SEMESTER I – CORE I COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS FORGRAPHIC DESIGNERS

B.VOC. MULTIMEDIA ANDANIMATION

UNIT I Computer - Definition

• Computer - A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.

• Eg. You can use the computer for typing documents, send email, play games, browse the Web, to edit or create  spreadsheets, presentations, and even watch videos.

User Types

Induviduals – home pcs, workstations in Office Organization –educational institutions, ecommerce , financial institutions, retail

companies, business, corporate. Society - PDS (public distribution Systems), e–governance(IT, electronic tendering system, e-procurement system)

Pheripheral Devices

An Overview of Input and Output DevicesInput, Output and Secondary Storage Devices are collectively known as peripheralsThe processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) makes all the calculations of the computer. In order for a process to be possible we need to feed in data to the computer through the input devices. The computer will then process the data according to a particular program and finally deliver information through the output devices. If the information produced needs to be stored for the future, we will store this into a secondary storage peripheral device.

<< INPUT DEVICES >>Input devices are all those hardware equipment that are used to enter data into the computer.KeyboardThis is the most common and widely used input device. There are different types of keyboardsbut the QWERTY keyboard is the most widely used. Apart from the normal alphabetical keys,the keyboard has:- A Numeric Keypad- Navigation Keys- Function Keys

Function keys change function used according to the application being used.

Mouse or TrackballThe second most commonly used input device is the mouse. The mouse helps the user to point and access items on the computer. Its main function is to control the cursor or pointer on the computer’s screen. The mouse can have 2 or 3 buttons, used according to the software application being used. Today, most mice also have a scroll wheel which is used mainly to scroll through documents.

TrackballThe trackball has the same basic functions of the mouse. The only difference is that the trackball is stationary and one doesn’t need to move it on a mouse pad. In order to navigate with the pointer, the user must move a ball situated at the top of the device. Similar to the mouse, the trackball has 2 or 3 buttons used to select items from the screen.

ScannerThe scanner is a device that transfers printed text and images to a computer. Today, most homeusers have a scanner connected to their computers. These are generally called flatbed (others less common such as barcode readers are called handhelds). The scanner alone is not enough to capture the data and transform it to a format that can be understood by the computer.

JoystickThis device is well known with young people as it is mainly used for playing computer games.As the name implies, it is like a stick connected to a platform, which can be moved in all directions.These movements in turn will move something on screen depending on the game. Usually joysticks have buttons also called triggers.

Barcode ReaderWhen we buy products from shops we usually see small labels containing white and black stripes called barcodes. These labels contain information on the product. In order to read this information, one must pass the barcode in front of a special reader. This reader can be in a form of a pen or installed on the shop’s counter. The barcode reading consists of a light emitting diode that will emit light on thecode. The reflected light from the barcode is translated to the computer by a light sensitive diode

Optical Mark ReaderThis device reads marks in predetermined places on specially prepared cards. These are usually used in multiple-choice questions. The student will have to fill a space with a pencil, usually HB. The filled examination paper is then inserted into the OMR so as to enable it to read the answers marked.

Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)This system uses special ink to write numbers with coded magnetic ink. This special inkcontains the written numbers magnetically. This system is widely used on cheques issued bybanks. The MICR is much faster than OCR or other methods when reading codes and thusidentifying cheques.

Graphics Table

Professionals, such as draftsmen and engineers,usually use this input device. It is used to speed uptheir drawing work. The device consists of a handheld operated device (similar to a pen) used to tracediagrams placed on a digitised table. The drawing will then be transferred to the computer.

PenPens are used on hand held computers such as PDA’s (Personal Data Assistant). These hand held computers have a special sensitive screen. When the user touches the screen it will interact with theComputer

< OUTPUT DEVICES >>After processing the inputted data, the computer will give its output. This output can be in twodifferent formats:

Softcopy – Visual (monitor) or Sound (speakers)• Hardcopy – Output on a tangible (something you can touch) such as a printer printout.

are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.

Monitors

Graphic Plotter

Printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) MonitorThe CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity,

or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character

boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80

characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT:

Large in Size

High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display MonitorThe flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in

comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays

include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Example are

plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).

Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some

other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)

PrintersPrinter is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers:

Impact Printers

Non-Impact Printers

Impact PrintersThe impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

Very low consumable costs

Very noisy

Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

Character printers

Line printers

Character PrintersCharacter printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

Daisy Wheel

DOT MATRIX PRINTER

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of their ease of

printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins

of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

Inexpensive

Widely Used

Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

Slow Speed

Poor Quality

DAISY WHEEL

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name) that is why it is

called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters

to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

More reliable than DMP

Better quality

The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

Slower than DMP

Noisy

More expensive than DMP

Line PrintersLine printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of further two types

Drum Printer

Chain Printer

DRUM PRINTER

This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into number of tracks.

Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set

is embossed on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.

One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

Very high speed

Disadvantages

Very expensive

Characters fonts cannot be changed

CHAIN PRINTER

In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64, or

96 characters.

Advantages

Character fonts can easily be changed.

Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

Noisy

Non-impact PrintersNon-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time so they are

also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

Laser Printers

Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

Faster than impact printers.

They are not noisy.

High quality.

Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser PrintersThese are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed

on a page.

ADVANTAGES

Very high speed

Very high quality output

Give good graphics quality

Support many fonts and different character size

DISADVANTAGES

Expensive.

Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet PrintersInkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying

small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Colour

printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

ADVANTAGES

High quality printing

More reliable

DISADVANTAGES

Expensive as cost per page is high

Slow as compared to laser printer

MEMORY Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for

processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a

unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this

memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory

Cache MemoryCache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the

CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The

parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access

them.

AdvantagesThe advantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

DisadvantagesThe disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited capacity

and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as

fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two

subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories

It is known as main memory.

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary MemoryThis type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These are used

for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via

input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access

it. For example : disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories

It is known as backup memory.

It is non-volatile memory.

Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

It is used for storage of data in a computer.

Computer may run without secondary memory.

Slower than primary memories.

RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is

read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is

erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as

other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a

backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical

size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

Static RAM (SRAM)

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost

when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.

Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.

Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space,

thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

It has long life

There is no need to refresh

Faster

Used as cache memory

Large size

Expensive

High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory

on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory

because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one

transistor.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

It has short data lifetime

Need to be refreshed continuously

Slower as compared to SRAM

Used as RAM

Lesser in size

Less expensive

Less power consumption

Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of

ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the

desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during

programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM

eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The

charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet

light is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During

normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.

Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased

and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of

re-programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROMThe advantages of ROM are as follows:

Non-volatile in nature

These cannot be accidentally changed

Cheaper than RAMs

Easy to test

More reliable than RAMs

These are static and do not require refreshing

Its contents are always known and can be verified

Multimedia Hardware

IntroductionAn input device is a hardware mechanism that transforms information in the external world for consumption by a computer. An output device is a hardware used to communicate the result of data processing carried out by the user or CPU.9.2 Input devicesOften, input devices are under direct control by a human user, who uses them to communicate commands or other information to be processed by the computer, which may then transmit feedback to the user through an output device. Input and output devices together make up the hardware interface between a computer and the user or external world. Typical examples of input devices include keyboards and mice. However, there are others which provide many more degrees of freedom. In general, any sensor which monitors, scans for and accepts information from the external world can be considered an input device, whether or not the information is under the direct control of a user.9.2.1 Classification of Input DevicesInput devices can be classified according to:- the modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, sound, etc.) whether the input is discrete (e.g. keypresses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse'sposition, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is high-resolution enough to bethought of as continuous) the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. many mice allow 2D positionalinput, but some devices allow 3D input, such as the Logitech Magellan SpaceMouse)Pointing devices, which are input devices used to specify a position in space, can furtherbe classified according to Whether the input is direct or indirect. With direct input, the input space coincideswith the display space, i.e. pointing is done in the space where visual feedback orthe cursor appears. Touchscreens and light pens involve direct input. Examplesinvolving indirect input include the mouse and trackball. Whether the positional information is absolute (e.g. on a touch screen) or relative(e.g. with a mouse that can be lifted and repositioned)

