energy is transferred between them.

- Solid- particles are very close together.

- Liquid- particles further apart.

- Gas state- particles spread even farther apart.

Temperature Temperature:

- The measure of the average kinetic energy of all the particles in a

sample of matter.

- As the particles average kinetic energy increases, the temperature of

the solid, liquid, or gas will also increase.

- Temperature Scales:

Three different scales to measure temperature:

1. Fahrenheit- German Dutch physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit.

2. Celsius- the swish astronomer Anders Celsius, based in 2 fixed

points, freezing point of pure water (O.C) and boiling point of pure

water (100.C)

3. Kelvin- William Thompson, scale based on absolute zero.

Thermal Energy Thermal Energy:

- The total energy of all the particles in a solid, liquid or gas.

- The more kinetic energy the more thermal energy.

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Potential Energy:

- The stored energy of an object or particle, due to its position or state.

Heat Heat:

- The amount of thermal energy that transfers from an area or object of

higher temperature to an area or object of lower temperature.

Heat Transfer:

- It can be transferred in 2 3ays:

1. Conduction

2. Convection

3. Radiation

Conduction Conduction:

- The transfer of heat from one substance to another or within a solid.

- Heat is transferred from a matter with a higher temp and greater kinetic

energy to matter with a lower temperature and less kinetic energy.

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Convection Fluids:

- Substances in which particles can flow freely.

- Liquid and gases.

Convection:

- The transfer of heat within a fluid and with the movement of fluid from

one place to another.

- Transfers matter as well as heat.

- Boiling pot- as the water at the bottom of the pot heats up, the

molecules begin to move faster and their kinetic energy increases,

causing them to spread apart.

- The water expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding

water.

Convection Current:

- The movement of a fluid caused by density differences.

Radiation Radiation:

- The transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves that carry radiant

energy.

Infrared Radiation:

- When you stay close to a campfire.

- Campfire is emitting electromagnetic waves towards your body,

causing you to feel warmth.

Solar Radiation:

- Made up of visible light as well as infrared and other types of radiation.

Earth’s Energy Sources Three Main Sources:

1. Solar Radiation, including visible light, infrared radiation, and other types

of radiation, comes from the Sun.

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2. Residual thermal energy from when Earth’s was formed is slowly

released.

3. Decay of underground radioactive elements produces energy.

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Section 10.2- Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere

Layers of the Atmosphere 5 layers of the atmosphere:

- Differ in average altitude, chemical composition, average temperature

and density.

- The troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere,

the exosphere.

The troposphere:

- The lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.

- The mass of the upper atmosphere compresses its gas molecules,

making it the densest of all the layers.

- Almost all water vapor and dust in the atmosphere is found here.

- The avg. temperature at the bottom of the troposphere is 15C, at the

top the avg. temperature is about -55C

The Stratosphere:

- Second layer (transitions zone- tropopause, marks the boundary

between the 2 layers.)

- The atmosphere has dry air with few clouds.

- Lower, constant temperature of about -55C, the upper gets warmer

with increasing height.

- The winds are strong and steady.

- Helps contain moisture in the troposphere and also blocks out

damaging radiation from the Sun.

- Ozone layer, the layer that absorbs much of the ultraviolet radiation

from the Sun. As a result of absorbing this radiation, the stratosphere

heats up.

Mesosphere:

- Temperature can reach as low as -100C.

- Every day, millions of small pieces of dust and meteors crash through

the mesosphere.

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- As they collide with the particles in the mesosphere, thermal energy is

released and the space debris burns up.

Thermosphere:

- The forth layer, extends from about 80km to 500km above sea level.

- Strongest temperatures can reach 1500C to 3000C.

- The northern lights or aurora borealis are a result of charged particles

colliding in the thermosphere.

Exosphere:

- The fifth layer.

- The top of is not well defined and merges with outer space at an

altitude of about 700km.

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Radiation and Conduction in the Atmosphere Insulation:

- The amount of solar radiation the reaches a certain area.

- Higher latitudes receive less isolation due to a greater angle on

incidence.

- The angle that occurs between a ray reaching a surface and a line

perpendicular to that surfaces.

