Name:_________________________________________

Physical Science Chemistry Study Guide

Unit 1: Science Process and MatterScientific Design-

Steps:1. Question or problem 2. Research and gather information 3. Hypothesis = a possible explanation or answer to your problem 4. Test 5. ConclusionsParts of an Experiment:

1. Independent Variable = main factor that is changed2. Dependent Variable = the factor that is measured or observed in the

experiment to see if the hypothesis seems correct or not.3. Constants = things that are kept the same (these could mess up the

experiment if they were not kept the same)4. Control Group = the things in your experiment that are left alone and

observed under “normal” conditions as a standard by which the test subjects can be compared.

5. Experimental Group = the things that receive the independent variable or tested

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.1. Examples of matter: you, this book, and air molecules.2. Examples that are not matter: light, sound, and electricity.

Matter is made of atoms which are the smallest particles that have the properties of an element. Draw the arrows for the graphic organizer for classifying matter.

A Physical property is a something that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of a substance

A Chemical property is something that describes how a substance reacts with another.

The kinetic theory states each of the following: All matter is made of atoms and molecules that act like tiny particles. These tiny particles are always in motion. The higher the temperature, the faster

the particles move. These particles are colliding with each other and the walls of their container.

Matter – has mass and takes up space

Pure Substance – made of only one type of matter

Mixture – several types of matter next to each other

Element – only one type of atom

Compound- more than one type of atom bonded to make something new

Homogenius mixture – cannot see parts, even with microscope

Heterogenius – can see parts with eye or microscope / light

Type of Matter Shape VolumeSolid Definite Definite

LiquidNot

DefiniteDefinite

GasNot

DefiniteNot Definite

1. Archimedes’ Principle:The buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the objectPascal’s principle: pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid Examples: pushing air around a balloon, or pushing toothpaste to the end of the tube.

Bernoulli’s Principle: As the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by the fluid decreases

Viscosity is the resistance to flowFluids vary in their tendency to flow

Charles’ Law:If pressure stays constant, then:

◦ If the volume of gas increases, the temperature will increase◦ If the volume of gas decreases, the temperature will decrease

Boyle’s Law:

If temperature remains constant, then◦ Decrease the volume, the pressure of the gas will increase◦ Increase the volume, the pressure of the gas will decrease

Gay-Lussac’s Law:If the volume remains constant, then:

◦ If the temperature of a container is increased, the pressure increases. ◦ If the temperature of a container is decreased, the pressure decreases.

Unit 2 Atoms and Nuclear

Atomic Structure Atoms are the smallest unit of an element that still shows the element’s properties Atoms are made up of Protons, Neutrons, and electrons

Protons – positively charged, located in the nucleus, and have a mass of 1 amu Neutrons – no charge, located in the nucleus, and have a mass of 1 amu Electrons – negatively charged, located orbiting the nucleus, and mass is negligible.

Electrons determine the properties of the atom. Chemical reactions occur when electrons are shared or exchanged between atoms.

Overall, atoms have no charge because they contain an equal number of protons and electrons The nucleus is the central part of an atom. It is composed of protons and neutrons. The nucleus contains most of an atom's mass. Isotope - Atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons

APE MAN method to determine numbers of particles atoms:A = P = EAtomic number = # of protons = # of electrons

M – A =N Mass number - Atomic number = # of neutrons

You can use the periodic table to find out more information.

Isotopic Notation: shows what specific type isotope of an atom you are talking about

Carbon-14 can be written as

R adioactivity = when unstable atomic nuclei break apart or combine to form new atoms.