Note that direct input is almost necessarily absolute, but indirect input may be eitherabsolute or relative. For example, digitizing graphics tablets that do not have anembedded screen involve indirect input, and sense absolute positions and are often run inan absolute input mode, but they may also be setup to simulate a relative input modewhere the stylus or puck can be lifted and repositioned.9.2.2 KeyboardsA keyboard is the most common method of interaction with a computer.Keyboards provide various tactile responses (from firm to mushy) and have variouslayouts depending upon your computer system and keyboard model. Keyboards aretypically rated for at least 50 million cycles (the number of times a key can be pressedbefore it might suffer breakdown).The most common keyboard for PCs is the 101 style (which provides 101 keys),although many styles are available with more are fewer special keys, LEDs, and othersfeatures, such as a plastic membrane cover for industrial or food-service applications orflexible “ergonomic” styles. Macintosh keyboards connect to the Apple Desktop Bus(ADB), which manages all forms of user input- from digitizing tablets to mice.Examples of types of keyboards include Computer keyboard Keyer Chorded keyboard LPFK9.2.3 Pointing devicesA pointing device is any computer hardware component (specifically humaninterface device) that allows a user to input spatial (ie, continuous and multi-dimensional)data to a computer. CAD systems and graphical user interfaces (GUI) allow the user tocontrol and provide data to the computer using physical gestures - point, click, and drag -typically by moving a hand-held mouse across the surface of the physical desktop andactivating switches on the mouse.While the most common pointing device by far is the mouse, many more deviceshave been developed. However, mouse is commonly used as a metaphor for devices thatmove the cursor. A mouse is the standard tool for interacting with a graphical userinterface (GUI). All Macintosh computers require a mouse; on PCs, mice are not requiredbut recommended. Even though the Windows environment accepts keyboard entry in lieuof mouse point-and-click actions, your multimedia project should typically be designedwith the mouse or touchscreen in mind. The buttons the mouse provide additional userinput, such as pointing and double-clicking to open a document, or the click-and-dragoperation, in which the mouse button is pressed and held down to drag (move) an object,or to move to and select an item on a pull-down menu, or to access context-sensitive help.The Apple mouse has one button; PC mice may have as many as three.Examples of common pointing devices include mouse trackball touchpad spaceBall - 6 degrees-of-freedom controller touchscreen graphics tablets (or digitizing tablet) that use a stylus

light pen light gun eye tracking devices steering wheel - can be thought of as a 1D pointing device yoke (aircraft) jog dial - another 1D pointing device isotonic joysticks - where the user can freely change the position of the stick,with more or less constant forceo joysticko analog stick isometric joysticks - where the user controls the stick by varying the amountof force they push with, and the position of the stick remains more or lessconstanto pointing stick discrete pointing deviceso directional pad - a very simple keyboardo dance pad - used to point at gross locations in space with feet9.2.4 High-degree of freedom input devicesSome devices allow many continuous degrees of freedom to be input, and couldsometimes be used as pointing devices, but could also be used in other ways that don'tconceptually involve pointing at a location in space. Wired glove Shape TapeComposite devicesWii Remote with attached strapInput devices, such as buttons and joysticks, can be combined on a single physicaldevice that could be thought of as a composite device. Many gaming devices havecontrollers like this. Game controller Gamepad (or joypad) Paddle (game controller) Wii Remote9.2.5 Imaging and Video input devicesFlat-Bed ScannersA scanner may be the most useful piece of equipment used in the course ofproducing a multimedia project; there are flat-bed and handheld scanners. Mostcommonly available are gray-scale and color flat-bed scanners that provide aresolution of 300 or 600 dots per inch (dpi). Professional graphics houses may useeven higher resolution units. Handheld scanners can be useful for scanning smallimages and columns of text, but they may prove inadequate for the multimediadevelopment.Be aware that scanned images, particularly those at high resolution and incolor, demand an extremely large amount of storage space on the hard disk, nomatter what instrument is used to do the scanning. Also remember that the finalmonitor display resolution for your multimedia project will probably be just 72 or95 dpi-leave the very expensive ultra-high-resolution scanners for the desktop

publishers. Most expensive flat-bed scanners offer at least 300 dpi resolution, andmost scanners allow to set the scanning resolution.Scanners helps make clear electronic images of existing artwork such asphotos, ads, pen drawings, and cartoons, and can save many hours when you areincorporating proprietary art into the application. Scanners also give a startingpoint for the creative diversions. The devices used for capturing image and videoare: Webcam Image scanner Fingerprint scanner Barcode reader 3D scanner medical imaging sensor technologyo Computed tomographyo Magnetic resonance imagingo Positron emission tomographyo Medical ultrasonography9.2.6 Audio input devicesThe devices used for capturing audio are Microphone Speech recognitionNote that MIDI allows musical instruments to be used as input devices as well.9.2.7 TouchscreensTouchscreens are monitors that usually have a textured coating across the glassface. This coating is sensitive to pressure and registers the location of the user’s fingerwhen it touches the screen. The Touch Mate System, which has no coating, actuallymeasures the pitch, roll, and yaw rotation of the monitor when pressed by a finger, anddetermines how much force was exerted and the location where the force was applied.Other touchscreens use invisible beams of infrared light that crisscross the front of themonitor to calculate where a finger was pressed. Pressing twice on the screen in quickand dragging the finger, without lifting it, to another location simulates a mouse clickand-drag. A keyboard is sometimes simulated using an onscreen representation so userscan input names, numbers, and other text by pressing “keys”.Touchscreen recommended for day-to-day computer work, but are excellent formultimedia applications in a kiosk, at a trade show, or in a museum delivery systemanythinginvolving public input and simple tasks. When your project is designed to use atouchscreen, the monitor is the only input device required, so you can secure all othersystem hardware behind locked doors to prevent theft or tampering.9.3 OUTPUT DEVICESPresentation of the audio and visual components of the multimedia project requireshardware that may or may not be included with the computer itself-speakers, amplifiers,monitors, motion video devices, and capable storage systems. The better the equipment,of course, the better the presentation. There is no greater test of the benefits of goodoutput hardware than to feed the audio output of your computer into an external amplifiersystem: suddenly the bass sounds become deeper and richer, and even music sampled atlow quality may seem to be acceptable.

9.3.1.Audio devicesAll Macintoshes are equipped with an internal speaker and a dedicated sound clip,and they are capable of audio output without additional hardware and/or software. Totake advantage of built-in stereo sound, external speaker are required. Digitizing soundon the Macintosh requires an external microphone and sound editing/recording softwaresuch as SoundEdit16 from Macromedia, Alchemy from Passport, or SoundDesingnerfrom DigiDesign.9.3.2 Amplifiers and SpeakersOften the speakers used during a project’s development will not be adequate for itspresentation. Speakers with built-in amplifiers or attached to an external amplifier areimportant when the project will be presented to a large audience or in a noisy setting.9.3.3 MonitorsThe monitor needed for development of multimedia projects depends on the type ofmultimedia application created, as well as what computer is being used. A wide variety ofmonitors is available for both Macintoshes and PCs. High-end, large-screen graphicsmonitors are available for both, and they are expensive.Serious multimedia developers will often attach more than one monitor to theircomputers, using add-on graphic board. This is because many authoring systems allow towork with several open windows at a time, so we can dedicate one monitor to viewingthe work we are creating or designing, and we can perform various editing tasks inwindows on other monitors that do not block the view of your work. Editing windowsthat overlap a work view when developing with Macromedia’s authoring environment,director, on one monitor. Developing in director is best with at least two monitors, one toview the work the other two view the “score”. A third monitor is often added by directordevelopers to display the “Cast”.9.3.4 Video DeviceNo other contemporary message medium has the visual impact of video. With avideo digitizing board installed in a computer, we can display a television picture on yourmonitor. Some boards include a frame-grabber feature for capturing the image andturning it in to a color bitmap, which can be saved as a PICT or TIFF file and then usedas part of a graphic or a background in your project.Display of video on any computer platform requires manipulation of an enormousamount of data. When used in conjunction with videodisc players, which give precisecontrol over the images being viewed, video cards you place an image in to a window onthe computer monitor; a second television screen dedicated to video is not required. Andvideo cards typically come with excellent special effects software.There are many video cards available today. Most of these support various videoin-a-window sizes, identification of source video, setup of play sequences are segments,special effects, frame grabbing, digital movie making; and some have built-in televisiontuners so you can watch your favorite programs in a window while working on otherthings. In windows, video overlay boards are controlled through the Media ControlInterface. On the Macintosh, they are often controlled by external commands andfunctions (XCMDs and XFCNs) linked to your authoring software.Good video greatly enhances your project; poor video will ruin it. Whether youdelivered your video from tape using VISCA controls, from videodisc, or as a QuickTimeor AVI movie, it is important that your source material be of high quality.