The Radiation Budget:

- Keeps incoming and outgoing energy in balance.

- Incoming short-wave solar radiation is reflected and absorbed to

various degrees.

Albedo:

- The amount of radiation reflected by a surface.

- Forested regions and other dark areas (low) will absorb more radiation

than areas covered in ice and snow (high).

Weather Weather:

- The condition of the atmosphere in a specific place and at a specific

time.

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- Describes all aspects of the atmosphere, including temperature,

atmospheric pressure, and amount of moisture in the air, and wind

speed and direction.

Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure:

- The pressure exerted by the mass of air above any point on Earth’s

surface.

Measuring Atmospheric Pressure:

- We use an instrument called a barometer.

- Contains a capsule made of flexible metal and slight changed in

atmospheric pressure make the capsule expand or contract.

- The SI unit for atmospheric pressure is the Pascal (Pa).

- 1 Pascal has a force of one Newton per square meter or 1 N/m2.

- Measurements or give in kilopascals (kPa).

Altitude:

- As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases.

Temperature:

- Warm air is less dense than cold air, resulting in lower atmospheric

pressure

- When warm air pushes into an area of cola air near the ground, that

atmospheric pressure in that location decreases.

Humidity:

- Is a measurement that describes the amount of water vapour in air.

- The more water vapour, the lighter the air is.

- Specific humidity is the measure of the number of grams of water

vapour in 1kg of air.

- As temperature of the air increases, it capacity to hold water vapour

increases. The air becomes saturated when the specific humanity

equals the capacity of air to hold water at a specific temperature,

known as the dew point.

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- Relative humidity compares the amount of water vapour in the air with

the amount of air could hold if it were totally saturated.

Movement of Air Masses Air mass:

- Is a parcel of air with similar temperature and humidity throughout.

- Conditions in an air mass become like Earth’s surface below it.

- When air masses cools over a cold region= high-pressure system

forms.

- Air masses hat travel over warm regions= low pressure systems.

- The boundary between two air masses is called a front.

- Wind is the movement of air from an area of higher pressure to an area

of lower pressure.

Prevailing Winds Prevailing winds:

- Are winds that are typical for a certain region.

- Are influenced by several factors.

Local Winds:

- Sea breezes are local winds that are caused by the different rates at

which land and water respond to heating and cooling.

- The resulting wind is called an onshore breeze.

- During the night, the land cold down faster than the nearby water, the

sea breeze is called offshore breeze.

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The Coriolis effect:

- The change in direction of moving air, water or object’s die to Earth’s

rotation.

- An Earth rotates; any location at the equator travels much faster than a

location near either ole.

- Air rising from the equator travels east quickly in the same direction

that Earth rotates.

- As a result, the Coriolis effect deflects winds to the right in the northern

hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

Jet Streams Jet Streams:

- Form in the upper troposphere due to convection currents and become

bands of fast-moving air in the stratosphere.

- They are so strong that airline pilots try to fly with them.

Extreme Weather Thunderstorms:

- Are named for the lighting, thunder, strong winds and hail or rain that

the produce.

- Occur when water vapour in rising warm air condense, releasing

thermal energy which heats the air, which continues to rise.

Tornadoes:

- A violent, funnel-shaped column of rotating air that touches the ground,

- Can from when high-altitude horizontal funnels meet large

thunderstorms. 

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Tropical Cyclones or Hurricanes:

- Result from the exchange of thermal energy in the tropics.

- Warm moist air is lifted high into the atmosphere.

- As rain is produced, thermal energy is released.

- Warm air rushes to replace the rising air, and the Coriolis effect forces

air to rotate.

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Chapter 11: Climate Change

Section 11.1- Natural Causes of Climate Change

Climate Climate:

- Describes the average conditions of the atmosphere in a large region

over 30 years or more

- Can refer to conditions in a region as small as an island or to

conditions across an entire planet.

Biogeoclimatic zone:

- A region with a certain type of plant, soil, geography, and climate.

- BC has 14 biogeoclimates. Zones.