Types of Decay: Alpha Decay – is when an Alpha Particle splits off of a nucleus

o Alpha Particle: o Made of 2 protons and 2 neutronso Charge of +2o Are more massive than gamma and betao Can be stopped by a sheet of paper

Beta Decay – when an unstable neutron decays into a proton and an electrono Beta Particle: o Faster than alpha particleso Can be stopped by aluminum foilo Charge = -1

Gamma Decay:

o Gamma rays are usually emitted from a nucleus when alpha decay or beta decay occurs

o Are electromagnetic waveso They have no mass and no charge and travel at the speed of lighto Can be stopped by thick blocks of lead or concreteo Have no charge

Fusion and Fission:

Nuclear Fission Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a nucleus into several smaller nuclei Fission means “to divide” Occurs in Nuclear Power Plants neutrons are emitted during fission. These neutrons can strike other nuclei in the sample and

cause them to split. Which can cause even more atoms to split This series of repeated fission reactions caused by the release of neutrons is a chain reaction

Nuclear Fusion In nuclear fusion, two nuclei with low masses are combined to form one nucleus of larger mass This type of nuclear reaction is what powers the sun. It can also be used to create nuclear bombs. Generally, this process creates more energy than fission, but we are not able to control it.

Define and calculate half lives

The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the amount time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample of the isotope to decay

How to Solve a Half-life problem:

Ex: You have a 200 gram sample of Radon. Its half life is 4 days. How much will remain unchanged after 24 days?

Step 1) Make a list of what you know. Starting Mass = 200 grams Final Mass = ????? Half life = 4 days Time = 24 hours # of half-lives =????

Step 2) Determine what you are solving for. “How much will remain unchanged after 24 days?” We are looking for how much is

left or the final mass. Step 3) Solve the problem

The chart below shows how a sample of a radioactive material decays graphically.

SPS 3d: Nuclear energy; its application and problems

A Brief History of Nuclear Technology: The science of atomic radiation, atomic change and nuclear fission was developed from 1895 to 1945,

much of it in the last six of those years.

Over 1939-45, most development was focused on the atomic bomb.

From 1945 attention was given to harnessing this energy in a controlled fashion for naval propulsion and for making electricity.

Since 1956 the prime focus has been on the technological evolution of reliable nuclear power plants. Most of the 99 nuclear reactors were built during the 1970's and 1980s.

;No power plants have been built since the 3 mile island disaster (1979)

Other global accidents nuclear power plants include Chernobyl, USSR (1986), and the Fukushima, Japan (2011)

Today, nuclear technology is also used in medicine.

Name:_________________________________________

Chemistry Study Guide Practice Questions for Unit 2: Atomic Structure and Nuclear

1. Complete the following chart for the sub-atomic particles in an atom:

Particle Charge Mass (amu) Location (nucleus or cloud)

Proton

Neutron

Electron

2. Complete the chart below

Isotope name Isotopic Notation atomic # mass # # of protons # of neutrons

Lithium - 7

Carbon-14

Sodium-23

3. How many protons are there in an atom of Nitrogen-14? What does the 14 represent?

4. What is the over all charge of the nucleus of an atom? What about the atom?

5. How do you tell if two atoms are isotopes of each other? The number of ______ will be the same, but the number of _______ will differ

6. Fill out the chart based on the information above.

Type of Decay Symbol What occurs Stopped byAlpha

Beta

Gamma

7. The nucleus of an atom is unstable when it has too few or too many neutrons. As a result, particles

are given off. This process is called_______________________.

8. What type of decay increases the atomic number of the original atom? What type decreases the atomic number?

9. Complete the following nuclear equations. Hint: Use your periodic table.

94

63

42

94

a. 4119 K → 0

-1 e + __________

b. Be → Be + __________

c. Li → He + __________

10. Create a venn diagram to compare and contrast nuclear fusion and unclear fission.

11. Mark each of the following as Nuclear Fusion or Nuclear Fission, or both.

___________a. The type of nuclear reaction that splits apart a large nucleus.

___________b. . The type of nuclear reaction that combines two small atomic nuclei.

___________c. The type of nuclear reaction that is used in power plants.

___________d. powers the sun

___________e. releases energy

___________f. has been used to create atomic bombs

12. If three half-lives of a material go by, what fraction (or percent) of the material remains? Hint: Assume that you are starting with 1 g of that material.

13. If Strontium-90 (a waste product from nuclear power plants) has a half-life of 30 days, how much of a 100 g sample will be left after 90 years?