9.3.5 ProjectorsWhen it is necessary to show a material to more viewers than can huddle around acomputer monitor, it will be necessary to project it on to large screen or even a whitepaintedwall. Cathode-ray tube (CRT) projectors, liquid crystal display (LCD) panelsattached to an overhead projector, stand-alone LCD projectors, and light-valve projectorsare available to splash the work on to big-screen surfaces.CRT projectors have been around for quite a while- they are the original “bigscreen”televisions. They use three separate projection tubes and lenses (red, green, andblue), and three color channels of light must “converge” accurately on the screen. Setup,focusing, and aligning are important to getting a clear and crisp picture. CRT projectorsare compatible with the output of most computers as well as televisions.LCD panels are portable devices that fit in a briefcase. The panel is placed on theglass surface of a standard overhead projector available in most schools, conferencerooms, and meeting halls. While they overhead projectors does the projection work, thepanel is connected to the computer and provides the image, in thousands of colors and,with active-matrix technology, at speeds that allow full-motion video and animation.Because LCD panels are small, they are popular for on-the-road presentations, oftenconnected to a laptop computer and using a locally available overhead projector.More complete LCD projection panels contain a projection lamp and lenses and donot recover a separate overheads projector. They typically produce an image brighter andshaper than the simple panel model, but they are some what large and cannot travel in abriefcase.Light-valves complete with high-end CRT projectors and use a liquid crystaltechnology in which a low-intensity color image modulates a high-intensity light beam.These units are expensive, but the image from a light-valve projector is very bright andcolor saturated can be projected onto screen as wide as 10 meters.9.3.6 PrintersWith the advent of reasonably priced color printers, hard-copy output has enteredthe multimedia scene. From storyboards to presentation to production of collateralmarketing material, color printers have become an important part of the multimediadevelopment environment. Color helps clarify concepts, improve understanding andretention of information, and organize complex data. As multimedia designers alreadyknow intelligent use of colors is critical to the success of a project. Tektronix offers bothsolid ink and laser options, and either Phases 560 will print more than 10000 pages at arate of 5 color pages or 14 monochrome pages per minute before requiring new toner.Epson provides lower-cost and lower-performance solutions for home and small businessusers; Hewlett Packard’s Color LaserJet line competes with both. Most printermanufactures offer a color model-just as all computers once used monochrome monitorsbut are now color, all printers will became color printers.9.4 COMMUNICATION DEVICESMany multimedia applications are developed in workgroups comprisinginstructional designers, writers, graphic artists, programmers, and musicians located inthe same office space or building. The workgroup members’ computers typically areconnected on a local area network (LAN). The client’s computers, however, may bethousands of miles distant, requiring other methods for good communication.Communication among workshop members and with the client is essential to the

efficient and accurate completion of project. And when speedy data transfer is needed,immediately, a modem or network is required. If the client and the service provider areboth connected to the Internet, a combination of communication by e-mail and by FTP(File Transfer Protocol) may be the most cost-effective and efficient solution for bothcreative development and project management.In the workplace, it is necessary to use quality equipment and software for thecommunication setup. The cost-in both time and money-of stable and fast networkingwill be returned to the content developer

TYPES OF SOFTWARE Software is of 2 major categories:

System Software

Application Software

System Software

System software refers to the files and programs that make up your computer's operating system. System files include libraries of functions, system services, drivers for printers and other hardware, system preferences, and other configuration files. The programs that are part of the system software include assemblers, compilers, file management tools, system utilites, and debuggers.

Operating Systems(OS)

An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a bootprogram, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user interface (GUI).

Functions of an OS

Multitasking:In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn.

Memory Management : It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.

IO handling : It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports.

Process Management : It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.

It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that the initiating application is freed from this work.

Parallel Processing :On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.

All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require and sometimes include an operating system. Linux, Windows, VMS, OS/400, AIX, and z/OS are all examples of operating systems.

Application Programs   

An application program (sometimes shortened to application) is any program designed to perform a

specific function directly for the user or, in some cases, for another application program. Examples of

application programs include word processors; database programs; Web browsers; development tools;

drawing, paint, and image editing programs; and communication programs. Application programs use the

services of the computer's operating system and other supporting programs. The formal requests for

services and means of communicating with other programs that a programmer uses in writing an

application program is called the application program interface (API)

Translator ProgramsA computer language translator is a program that translates a set of code written in one programming language into a functional equivalent of the code in another programming language. The different types of computer translators are interpreters, source-to-source compilers, standard compilers, decompilers, assemblers and disassemblers.

 CON

ASSEMBLER An assembler translates assembly language into machine code. Assembly language consists of mnemonics for machine opcodes so assemblers perform a 1:1 translation from mnemonics to a direct instruction. For example:

LDA #4  converts to  0001001000100100

Conversely, one instruction in a high level language will translate to one or more instructions at machine level.

Advantages of using an Assembler:

Very fast in translating assembly language to machine code as 1 to 1 relationship

Assembly code is often very efficient (and therefore fast) because it is a low level language

Assembly code is fairly easy to understand due to the use of English-like mnemonics

Disadvantages of using Assembler:

 Assembly language is written for a certain instruction set and/or processor

 Assembly tends to be optimised for the hardware it's designed for, meaning it is often incompatible with different hardware

 Lots of assembly code is needed to do relatively simple tasks, and complex programs require lots of programming time

COMPILER A Compiler is a computer program that translates code written in a high level language to a lower level language, object/machine code. The most common reason for translating source code is to create an executable program (converting from a high level language into machine language).

Advantages of using a compiler

Source code is not included, therefore compiled code is more secure than interpreted code

Tends to produce faster code than interpreting source code

Produces an executable file, and therefore the program can be run without need of the source code

Disadvantages of using a compiler

 Object code needs to be produced before a final executable file, this can be a slow process

 The source code must be 100% correct for the executable file to be produced

INTERPRETER[EDIT ]An interpreter program executes other programs directly, running through program code and executing it line-by-line. As it analyses every line, an interpreter is slower than running compiled code but it can take less time to interpret program code than to compile and then run it — this is very useful when prototyping and testing code. Interpreters are written for multiple platforms, this means code written once can be run immediately on different systems without having to recompile for each. Examples of this include flash based web programs that will run on your PC, MAC, games console and Mobile phone.

Advantages of using an Interpreter

Easier to debug(check errors) than a compiler

Easier to create multi-platform code, as each different platform would have an interpreter to run the same code

Useful for prototyping software and testing basic program logic

Disadvantages of using an Interpreter

 Source code is required for the program to be executed, and this source code can be read making it insecure

 Interpreters are generally slower than compiled programs due to the per-line translation method

Programming LanguagesComputer programming language, are used for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital computer.

Machine and assembly languages are “low-level,” requiring a programmer to manage explicitly all of a computer’s low level features of data storage and operation. Low level languages are harder to code and debug.

In contrast, high-level languages for providing instructions to the is more easily written and read by programmers without having to learn low level languages.

Different Types of Programming Languages

MACHINE AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGES A machine language consists of the numeric codes for the operations that a particular computer can execute directly. The codes are strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits (“bits”), which are frequently converted both from and to hexadecimal (base 16) for human viewing and modification. Machine language instructions use bits (0’s or 1’s) to represent operations, such as addition, and some to represent operands, or perhaps the location of the next instruction. Machine language is difficult to read and write and its codes vary from computer to computer.