Looking Forward by Studying the Past Paleoclimatologists:

- Study fossils and sediments or gather info about glaciers to help them

understand climatic change.

- They examine ice cores determine what types and amounts of gases

existed in the atmosphere when the ice was formed.

Factors Affecting Climate Greenhouse Gases:

- They absorb and emit radiation as thermal energy, increasing Earth’s

temperature.

- The more greenhouse gases, the higher the temperature of out

atmosphere.

Earth’s tilt, rotation and orbit around the Sun:

- Earth experiences seasons due to the combination of its tilt and orbit.

- Seasonal changes are most extreme when Earth’s tilt is greatest.

- Changes in Earth’s axis rotation also affect the angle of incidence of

the Sun’s rays.

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- Variation in the shape of Earth’s orbit changes its distance from the

Sun and the amount of solar radiation that reaches Earth’s surface.

The Water Cycle:

- Decrease the circulation water on, above and below Earth’s surface.

- High temperature increases the evaporation of water and the capacity

of air to hold water vapour.

- As the atmosphere hold more water vapour, it traps more thermal

energy, resulting in a further increase in temperature.

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Ocean Currents:

- The sinking and rising of deep ocean waters produces convection

currents that act as a global conveyer belt that transports water- and

thermal energy around the earth.

- Surface currents, exchange heat with the atmosphere so there currents

also influence both weather and climate.

- El Nino surface waters off the coast of Ecuador and Peru get the. The

warm water can result in unusually mile weather along the coast of BC

and in eastern Canada.

- La Nina upwelling brings cooler-than-normal waters to the surface in

the eastern Pacific Ocean. The cool surface water also reaches farther

than normal.

The Caron Cycle:

- Maintains the balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

- Carbon sinks, such as Deep Ocean, shelled organism and forests

removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

- Carbon sources such as weathering and decaying vegetation add

carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Catastrophic events:

- Large-scale disasters such as volcanic eruptions and meteor impacts,

add dust, debris and gases high into the atmosphere.

- They reflect and absorb solar radiation, causing the atmosphere below

to cool.

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Section 11.2- Human Activity and Climate Change

Global Warming Climate Change:

- Changes in long-term weather patterns in certain regions.

- These changes affect the redistribution of thermal energy around the

world.

Global Warming:

- Describes an increase in Earth’s average global temperature.

Enhanced greenhouse effect:

- The increases capacity of the atmosphere to absorb and emit thermal

energy because of increases in greenhouse gases.

Global warming potential (GWP):

- Describes the ability of a substance to warm the atmosphere by

absorbing and emitting thermal energy.

Greenhouse Gas Formula Years Source from Human Activity GWP

Carbon dioxide CO2 Variable Combustion of fossil fuels

Deforestation

1

Methane CH4 About 12 Processing of fossil fuels 25

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Livestock agriculture

Waste dumps

Rice paddies

Nitrous oxide N2O 114 Production n of chemical fertilizers

Burning waste

Industrial processes

298

CFC’s

chlorofluorocarbon

s

Various 45 Liquid coolants, refrigeration, air

conditioning

4750-

5310

The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect Carbon dioxide:

- Industrial Revolution- marked explosive growth of industry, manufacturing

and transportation.

- Fossil fuel combustion is the greatest carbon source resulting from

human activity.

- Deforestation also converts major carbon sinks-forests- into carbon

sources.

Methane:

- Methane (CH4) is a gas that is very efficient at absorbing and emitting

thermal energy.

- A major source of methane is decomposing garbage in landfills.

- Methane is released during the process of animal digestion.

Nitrous oxide:

- Third largest contributor to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

- Formed from biological processes of bacteria in ocean, water, soil and

manure.

Ozone:

- Molecule that occurs naturally in the stratosphere at altitudes between

10km and 50km.

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- Continually forming and breaking down, do it is difficult to determine its

global warming potential.

Chlorofluorocarbons:

- Are a group of human-made greenhouse gasses with powerful global

warming potential.

- Made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.

- Main use is as coolants for refrigerators and air conditions.

Albedo and Climate The Albedo:

- At Earth’s surface affects the amount of solar radiation that a region

receives.