14. If there are currently 40 Kg of Caesium-135 sitting at a nuclear reactor, how many years will the plant employees have to wait for there to be less than 1 Kg remaining? Assume that the half life is 2 million years.

15. What is the half life of a Carbon-14 if there are 5 grams from a 10 g sample left after 5,300 years?

16. Give 3 uses for nuclear technology?

Name:_________________________________________

Physical Science Chemistry Study Guide

Unit 3 Periodic Table and Chemical Reactions

Electron cloud = The area around the nucleus in which electrons are locatedBohr Model = used to show the structure of the electron cloud.

How to draw a Bohr Model1. find your element on the periodic table and its atomic number (this is how many

electrons you will draw)2. place electrons on the lowest level first

1st level – max = 2 electrons2nd level – max = 8 electrons3rd level – max=18 electrons

3. Note: The element's position on the periodic table relates to the electron structure: Period (row) tells you how many rings to draw, the group (column) tells how many electrons will be on the outer ring for groups 1-2, and 13-18 See the picture below for a Bohr model of Aluminum (atomic #13)

Electron dot diagrams (or Lewis Dot Structures) represent the electrons in the outer energy level. Outer energy electrons are also called valance electrons.

-to write a dot diagram:1. Write the symbol of the element's2. Start by placing one dot on each side of the symbol, then place a second

dot per side if needed. 8 is the maximum number of dots a Lewis structure can have.

Note: the group (row) that the element belongs to tells you the number of dots

Periodic Table: The electron structure determines an element's chemical properties. Therefore, elements in the same group will have similar properties. Generally, the periodic table can be divided into 3 main groups; metals, nonmetals, and metalloids

Metals: found to the left of the stair step line, are good conductors of heat and electricity, are solid, reflective, malleable (hammered into sheets), and ductile (can be drawn into wires)

Nonmetals: are found to the right of the stair step line (exception = Hydrogen), are typically gasses or brittle solids (not shiny), are not malleable or ductile, and typically don't conduct heat or electricity well.

Metalloids: are located on the stair step line, and tend to share properties of metals and nonmetals

-There are also 5 specific groups of elements that you need to know about:Group 1, Alkali Metals: softer than most metals, most reactive, have 1 valence

electronsGroup 2, Alkaline Earth Metals: have 2 valence electrons, also tend to be

reactiveTransition metals: group 3-12. These are often found as free elements in natureGroup 17, Halogens: most reactive nonmetals, have 7 valence electronsGroup 18, Noble Gases: have full electron shell and do not tend to react.

Bonding

Chemical Formulas:• Chemical formula - tells what elements a compound contains and the exact

amount of the atoms of each element in a unit of that compound – subscripts (little numbers on the bottom next to the symbol) tell how many of each atom there is

Atomic Stability:• An atom is chemically stable when its outer energy level is full• Octet rule: atoms try to have 8 electrons on the outside• When atoms gain, lose, or share electrons, an attraction form between the atoms,

pulling them together to form a compound.• Chemical Bond - the force that holds atoms together in a compound

IONIC BONDS:

• An ion is formed when an atoms gains or loses an electron. • If it gains an electron it becomes negative• If it loses an electron it becomes positive

• Oxidation number tells you how many electrons an atom has gained, lost, or shared to become stable

• Ionic compounds – same as the charge of the ion

• Ionic bond is the force of attraction between the opposite charges of the ions in an ionic compound

• Forms between a metal and a nonmetal• Electrons are transferred, Results in a zero net charge

• Binary Compound – is one that is composed of two elements• Example: Potassium iodide (KI), Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Writing the formulas for Ionic Compounds:

Steps:1. Determine atomic symbol and oxidation number for each element:

Sodium = Na1+ Oxygen = O2-

2. “Swap and Drop” – The oxidation number becomes the subscript for the other element

Na1+ O2-

Na2 O3. Other things to know:

• Subscripts do not have a charge (so don’t write the + or -)• You do not write “1” as a subscript – it is understood that there is “1” there

Writing the Names of binary Ionic Compounds:

Steps:

1. Write the name of the positive ion2. Write the root name of the negative ion. The root is the first part of the element’s

name. Example: Chlorine would be chlor-

3. Add the ending –ide to the root. A few special elements:

Oxygen = oxidePhosphorus = phosphideNitrogen = nitrideSulfur = sulfide

Important note: Subscripts do not become part of the name for ionic compounds.