Assembly language is one level above machine language. It uses short mnemoni ccodes for instructions and allows the programmer to introduce names for blocks of memory that hold data. One might thus write “add pay, total” instead of “0110101100101000” for an instruction that adds two numbers.

Assembly language requires detailed knowledge of internal computer architecture. It is useful when such details are important, as in programming a computer to interact withinput/output devices (printers, scanners, storage devices, and so forth).

ALGORITHMIC LANGUAGESAlgorithmic languages are designed to express mathematical or symbolic computations. They can express algebraic operations in notation similar to mathematics and allow the use of subprograms that package commonly used operations for reuse. They were the first high-level languages.

FORTRANThe first important algorithmic language was FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation), designed in 1957 by an IBM team led by John Backus. It was intended for scientific computations with real numbers and collections of them organized as one- or multidimensional arrays. Its control structures included conditional IF statements, repetitive loops (so-called DO loops), and a GOTO statement that allowed nonsequential execution of program code

ALGOLALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language) was during 1958–60 for publishing algorithms, as well as for doing computations. ALGOL had recursive subprograms—procedures that could invoke themselves to solve a problem by reducing it to a smaller problem of the same kind. ALGOL introduced block structure, in which a program is composed of blocks that might contain both data and instructions and have the same structure as an entire programALGOL contributed a notation for describing the structure of a programming language, Backus–Naur Form, which in some variation became the standard tool for stating the syntax (grammar) of programming languages.

CThe C programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan at the AT&T Corporation for programming computer operating systems. It uses a compact notation and provides the programmer with the ability to operate with the addresses of data as well as with their values. This ability is important in systems programming, and C shares with assembly language the power to exploit all the features of a computer’s internal architecture. C++ is a descendant of C.

BUSINESS-ORIENTED LANGUAGESCOBOL

COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) has been heavily used by businesses since its inception in 1959. English like language representation. COBOL introduced the record data structure for such tasks. A record clusters heterogeneous data such as a name, ID number, age, and address into a single unit

SQLSQL (structured query language) is a language for specifying the organization of databases (collections of records). Databases organized with SQL are called relational because SQL provides the ability to query a database for information that falls in a given relation. For example, a query might be “find all records with both last_name Smith and city New York.” Commercial database programs commonly use a SQL-like language for their queries.

EDUCATION-ORIENTED LANGUAGESBASIC

BASIC (beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code) was designed atDartmouth College in the mid-1960s by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz. It was intended to be easy to learn by novices, particularly non-computer science majors, and to run well on a time-sharing computer with many users. It had simple data structures and notation and it was interpreted: a BASIC program was translated line-by-line and executed as it was translated, which made it easy to locate programming errors.Its small size and simplicity also made BASIC a popular language for early personal computers. Its recent forms have adopted many of the data and control structures of other contemporary languages, which makes it more powerful but less convenient for beginners.

PASCALAbout 1970 Niklaus Wirth of Switzerland designed Pascal to teach structured programming, which emphasized the orderly use of conditional and loop control structures without GOTO statements. Similar to AlGOL. User-defined data types allowed the programmer to introduce names for complex data, which the language translator could then check for correct usage before running a program.During the late 1970s and ’80s, Pascal was one of the most widely used languages for programming instruction.

OBJECT-ORIENTED LANGUAGESObject-oriented languages help to manage complexity in large programs. Objects package data and the operations on them so that only the operations are publicly accessible and internal details of the data structures are hidden. This information hiding made large-scale programming easier by allowing a programmer to think about each part of the program in isolation.

C++

The C++ language, developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T in the mid-1980s, extended C by adding objects to it while preserving the efficiency of C programs. It has been one of the most important languages for both education and industrial programming. Large parts of many operating systems, such as the Microsoft Corporation’s Windows 98, were written in C++++.

JAVAIn the early 1990s, Java was designed by Sun Microsystems, Inc., as a programming language for the World Wide Web (WWW). Although it resembled C++++ in appearance, it was fully object-oriented. In particular, Java dispensed with lower-level features, including the ability to manipulate data addresses, a capability that is neither desirable nor useful in programs for distributed systems. In order to be portable, Java programs are translated by a Java Virtual Machine specific to each computer platform, which then executes the Java program. In addition to adding interactive capabilities to the Internet through Web “applets,” Java has been widely used for programming small and portable devices, such as mobile telephones.

WORLD WIDE WEB DISPLAY LANGUAGES HTMLThe World Wide Web is a system for displaying text, graphics, and audio retrieved over the Internet on a computer monitor. Each retrieval unit is known as a Web page, and such pages frequently contain “links” that allow related pages to be retrieved. HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the markup language for encoding Web pages. It was designed by Tim Berners-Lee at the CERN nuclear physics laboratory in Switzerland during the 1980s and is defined by an SGML DTD. HTML markup tags specify document elements such as headings, paragraphs, and tables. They mark up a document for display by a computer program known as a Web browser. The browser interprets the tags, displaying the headings, paragraphs, and tables in a layout that is adapted to the screen size and fonts available to it.WEB SCRIPTINGJAVASCRIPT AND PHPAnother approach is to use a language designed for Web scripts to be executed by the browser. JavaScript is one such language, designed by the Netscape Communications Corp., which may be used with both Netscape’s and Microsoft’s browsers. JavaScript is a simple language, quite different from Java. A JavaScript program may be embedded in a Web page with the HTML tag <script language=“JavaScript”>. JavaScript instructions following that tag will be executed by the browser when the page is selected. Javascript is client side scripting language.

PHP is a server side scripting language similar to UNIX shell scripting notation.

COMPUTER GRAPHICSWhat is Computer Graphics?

_ A set of tools to create, manipulate and interact with pictures._ Data (synthetic or natural) is visualized through geometric shapes,colors, textures._ Exploits the pattern recognition capabilities of the human visual system.

_ Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) - means to interact with complexApplications Scientific, Engineering, Business and Educational applications.

What can we do with Computer Graphics?_ A core technology and infrastructure for drawing programs._ Pervasive across scientific, engineering, business and educational

applications.

RAY TRACING

Ray tracing (also called raytracing, ray-tracing or ray casting) is a technique for presenting three-dimensional (3D) images on a two-dimensional (2D) display by tracing a path of light through pixels on an image plane.

A ray tracing program mathematically identifies and reproduces the path that each light ray follows in reverse direction from the eye back to its point of origin.

The path of each light ray consists of multiple straight-line components and nearly always involves reflection, refraction, or shadow effects from points within the scene.

In animation, the position and orientation of the straight-line components of each ray constantly vary so each ray is represented by a mathematical equation that defines its path through space as a function of time.

Rays are assigned a color based on the pigments the objects in the scene that the ray passes through and each pixel on the display corresponds to a ray.

Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to produce realistic illumination effects using the traditional rendering methods.  Even many computer aided design (CAD) programs which accuratley model objects are unable to model light.     Some modeling programs even allow architects to introduce light into a picture, specifying the light's location, orientation, color, and distibution.  These features help designers to create effects such as shadows and specular highlights, however, they still fail to model the physical reality that objects interact  with light.  In order to accurately model the true behavior of light in a given environment, we must consider all of the light in that environment, and acknowledge that real light is reflected, refracted, diffused, and absorbed.

    Architects are primarily interested in creating visually realistic images. Backwards ray tracing, combined with radiosity techniques, is often the most useful method for architectural rendering. Because modeling light is so essential to the field, the development of programs that incorporate ray tracing has been a dream come true for many architects.  Global illumination technology is succeeding in bringing architectural design to life.

1. RAY TRACING IN THEATER AND TELEVISION L IGHTING DESIGN

    Because ray tracing allows visually realistic modeling of light, the technology can be usefully applied in the areas of theater and television lighting.  Without the abilty to model physically correct images, stage lighting setups can take extreme amounts of effort.  Many stage and television productions require hundreds of individual lights that must be positioned, aimed, and filtered.  It is also necessary for lights to be switched, redirected, and dimmed while a production is actually in progress.  Ray tracing allows set and lighting designers, actors, and directors to develop and visualize complex lighting setups months before a production ever opens.