General Circulation Models (GCMS’S) GSMs:

- Computer models designed to study climate.

- Changes in greenhouse concentrations, albedo, ocean currents, winds

and surface temperature.

- Able to determine both past and present climate.

Governments Addressing Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC):

- Establish to address global concern about climate change and global

warming.

- Goal- to assess evidence of the human influences on climate change and

suggest possible ways to respond.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

- To encourage countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

- Governments should use the precautionary principle to guide their

responses to climate changes.

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- These states that a lack of complete scientific certainty should not

postpone cost effective measures to prevent serious environmental

damage.

In Canada:

- The Canadian government has reduced allowable emission from cars and

trucks.

- Required some industries to reduce emission.

- Increases the types of energy-efficient produces available.

- Set up guideline for improving indoor air quality.

Impacts on Climate Change:

Impacts of climate Change on Canada:

- Areas of permafrost are melting.

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- Permafrost is ground that usually remains frozen year round.

- Climate change will affect weather patterns, such as winter and summer

temperatures and the amount and location of rainfall.

- We can expect heavier spring rains and longer heat waves in some parts

of the country. Also affect the quantity and the quality of water available

for people’s homes, agriculture, and industrial uses such as obtaining oil.

- Will affect forestry become warmer temperatures will create better

condition for forest fires, for the insects that harm tress and a variety of

different plants.

Impacts of Climate Change in BC:

Segment Affected: Effects of Climate Change:

Fisheries Changes in ocean life- warm water species, may replace

cold-water species.

Salon may migrate northwards to find colder water.

Forestry Northern regions become warmer, extending the range of

some tree species.

Droughts will affect species of tress and increase the risk

of forest fires.

Wetlands Current flood-prevention measures may not be able to

contain floods along the coast in interior BC.

Ecosystems in wetlands, estuaries and deltas will be

affect by a rise in water levels.

Water Affect the supply and demand for water.

Spring flaws will arrive earlier, droughts more often.

Rising sea levels could mean saltwater flooding of low-

lying farming areas.

Wildlife Alter habitats, food supplies, and shelter for many

species.

Increase of carbon dioxide- make ocean more acidic.

Chapter 12: Thermal Energy transfer Drives Plate Tectonics

Section 12.1- Evidence for Continental Drift

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Continental Drift Theory Continental Drift Theory:

- In the early 20th century, German scientist Alfred Wegener proposed it.

- It argues that the continents “drifted” to their present locations over

millions of years.

- The fit suggested that, all the continents were joined as a

‘supercontinent.”

- Regions of some continents that are far part have similar rocks, mountain

ranges, fossils and patterns of paleoglaciation (evidence of ancient

glaciers and the rock markings they left behind.)

Continents Move Tectonic Plates:

- Scientists discovered that the surface of Earth is broken into tectonic

plates.

- Large, movable slabs of rock that slide over a layer of partly molten rick.

- According to the, Plate tectonic theory, when tectonic plates move across

Earth’s surface, they carry the continents with them.

- Many volcanoes and earthquakes zones on a map reveal the boundaries

between the plates.

- Chains of volcanic islands, reveal where tectonic plates have passed over

geological hot spots- areas where molten rock has risen to Earth’s

surface.

Sea Floor Spreading:

- Provides a mechanism for continental drift.

- Involves magma, molten rock from beneath Earth’s surface.

- Because it is molten, magma is less dense than the surrounding rock, so

magma rises and breaks through Earth’s crust in certain weak areas.

Spreading Ridge:

- A gap in the sea floor that is gradually widening as tectonic plates move

apart.

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- Magma cools and hardens as it intrudes into this hap, pushing older rock

aside as it creates new sea floor.

- Largest of spreading ridges- Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a mountain range

running north to south downs the length of the Atlantic Ocean.

Evidence foe Sea Floor Spreading Age of Ocean Rock:

- The youngest rocks are found closet to the ride.

- This indicated that new rock is being formed.

Sediment Thickness:

- The layer of ocean sediment- the small particles silt and organic debris

deposited on the ocean floor becomes thicker the farther it is from the

ridge.