Covalent Bonds:

The attraction that forms between atoms when they share electrons is known as a covalent bond.

A neutral particle that forms as a result of electron sharing is called a molecule A covalent bond forms between two nonmetals.

Atoms sharing one set of electrons forms a single bond Atoms can share more than one set of atoms to form multiple bonds

NAMING COVALENT COMPOUNDS:

Covalent compounds are named using prefixes to tell how many atoms of each element there are in the formula.

1 = mono 2 = di 3 = tri 4 = tetra5 = penta 6 = hexa 7 = hepta 8 = octa

Steps for writing covalent compounds:1. Write the name of the first element in the formula. Then add the appropriate prefix

to say how many you have of each.

CO2 Carbon (no prefix since it has a subscript of 1)2. Write the name of the second element with the ending of –ide with the appropriate

prefix to say how many you have. Oxygen = Oxide = dioxide

All together = Carbon dioxideSpecial Notes:

the last vowel of a prefix is dropped if the element begins with a vowel Often the prefix mono- will be omitted

Chemical ReactionsChemical Reaction – is a change that occurs when one or more substances is / are converted to new substance (s)

• Reactants = original substance (what you start with)• Products = new substance (what you end up with)

Ex: 2H2 + O2 2H2OLaw of conservation of mass – the mass of what you start with before the reaction must be the same as the mass of what you end up with.

Chemical Equation = a way of describing a chemical reaction using numbers and symbols

Balancing Chemical Equations:• Must balance equations to satisfy the law of conservation of mass• A balanced equation has the same numbers of atoms / molecules on each side.

Rules:1. Coefficients can be added before any element / compound.2. Prefixes distribute and multiply3. You can NEVER change the subscripts.

Types of Chemical Reactions:Synthesis:

Two or more elements or compounds combine to make a more complex substance A + B AB H2 + O2 H2O2

Decomposition Compounds break down into simpler substances AB A + B 2H2O H2 + O2

Single Replacement Occurs when one element replaces another one in a compound Also called Single displacement reaction AB + C AC + B Fe+ HCl FeCl + H

Double Replacement Occurs when different atoms in two different compounds trade places Also called double displacement reaction AB + CD AD + CB KCl + H2O K2O4 + HCl

Name:_________________________________________

Midterm Study Guide Practice Questions Unit3: Chemical Reactions

Vocabulary Matching:_____1. Reaction that releases heat a. exothermic_____2. Reaction that absorbs heat b. chemical reaction_____3. When substances are changed into something new c. endothermic_____4. Substances on the left side of the arrow in a chemical equation d. products_____5. Substances on the right side of the arrow in a chemical equation e. reactants

Electrons and Periodic Table6. How many valence electrons does the element Carbon have?

7. What is the symbol for the element that has 4 rings of electrons and 2 electrons in the outer level?

8. Give an example of an element that has 8 valence electrons and would not tend to react with other elements?

9. Which two elements are in the same group or family?a. Mg and Li b. O and Cl c. F and Cl d. Ne and H

_____10. An element is an extremely reactive gas and has 7 valence electrons. This element most likely belongs to what group?

Chemical bonding

11. what type of chemical bond involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal?a. ionic b. covalent c. metallic d. hydrogen

12. What is the oxidation number of the Fluorine (atomic number 9)?a. 1+ b. 2+ c. 3+ d. skip e. 3- f. 2- g. 1- h. zip

13. Which of the following is an ionic compound?a. NaCl b. CO2 c. N2O5 d. SiO2

14. Which of the following is a covalent compound?a. sodium chloride b. dinitrogen pentoxide c. potassium nitride

15. What is the correct formula for the compound formed when magnesium and fluorine combine to form a compound?

a. MgF b. Mg2F2 c. MgF2 d. Mg2F

16. Which ionic formula below is not written correctly?a. AlCl3 b. Mg2S2 c. NaCl d. CO2

Balancing and identifying chemical equations

17. What is the law of mass conservation?

18. In the following equation, what coefficient should be placed in front of the oxygen on the products side to correctly balance the equation? 2NO3 __ O2 + N2