2. RAY TRACING AS A TOOL FOR ENGINEERS

    Ray tracing is capable of considering all of the light in a given environment (termed global illumination).  Global illumination is a physically correct model, which accurately simulates light's behavior in a real physical environment.  This proves to be extremely useful to lighting designers, solar energy researchers, and mechanical engineers

  Engineers use the technology to predict illumination levels, luminance gradients, and visual performance criteria.  Global illumination is a valuable engineering tool in that it allows us to quantitatively analyze the distribution and directionality of light and  research radiant heat transfer.  This is helping us to progress in everything from lighting and heating rooms more effeciently, to  creating solar energy concentrators for aerospace applications.  

3. RAY TRACING IN ANIMATION

    Questions surrounding animation have interested computer scientists for several decades.  Advancements in computer graphics including developments in ray tracing have opened up world of possibility in the field.  Traditionally, individual frames of animated works were drawn by hand.  Movement was simulated through  a complex series frame adjustment steps.  There is still a strong sense of nostalgia for traditional methods of animation, however, computer graphics are playing a stronger and stronger role in the process.     Computer animation is executed on model worlds before they are rendered by a ray tracer. This technique can be highly optimized.     Ray tracing can be used to add "fancy" effects such as reflection and shadowing that are often difficult  and time consuming for traditional artists to produce. Graphical technology is also capable of rendering photorealistic images that would be nearlt impossible to produce without computerized ray tracing.     Examples of computer graphics and ray tracing in modern animation include advanced reflection, shadowing, and specularity.

MULTIMEDIA Multimedia has become an inevitable part of any presentation. It has found avariety of applications right from entertainment to education. The evolution of internethas also increased the demand for multimedia content.

Definition

Multimedia is the media that uses multiple forms of information content andinformation processing (e.g. text, audio, graphics, animation, video, interactivity) toinform or entertain the user. Multimedia also refers to the use of electronic media to storeand experience multimedia content. Multimedia is similar to traditional mixed media infine art, but with a broader scope. The term "rich media" is synonymous for interactivemultimedia.

1.2 Elements of Multimedia SystemMultimedia means that computer information can be represented through audio,graphics, image, video and animation in addition to traditional media(text and graphics).Hypermedia can be considered as one type of particular multimedia application.Multimedia is a combination of content forms:Audio

1.3 Categories of MultimediaMultimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories. Linearactive content progresses without any navigation control for the viewer such as a cinemapresentation. Non-linear content offers user interactivity to control progress as used witha computer game or used in self-paced computer based training. Non-linear content isalso known as hypermedia content.Multimedia presentations can be live or recorded. A recorded presentation mayallow interactivity via a navigation system. A live multimedia presentation may allowinteractivity via interaction with the presenter or performer.1.4 Features of MultimediaMultimedia presentations may be viewed in person on stage, projected,transmitted, or played locally with a media player. A broadcast may be a live or recordedmultimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be either analog or digitalelectronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed.Streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand.Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment withspecial effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offlinecomputer, game system, or simulator.Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple formsof media content But depending on what multimedia content you have it may varyOnline multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enablingapplications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multipleforms of content over time. Examples of these range from multiple forms of content onweb sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to

simulations whose co-efficient, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable,allowing the multimedia "experience" to be altered without reprogramming.1.5 Applications of MultimediaMultimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to,advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics,business, scientific research and spatial, temporal applications.A few application areas of multimedia are listed below:Creative industriesCreative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging fromfine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and softwareservices provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimediadesigner may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skillsrange from technical, to analytical and to creative.CommercialMuch of the electronic old and new media utilized by commercial artists ismultimedia. Exciting presentations are used to grab and keep attention inadvertising. Industrial, business to business, and interoffice communications areoften developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentationsbeyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven-up training. Commercialmultimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services andnonprofit services applications as well.Entertainment and Fine ArtsIn addition, multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry,especially to develop special effects in movies and animations. Multimedia gamesare a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs oronline. Some video games also use multimedia features.Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of justsitting by as passive recipients of information are called Interactive Multimedia.EducationIn Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based trainingcourses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopaedia andalmanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about aparticular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats.Edutainment is an informal term used to describe combining education withentertainment, especially multimedia entertainment.EngineeringSoftware engineers may use multimedia in Computer Simulations foranything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training.Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as collaboration betweencreative professionals and software engineers.IndustryIn the Industrial sector, multimedia is used as a way to help presentinformation to shareholders, superiors and coworkers. Multimedia is also helpfulfor providing employee training, advertising and selling products all over theworld via virtually unlimited web-based technologies.Mathematical and Scientific Research

In Mathematical and Scientific Research, multimedia is mainly used formodeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular modelof a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance.Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal ofMultimedia.MedicineIn Medicine, doctors can get trained by looking at a virtual surgery or theycan simulate how the human body is affected by diseases spread by viruses andbacteria and then develop techniques to prevent it.Multimedia in Public PlacesIn hotels, railway stations, shopping malls, museums, and grocery stores,multimedia will become available at stand-alone terminals or kiosks to provideinformation and help. Such installation reduce demand on traditional informationbooths and personnel, add value, and they can work around the clock, even in themiddle of the night, when live help is off duty.A menu screen from a supermarket kiosk that provide services rangingfrom meal planning to coupons. Hotel kiosk list nearby restaurant, maps of thecity, airline schedules, and provide guest services such as automated checkout.Printers are often attached so users can walk away with a printed copy of theinformation. Museum kiosk are not only used to guide patrons through theexhibits, but when installed at each exhibit, provide great added depth, allowingvisitors to browser though richly detailed information specific to that display.1.6 Convergence of Multimedia (Virtual Reality)At the convergence of technology and creative invention in multimedia is virtualreality, or VR. Goggles, helmets, special gloves, and bizarre human interfaces attempt toplace you “inside” a lifelike experience. Take a step forward, and the view gets closer,turn your head, and the view rotates. Reach out and grab an object; your hand moves infront of you. Maybe the object explodes in a 90-decibel crescendo as you wrap yourfingers around it. Or it slips out from your grip, falls to the floor, and hurriedly escapesthrough a mouse hole at the bottom of the wall.VR requires terrific computing horsepower to be realistic. In VR, your cyberspaceis made up of many thousands of geometric objects plotted in three-dimensional space:the more objects and the more points that describe the objects, the higher resolution andthe more realistic your view. As the user moves about, each motion or action requires thecomputer to recalculate the position, angle size, and shape of all the objects that make upyour view, and many thousands of computations must occur as fast as 30 times persecond to seem smooth.On the World Wide Web, standards for transmitting virtual reality worlds or“scenes” in VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) documents (with the file nameextension .wrl) have been developed.Using high-speed dedicated computers, multi-million-dollar flight simulators builtby singer, RediFusion, and others have led the way in commercial application ofVR.Pilots of F-16s, Boeing 777s, and Rockwell space shuttles have made many dry runsbefore doing the real thing. At the California Maritime academy and other merchantmarine officer training schools, computer-controlled simulators teach the intricate loadingand unloading of oil tankers and container ships.

Specialized public game arcades have been built recently to offer VR combat andflying experiences for a price. From virtual World Entertainment in walnut Greek,California, and Chicago, for example, BattleTech is a ten-minute interactive videoencounter with hostile robots. You compete against others, perhaps your friends, whoshare coaches in the same containment Bay. The computer keeps score in a fast andsweaty firefight. Similar “attractions” will bring VR to the public, particularly a youthfulpublic, with increasing presence during the 1990s.The technology and methods for working with three-dimensional images andfor animating them are discussed. VR is an extension of multimedia-it uses the basicmultimedia elements of imagery, sound, and animation. Because it requires instrumentedfeedback from a wired-up person, VR is perhaps interactive multimedia at its fullestextension.

1.7 Stages of Multimedia Application DevelopmentA Multimedia application is developed in stages as all other software are beingdeveloped. In multimedia application development a few stages have to complete beforeother stages being, and some stages may be skipped or combined with other stages.Following are the four basic stages of multimedia project development :1. Planning and Costing : This stage of multimedia application is the first stagewhich begins with an idea or need. This idea can be further refined by outliningits messages and objectives. Before starting to develop the multimedia project, itis necessary to plan what writing skills, graphic art, music, video and othermultimedia expertise will be required.It is also necessary to estimate the time needed to prepare all elements ofmultimedia and prepare a budget accordingly. After preparing a budget, aprototype or proof of concept can be developed.