- They indicate that the sea floor is older and farther away than the ridge.

Magnetic Striping:

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- At a spreading ridge, iron contain minerals in the magma align

themselves with Earth’s magnetic field as the magma cools.

- Because the orientation of Earth’s magnetic field has switched many

times, rocks on the sea floor exhibit both normal polarity and reverse

polarity depending on when they cooled.

- New rock is being laid down on the sea floor.

Section 12.2- Features of Plate Tectonics

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Earth’s Surface Earth is made of four layers with distinct characteristics.

Crust:

- Outermost layer made from solid, brittle rock and is 5-70km think.

The mantle:

- Earth’s thickest layer.

- Upper layer- is composed of partly molten rock.

Outer Core:

- Below the mantle, liquid and mostly nickel and iron.

Inner core:

- Lies at the Earth’s center.

- Composed mainly of iron and some nickel.

Tectonic Plates Lithosphere:

- Tectonic plates form the lithosphere, which ranges in thickness from 65 to

100km.

- There are 12 major tectonic plates and many small ones.

- 2 types- Oceanic plates and continental plates.

Asthenosphere:

- Below the lithosphere, a partly molten layer in the upper mantle.

- Radioactive decay in some parts of the asthenopshere heats the mantle

in these regions.

- Convection currents result as these hotter, and therefore less dense,

regions of the mantle rise, cool and sink again (mantle convection).

Plate Interactions

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Plate Boundary:

- A region where two tectonic plates are in contact.

- They way tectonic plates interact depend on the type of plates and the

direction the plates are moving relative to one another.

Divergence:

- Divergent plate boundaries mark the areas where tectonic plates are

spreading apart.

- Plates such as the East, African Rift, plates that are spreading apart know

as diverging plates.

- Rising currents of magma cool as they reach the surface and become

new rock, which results in spreading centers (spreading ridge or oceanic

ridge.)

- On land it is called a rift valley. - As new materiel at a ridge or rift pushes older material aside, the tectonic

plates move away at the ridge, which is called ridge push.

- Rift eruptions may occur when magma erupts at divergent plate

boundaries (Juan de Fuca ridge.)

Convergence:

- Convergent plat boundary occurs where tectonic plates collide

(converging plates.)

- If a dense oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the heavy

oceanic plate will dive under the lighter continental plate in an event

called seduction. - A deep underwater valley, called a trench, forms where the plates make

contact.

- As the edge of tectonic plate subducts, it pull helps keep tectonic plates in

motion.

Volcanoes:

- A long chain of volcanoes is called a volcanic belt.

- Most volcanoes in volcanic belts are composite volcanoes, such as Mount

Garibaldi in BC.

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- Shield Volcanoes are the world’s largest, and their shape resembles a

shield.

- Rift Volcanoes like the Krafla volcano in Iceland are formed when magma

erupts through long cracks in the lithosphere.

- Seduction also occurs where two oceanic plates converge, cooling

causes one plate to become denser. Such convergence may produce a

long chain of volcanic islands know as volcanic islands arc.

Transform:

- Convection currents in the mantle often cause tectonic plates to slide past

each other. These regions are known as transform plate boundaries.

- Earthquakes and faults (breaks in rock layers due to movement on either

side) may result.

- A fault that occurs is a transform plate boundary is known as a transform

fault.

Tectonic Plates and Earthquakes Earthquake:

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- Direction between moving tectonic plates often work against convection

currents, producing stress, when they can no longer take the stress there

is an earthquake.

- The focus is the location inside earth where can earthquake start.

- The epicenter is the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.

- Energy release by an earthquake produces vibration know as seismic

waves.

- Seismology is the study of earthquakes.

Three types of Waves:

- Primary waves (P-waves)- type of body wave, first to arrive (fastest),

ground squeezes and stretches in direction of wave travel, travels through

liquids, solids and gases

- Secondary waves (S-waves)- type of body wave, second to arrive

(slower), ground motion is perpendicular to direction of wave travel and

travels through solids but not liquids.

- Surface waves (L-waves)- travels along earth’s surface, last to arrive

(slowest) and ground motion is a rolling action like ripples on a pond.

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