19. What coefficients should be placed into the blanks to correctly balance the equation? ___N2 + ___H2 ___ NH3

Matching: match each equation on the left with the type of equation on the right_____32. H2 + O2 H2O2 a. decomposition_____33. 2H2O H2 + O2 b. synthesis

_____34. Fe+ HCl FeCl + H c. single replacement

_____35. KCl + H2O K2O4 + HCl d. double replacement

20. Number each group on the periodic table and locate each of the following on the blank periodic table: _____ Alkali metals_____Alkaline Earth Metals_____ Halogens_____Noble Gases_____Transition Metals

21. Why is the periodic table organized into groups and periods?

37. Balance the following equations and state what type they are.

____ AlBr3 + ___ Cl2 ____ AlCl3+ ___ Br2 Type of reaction: ______________

____CuCl2 + ____H2S → ____CuS + ____HCl Type of reaction: _________________

Name:_________________________________________

Physical Science Chemistry Study Guide

Unit4: Solutions

Solution =when 2 substances are mixed together-have the same composition, color, density, and taste throughout-also known as a homogenous mixture-remember, a heterogeneous mixture is not the same throughout

Solutions have two components: Solute = what is dissolved “lesser amount” Solvent = what does the dissolving “greater amount” Not all solutions are liquids; they can be gaseous or solids. Ex: brass, silver, airHow substances dissolve: “Like dissolves like”

o Polar solvents will dissolve polar soluteso Nonpolar solvents will dissolve nonpolar soluteso Water is known as the “Universal Solvent” because it can dissolve so many

things.o Nonpolar solvents examples: mineral oil, gasoline, dry cleaning chemicals

Solubility = how much solute can be dissolved in a solution3 ways to increase solubility:

Heat the substance Stir / shake Crush or grind the solute

Solutions can be unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated:

Unsaturated = solution can hold more solute at a given temperature Saturated = solution that is holding all possible solute at a given temperature Supersaturated = the solution is holding more solute than it should at a given

temperature

Solubility – tells how much solute will dissolve in a given amount of solvent. When a substance dissolves in another substance, it is said to be soluble When a substance will not dissolve in another substance, it is said to be insoluble A concentrated solution is one in which a large amount of solute is dissolved in

the solvent. A dilute solution is one that has a small amount of solute in the solvent Unsaturated Solution – a solution that can dissolve more solute at a given

temperature Saturated Solution – a solution that has dissolved all of the solute it can normally

hold at a given temperature Supersaturated Solution – a solution that contains more solute than a saturated

solution at that temperature. The temperature of the solution often affects how much of the solute is dissolved

by the solvent.

Solubility curves are used to show how the solubility of a substance changes with temperature

Acids and Bases

Acid - a substance that donates hydrogen ions, H+, to form hydronium ions, H3O+, when dissolved in water.

Properties of acids: Have pH less than 7, Taste sour, Can cause burns, Are Corrosive, React Strongly with some metal,

producing H2 gas, Turn blue litmus paper red, andConduct electric current when dissolved in water.

Bases - substances that either contains hydroxide ions, OH-, or reacts with water to form hydroxide ions.

Properties of bases: Crystalline solids in pure form, Feel slippery, Have bitter taste, Are corrosive and can cause burns,

Turn litmus paper blue

PH - is a measure of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution.The pH scale typically ranges from 0-14

Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. Below 7 is acidic. Above 7 is basic (also called alkaline).

Litmus paper is an example of an indicator. This is a substance that can change color depending on the concentration of H3O+ ions. Other examples of indicators include pH paper and red cabbage juice.