2. Designing and Producing : The next stage is to execute each of the plannedtasks and create a finished product.

3. Testing : Testing a project ensure the product to be free from bugs. Apart frombug elimination another aspect of testing is to ensure that the multimediaapplication meets the objectives of the project. It is also necessary to test whetherthe multimedia project works properly on the intended deliver platforms and theymeet the needs of the clients.

4. Delivering : The final stage of the multimedia application development is to packthe project and deliver the completed project to the end user. This stage hasseveral steps such as implementation, maintenance, shipping and marketing the product.

CAD/CAM – Graphics

WHAT IS CAD/CAM?

CAD/CAM (computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing) refers to computer software that is used to both design and manufacture products.

CAD is the use of computer technology for design and design documentation. CAD/CAM applications are used to both design a product and program manufacturing processes, specifically, CNC machining. CAM software uses the models and assemblies created in CAD software to generate tool paths that drive the machines that turn the designs into physical parts. CAD/CAM software is most often used for machining of prototypes and finished parts.

AUTODESK CAM SOLUTIONS

HSMWorks and Inventor HSM software are integrated CAM solutions. Whether you are producing prototypes or finished parts, these products put you in control by delivering:

INTEGRATION

Seamless integration with Inventor 3D CAD software and SolidWorks offers an intuitive user experience.

PERFORMANCE

Native multicore, 64-bit CAM engine makes easier work of the most demanding tool path calculations and post-processing jobs.

QUALITY

Efficient tool paths reduce cycle time, reduce machine and tool wear, and produce the highest-quality finished parts.

Graphics Application Programs

graphics software refers to a program or collection of programs that enable a person to manipulate images or models visually on a computer. These are the application software which lets the user to create and manipulate any type of computer graphics with the use of an operating system.

Computer graphics can be classified into distinct categories: raster graphics and vector graphics, with further 2D and 3d variants. Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster graphics, but there are a few that combine them in interesting ways. It is simple to convert from vector graphics to raster graphics, but going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do this.

In addition to static graphics, there are animation and video editing software. Different types of software are often designed to edit different types of graphics such as video, photos, and drawings. The exact sources of graphics may vary for different tasks, but most can read and write files.

Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or more graphics file formats, including those formats written for a particular computer graphics program. Examples of such programs include GIMP,Adobe Photoshop, Pizap, Microsoft Publisher, Picasa, etc.

Raster Graphics 1. Adobe Photoshop - Adobe Photoshop is a raster graphics editor developed and published

by Adobe Systems for Mac OS and Windows.Photoshop was created in 1988 by Thomas and John Knoll. Since then, it has become the de facto industry standard inraster graphics editing, such that the word "photoshop" has become a verb as in "to Photoshop an image," "photoshopping" and "photoshop contest", though Adobe discourages such use. It can edit and compose raster imagesin multiple layers and supports masks, alpha compositing and several color models including RGB, CMYK, Lab color space,spot color and duotone. Photoshop has vast support forgraphic file formats but also uses its

own PSD  and PSB  file formats which support all the aforementioned features. In addition to raster graphics, it has limited abilities to edit or render text, vector graphics (especially through clipping path),3D graphics and video. Photoshop's featureset can be expanded by Photoshop plug-ins, 

2. GNU Image Manipulation Program - GIMP /ɡɪmp/ (GNU Image Manipulation Program) is a free and open-source raster graphics editor [7]  used for imageretouching and editing, free-form drawing, resizing, cropping,photo-montages, converting between different image formats, and more specialized tasks.GIMP is released under GPLv3+ licenses and is available forLinux, OS X, and Windows.

3. Corel Painter - Corel Painter is a raster-based digital art application created to simulate as accurately as possible the appearance and behavior of traditional media associated with drawing, painting, and printmaking. It is intended to be used in real-time by professional digital artists as a functional creative tool.

4. Microsoft Paint - Microsoft Paint[1][2] is a simple computer graphics app that has been included with all versions of Microsoft Windows. The app mainly opens and saves files as Windows bitmap(24-bit, 256 color, 16 color, and monochrome, all with the.bmp extension), JPEG, GIF (without animation or transparency,

Multimedia – Special Effects

Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is the application of computer graphics to create or contribute to images in art, printed media, video games, films, television programs, shorts, commercials, videos, and simulators. The visual scenes may be dynamic or static, and may be two-dimensional (2D), though the term "CGI" is most commonly used to refer to 3D computer graphics used for creating scenes or special effects in films and television. Additionally, the use of 2D CGI is often mistakenly referred to as "traditional animation", most often in the case when dedicated animation software such as Adobe Flash or Toon Boom is not used or the CGI is hand drawn using a tablet and mouse.

The term 'CGI animation' refers to dynamic CGI rendered as a movie. The term virtual world refers to agent-based, interactive environments. Computer graphics software is used to make computer-generated imagery for films, etc. Availability of CGI software and increased computer speeds have allowed individual artists and small companies to produce professional-grade films, games, and fine art from their home computers. This has brought about an Internet subculture with its own set of global celebrities, clichés, and technical vocabulary. The evolution of CGI led to the emergence of virtual cinematography in the 1990s where runs of the simulated camera are not constrained by the laws of physics.

Vector Graphics

A vector graphics editor is a computer program that allows users to compose and edit vector graphics images interactively on a computer and save them in one of many popular vector graphics formats, such asEPS, PDF, WMF, SVG, or VML.

Recent versions of bitmap editors such as GIMP and Adobe Photoshop support vector tools (e.g. editable paths), and vector editors such as Adobe Fireworks, Adobe FreeHand, Adobe Illustrator, Affinity Designer, Animatron, Artboard,Autodesk Graphic (formerly iDraw), CorelDRAW, Inkscape, sK1 or Xara Photo & Graphic Designer have adopted raster effects that were once limited to bitmap editors (e.g. blurring).

1. Adobe Illustrator - Adobe Illustrator was first developed for the Apple Macintoshin December 1986 (shipping in January 1987) as a commercialization of Adobe's in-house font developmentsoftware and PostScript file format. Adobe Illustrator is the companion product of Adobe Photoshop. Photoshop is primarily geared toward digital photo manipulation and photorealistic styles of computer illustration, while Illustrator provides results in the typesetting and logo graphic areas of design

2. CorelDraw (styled CorelDRAW) is a vector graphics editor developed and marketed by Corel Corporation of Ottawa, Canada. It is also the name of Corel's Graphics Suite, which bundles CorelDraw with bitmap-image editor Corel Photo-Paintas well as other graphics-related programs (see below). The latest version is designated X8 (equivalent to version 18), and was released in March 2016.[1] Corel Draw is designed to edit two-dimensional images such as logos and posters.

UNIT 2 OPERATING SYSTEMS

An operating system is a program that manages a computer’s hardware. It also provides a basis for application programs and acts as an intermediary between the computer user and the computer hardware.

DOS - Brief Outline of DOS – Command Prompt Mode

Backup Files Change the Default Drive CHDIR (CD) Change Directory Command COPY Command DIR (Directory) Command ERASE Command File-Naming Conventions FORMAT Command MKDIR (MD) Make Directory Command Rebooting the computer (Ctrl-Alt-Del) RENAME (REN) Command RMDIR (RD) Remove Directory Command Stop Execution (Ctrl-Break)

Introduction

DOS (an acronym for Disk Operation System) is a tool which allows you to control the operation of the IBM PC. DOS is software which was written to control hardware. To access DOS from Windows type Cmd in the run menu to open up the Command Prompt mode of the DOS Shell. You may need to know DOS if you work with a DOS based Java Development Environment, Turbo C, C++ editors. Windows based IDE are available for the same softwares.

Backup Files

It is possible to lose files by mistake, although the more you practice the less likely it becomes. For your own peace of mind, it is good practice to make backup copies of your most valuable files on a separate diskette. Store your backup disk in a safe place and don't carry it through a metal detector. Use the COPY command to create the backup.

There is no need to backup every file you create, only the ones in which you've invested much work. Also, prune your backup diskette every week or two using the ERASE command. Backup files which have been made redundant by subsequent additions will simply create clutter on your backup diskette. An effective file naming convention is essential to keeping track of your backups.

Change the Default Drive

To change the default drive, simply type the letter of the your choice. The new default will be listed in subsequent DOS prompts.

Example:

C> A: [enter] Changes the default drive from C to A. A> C: [enter] Changes the default drive from A to C.

[enter] means that you must press the Enter Key before the format command will execute. [Enter] is required after any DOS command, it is assumed in all commands found below.

CHDIR (CD) Change Directory Command

Once you have located the directory you want, you may move from directory to directory using the CD command (change directory)

Example:

C> cd furniture Moves you to the directory called 'FURNITURE' C> cd \furniture\chairs Moves you to the directory called 'CHAIRS' under the directory called 'FURNITURE'. C> cd .. Moves you up one level in the path. C> cd \ Takes you back to the root directory (c: in this case).

COPY Command

The COPY command can be used both to copy files from disk to disk or to create a second copy of a file on a single disk. (There are many more uses of the COPY command, but only the basic operation is discussed here.)

Example:

C> copy c:kermit.exe a: Copies the file 'KERMIT.EXE' from the C drive to the A drive and gives it the same name. C> copy a:brazil1.dat b:\south\brazil2.dat Creates a copy of 'BRAZIL1.DAT' from drive A on drive B, putting it in the 'SOUTH'

subdirectory and renaming it 'BRAZIL2.DAT'.

The key to use this command correctly is to remember that the first file specified after the COPY command is the source file, the second is the target:ehp1 file. The source is the file to be copied. The target will be the location and name of the new file. If the file name and extension are omitted after the target's drive specification, the new file will have exactly the same name as the source file.

Example:

C> copy a:myfile.txt b: C> copy c:command.com b:com.com C> copy b:golly.gee a:whao.boy C> copy command.* a:

C> copy a:mymap.dwg c:\maps

Note: it is always good practice to us the complete file specifications for both source and target files, Be very sure of yourself before you accept defaults or employ wild-card characters. Otherwise you may end up with some interesting results. Incomplete or incorrect source names may result in errors, such as the command: copy edlin a:myomy.bat. Try it and see what happens.

DIR (Directory) Command

The DIRECTORY command lists the names and sizes of all files located on a particular disk.

Example:

C> dir a: Shows directory of drive A C> dir b: Shows directory of drive B C> dir \agis Shows files in a subdirectory on drive C (default) C> dir Shows directory of drive C C> dir /w Shows directory in wide format, as opposed to a vertical listing.

All the files are listed at the screen, you can stop the display by typing CTRL-BREAK. If you ask for a directory on the A or B drives, be sure there is a diskette in the drive and that the diskette has been formatted. If the drive is empty, or if the diskette is unformatted, the DOS will respond with an error message.

DIR Options

Two little characters, '*' and '?', will make your life with computers much easier. Their use is illustrated below.

Example:

C> dir a:*.ex Lists all files on the A drive with an extension of 'EXE'. C> dir b:kermit.*

Lists all files on the B drive with a filename of 'KERMIT'.

The asterisk is a wild-card character which allows the user to enter only a limited part of a file specification to find a file. It is useful when you wish to locate a group of files with the same filename or the same extension. On other occasions you may have forgotten part of a file specification. You can use '*' in place of the parts of the specification you have forgotten. Similarly, '?' permits wild-card searches keyed to single characters.

Example:

C> dir a:labe?.com Lists all five-letter files with the first four letters 'LABE' and an extension of 'COM'. C> dir b:format.c?? Lists all files with a filename of 'FORMAT' and an extension beginning with 'C'.

Wild-card characters can be used in combination.

Example:

C> dir a:labe?.* Lists all five-letter files with the first four letters 'LABE' and any extension. C> dir c:*.ex? Lists all files with an extension beginning with 'EX'.

Experiment with '*' and '?' to improve your ability to find files quickly. These wild-card characters can also be used with several other DOS commands.

ERASE Command

The ERASE command deletes specified files.

Example:

C> erase a:myfile.txt Erases the file MYFILE.TXT from the diskette in the A drive. If no drive specification is

entered, the system looks to delete the specified file form drive C (in this case).

IMPORTANT WARNING: This command is easy to use, but it is the most dangerous one you will encounter in DOS (apart form FORMAT). If you aren't careful, you may delete a file which you--or someone else--needs. And, unless you have saved a backup of that file, the erased file is gone for good. For this reason it is good practice to use only complete file specifications with the

ERASE command (and to keep backups of your most valuable files). As a safety precaution, never use the wild-card characters '*' and '?' in ERASE commands.

BEWARE: I will rescind your laboratory privileges for a full week if you ever knowingly use either the command: erase c:*.*, or the command: erase *.*. Guess what happens?

File-Naming Conventions

Careful file naming can save time. Always choose names which provide a clue to the file's contents. If you are working with a series of related files, use a number somewhere in the name to indicate which version you have created. This applies only to the filename parameter; most of the file extension parameters you will be using are predetermined (or reserved by DOS for certain types of file).

Example:

WORLD.DAT An ATLAS*GRAPHICS file containing data for a world map. The DAT extension is required by

ATLAS*GRAPHICS. BRAZIL.BNB A boundary file of Brazil in binary form. BRIT1.DAT BRIT2.DAT BRIT3.DAT Three versions of a data file for a map of Britain.

FORMAT Command

You must format new disks before using them on the IBM computers. The format command checks a diskette for flaws and creates a directory where all the names of the diskette's files will be stored.

Example:

C> format a: Formats the diskette in the A drive. C> format b:

After entering this command, follow the instructions on the screen. When the FORMAT operation is complete, the system will ask if you wish to FORMAT more diskettes. If you are

working with only one diskette, answer N (No) and carry on with you work. If you wish to FORMAT several diskettes, answer Y (Yes) until you have finished formatting all your diskettes.

BEWARE: Executing the format command with a diskette which already contains files will result in the deletion of all the contents of the entire disk. It is best to execute the format command only on new diskettes. If you format an old diskette make sure it contains nothing you wish to save.

MKDIR (MD) Make Directory Command

This command creates a new directory.

Example:

C> mkdir mine Creates a directory called 'MINE'

Rebooting the computer (Ctrl-Alt-Del)

In some cases, when all attempts to recover from a barrage of error messages fails, as a last resort you can reboot the computer. To do this, you press, all at once, the control, alternate and delete.

BEWARE: If you re-boot, you may loose some of your work--any data active in RAM which has not yet been saved to disk.

RENAME (REN) Command

The RENAME command permits users to change the name of a file without making a copy of it.

Example:

C> ren a:goofy.txt pluto.txt Changes the name of 'GOOFY.TXT' on the A drive to 'PLUTO.TXT'.

This command is very simple to use, just remember two points: the file name and extension must be complete for the source file and no drive specification is given for the target. Renaming can only occur on a single disk drive (otherwise COPY must be used).

RMDIR (RD) Remove Directory Command

This command removes a directory. It is only possible to execute this command if the directory you wish to remove is empty.

Example:

C> rd mine Removes directory called 'MINE'.

Stop Execution (Ctrl-Break)

If you wish to stop the computer in the midst of executing the current command, you may use the key sequence Ctrl-Break. Ctrl-Break does not always work with non-DOS commands. Some software packages block its action in certain situations, but it is worth trying before you re-boot.

WINDOWS OSWindows OS, computer operating system (OS) developed by Microsoft Corporation to run personal computers (PCs). Featuring the first graphical user interface (GUI) for IBM-compatible PCs, the Windows OS soon dominated the PC market. Approximately 90 percent of PCs run some version of Windows.The first version of Windows, released in 1985, was simply a GUI offered as an extension of Microsoft’s existing disk operating system, or MS-DOS. Based in part on licensed concepts that Apple Inc. had used for its Macintosh System Software, Windows for the first time allowed DOS users to visually navigate a virtual desktop, opening graphical “windows” displaying the contents of electronic folders and files with the click of a mouse button, rather than typing commands and directory paths at a text prompt.Subsequent versions introduced greater functionality, including native Windows File Manager, Program Manager, and Print Manager programs, and a more dynamic interface. Microsoft also developed specialized Windows packages, including the networkable Windows for Workgroups and the high-powered Windows NT, aimed at businesses. The 1995 consumer release Windows 95 fully integrated Windows and DOS and offered built-in Internet support, including the World Wide Web browser Internet Explorer.