Strength of Acids and BasesStrong acid: nearly all the acid molecules dissociate into ions

Example: HCl, Sulfuric AcidWeak acid: only a small fraction of molecules dissolve in water

Example: vinegar

Strong base: Dissociates completely in a solution.Example: Sodium hydroxide

Weak base: does not dissociate completely in a solutionExample: ammonia

The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions in it. The pH measures how acidic or basic a solution is. The greater the H + concentration is, the lower the pH is and the more acidic the solution is. pH Scale ranges from 0 to 14 Less than 7 = Acid Equal to 7 = neutral Greater than 7 = Base

Name:_________________________________________

Chemistry Study Guide Practice Questions for Units 1 and 4: Science Process, Matter, Solutions

1. . The ___________ of the experiment are the things that are kept the same.

2. What is a possible answer to the question that you have proposed in the first step of the scientific method?

3. If you were testing how candy impacts test scores of science students, what part of the experiment would be the independent variable; the candy or test scores?

4. Convert the following:a. 56.9 mm = _______________ dm

b. 3.45 DL = __________________ dL

5.Explain the difference between an element and a compound. Provide examples of each.

6. Explain the difference between a heterogeneous mixture and a homogeneous mixture. Provide examples of each.

7. Determine if the item is an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, heterogeneous mixture, colloid, or suspension. Helium - A Caesar salad - Table salt – Soda –

8. Explain which states of matter have a definite shape and/or definite volume.

Draw a picture of the molecules of each of the 3 states of matter (solids, liquids, and gases).

10. How can temperature and viscosity of a fluid related? Give an example of this from your every day life.

11. What is buoyancy? Use it to explain why a large ship made of metal is able to float?

12. Explain the different phase changes (there are 6 of them).

13. What happens to the pressure on a gas if you decrease the volume and hold temperature constant?

14. What happens to the temperature of a gas if you decrease the volume and hold pressure constant?

15. Match the Definitions with the correct vocabulary terms._____ Solute a. a type of mixture that is the same throughout._____Solvent b. part of a solution that gets dissolved. _____Solution c. part of solution that does the dissolving. _____concentrated d. when there is a high amount of solute in a solution._____ electrolyte e. a substance that conducts electricity when dissolved in water_____Acid f. a substance that produces OH-ions when dissolved in solution_____Base g. a substance that produces H+ ions in solution_____Indicator h. a substance that changes color in the presence of an acid or base_____Neutral i. substance that has the same numbers of H+ and OH- ions in solution

16. In a mixture of sugar and water, what part is the solute? What is the solvent?

17. What can you do to increase the rate of dissolving?a. stir b. crush the solute c. heat the solvent d. all of the above

18. What is solubility?

19. What type of solution contains a greater concentration of the solute; a concentrated solution or a dilute solution?

20. Explain saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated solutions.

21. When dissolving a gas in a liquid, would you be able to dissolve more gas in a cold liquid or warm?

22. What type of solute would conduct electricity when dissolved; electrolytes or nonelectrolytes?

23. How do solute particles affect the freezing point and the boiling point of the solvent?

Solubility Curve

24. Based on the graph above, how much NaNO3 will dissolve in 100 mL of water at 20 Celsius?

25. Based on the graph, the solubility of what substance is most affected by temperature from 0-100 Celsius?

26. Based on the graph, would a solution consisting 30 g of KCl dissolved into 100 mL of water be considered to be saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated at a temperature of 80?

Acids and Bases

27. Indicate if each statement describes and aid, base, or a neutral substance. Mark A for acid, B for base, and N for neutral.

_____pH is less than 7 _____ pH is greater than 7

_____ pH = 7 _____tastes sour

_____feels slippery _____turns blue litmus paper red

_____ tastes bitter _____reacts with metals (corrosive)

_____ cleaning products tend to be examples

_____ food or drinks tend to be examples

28. Draw and label a pH scale. Include the following elements; acid, base, neutral, 0, 7, 14, increasing strength (of acid and base)

29. What does pH measure?

30. If a substance has a pH of 3, is there more H+ ions or OH- ions?

31. If a substance has a pH of 9, is there more H+ ions or OH- ions?

32. What is an indicator? Give two examples that we used in the lab.