UNIX/LINUX

UNIX operating System. It is open source as its source code is freely available. It is free to use. Linux was designed considering UNIX compatibility. Its functionality list is quite similar to that of UNIX.

Components of Linux SystemLinux Operating System has primarily three components

Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating system. It consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application programs.

System Library − System libraries are special functions or programs using which application programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implement most of the functionalities of the operating system and do not requires kernel module's code access rights.

System Utility − System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks.

Kernel Mode vs User ModeKernel component code executes in a special privileged mode called kernel mode with full access to all resources of the computer. This code represents a single process, executes in single address space and do not require any context switch and hence is very efficient and fast. Kernel runs each processes and provides system services to processes, provides protected access to hardware to processes.

Support code which is not required to run in kernel mode is in System Library. User programs and other system programs works in User Mode which has no access to system hardware and kernel code. User programs/ utilities use System libraries to access Kernel functions to get system's low level tasks.

Basic Features

Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.

Portable − Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in same way. Linux kernel and application programs supports their installation on any kind of hardware platform.

Open Source − Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development project. Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance the capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously evolving.

Multi-User − Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.

Multiprogramming − Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at same time.

Hierarchical File System − Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/ user files are arranged.

Shell − Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations, call application programs. etc.

Security − Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

ArchitectureThe following illustration shows the architecture of a Linux system −

The architecture of a Linux System consists of the following layers −

Hardware layer − Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc).

Kernel − It is the core component of Operating System, interacts directly with hardware, provides low level services to upper layer components.

Shell − An interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users. The shell takes commands from the user and executes kernel's functions.

Utilities − Utility programs that provide the user most of the functionalities of an operating systems.

MAC OS

The family of Macintosh operating systems developed by Apple Inc. includes the graphical user interface-based operating systems it has designed for use with its Macintosh series of personal computers since 1984, as well as the related system software it once created for compatible third-party systems.

In 1984, Apple debuted the operating system that is now known as the "Classic" Mac OS with its release of the original Macintosh System Software. The system, rebranded "Mac OS" in 1996, was preinstalled on every Macintosh until 2002 and offered on Macintosh clones for a short time in the 1990s. Noted for its ease of use, it was also criticized for its lack of modern technologies compared to its competitors.[1][2]

The current Mac operating system is macOS, originally named "Mac OS X" until 2012 and then "OS X" until 2016.[3] Developed between 1997 and 2001 after Apple's purchase of NeXT, Mac OS X brought an entirely new architecture based on NeXTSTEP, a Unix system, that eliminated many of the technical challenges that faced the classic Mac OS. The current macOS is preinstalled with every Mac and is updated annually.[4] It is the basis of Apple's current system software for its other devices, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS.[5]

Prior to the introduction of Mac OS X, Apple experimented with several other concepts, releasing different products designed to bring the Macintosh interface or applications to Unix-like systems or vice versa, A/UX, MAE, and MkLinux. Apple's effort to expand upon and develop a replacement for its classic Mac OS in the 1990s led to a few cancelled projects, code named Star Trek, Taligent, and Copland.

Although they have different architectures, the Macintosh operating systems share a common set of GUI principles, including a menu bar across the top of the screen; the Finder shell, featuring a desktop metaphor that represents files and applications using icons and relates concepts like directories and file deletion to real-world objects like folders and a trash can; and overlapping windows for multitasking. The Macintosh is credited with having popularized this concept.[6]

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

BATCH SYSTEMS

To avoid the problems of early systems the batch processing systems were introduced. The problem of early systems was more setup time. So the problem of more set up time was reduced by processing the jobs in batches, known as batch processing system. In this approach similar jobs were submitted to the CPU for processing and were run together.

The main function of a batch processing system is to automatically keep executing the jobs in a batch. This is the important task of a batch processing system i.e. performed by the 'Batch Monitor' resided in the low end of main memory.

This technique was possible due to the invention of hard-disk drives and card readers. Now the jobs could be stored on the disk to create the pool of jobs for its execution as a batch. First the pooled jobs are read and executed by the batch monitor, and then these jobs are grouped; placing the identical jobs (jobs with the similar needs) in the same batch, So, in the batch processing system, the batched jobs were executed automatically one after another saving its time by performing the activities (like loading of compiler) only for once. It resulted in improved system utilization due to reduced turn around time.

In the early job processing systems, the jobs were placed in a job queue and the memory allocateor managed the primary memory space, when space was available in the main memory, a job was selected from the job queue and was loaded into memory.

Once the job loaded into primary memory, it competes for the processor. When the processor became available, the processor scheduler selects job that was loaded in the memory and execute it. In batch strategy is implemented to provide a batch file processing. So in this approach files of

the similar batch are processed to speed up the task.

In batch processing system, earlier; the jobs were scheduled in the order of their arrival i.e. First Come First Served (FCFS).Even though this scheduling method was easy and simple to implement but unfair for the situations where long jobs are queued ahead of the short jobs. To overcome this problem, another scheduling method named as 'Shortest Job First' was used. As memory management is concerned, the main memory was partitioned into two fixed partitions. The lower end of this partition was assigned to the resident portion of the OS i.e. named as Batch Monitor. Whereas, the other partition (higher end) was assigned to the user programs.

Though, it was an improved technique in reducing the system setup time but still there were some limitations with this technique like as under-utilization of CPU time, non-interactivity of

user with the running jobs etc. In batch processing system, the jobs of a batch were executed one after another. But while these jobs were performing I/O operations; meantime the CPU was sitting idle resulting to low degree of resource utilization.

ONLINE SYSTEMS

The term 'online' processing is the term used to describe when a user is connected to a computer or network (they are logged in) and are processing the data files at the same time as using the input, output and storage devices. More examples of online and offline processing

A 'network' is a number of computers (more than one) that have been physically connected together. This enables them to communicate with each other and share files and share hardware such as printers. A computer that is part of a network can be either 'online' or 'offline'. If it is offline then it is physically connected to the network but not actually using the resources of the network. It is not logged in to the network. For example, you may have a computer at home that has a modem plugged into your telephone socket. This is known as a 'dial-up connection'. Your computer is part of the Internet. Some people, however, write their emails 'offline'. This means that they actually write their emails without logging on to the Internet. They are writing emails offline because they are not actually using the resources of the network. When they want to send their emails, however, they need to log on to the Internet. As soon as you connect to the Internet via your Internet Service Provider, or ISP, then you go online. You are using the resources of the network to send emails. You are physically connected to the network and you are logged into the network. This is just one example of the meaning of 'online' and 'offline'.

'Online' and 'offline' are terms usually associated with networks. They describe whether a computer or workstation is or isn't using the resources available on the network. In particular, it describes whether or not they are using the processing power available on the network. If the computer or workstation is using the network's processing power then it is said to be online. If it isn't (but is physically connected) then it is said to be offline. The email example is one example where you can be either online or offline. There are other examples. Someone working on a network might be typing in data into a file on their workstation's disk. They are working 'offline'. If this data is then used to update a master file held on the server then the user will go online to do this. They contact the server by logging in, tell it where to find the data stored on disk, the server processes the data and the master file is updated.

Consider another example. Somebody who wants to ask you some questions for a questionnaire stops you in the street. As you give your answers to their questions, they record your responses directly into a database on their tablet PC. When the interviewer goes back to the office, they

transfer all of the responses of all of the people that have been interviewed into the master database held on a central computer. The data is collected offline (because the interviewer is not using the processing power of the main computer) but the data is transferred and analysed online, because the processor in the main computer is required to transfer the data and to work on it.

REAL TIME OS

Embedded computers are the most prevalent form of computers in existence.These devices are found everywhere, from car engines and manufacturingrobots to DVDs and microwave ovens. They tend to have very specific tasks.The systems they run on are usually primitive, and so the operating systems provide limited features. Usually, they have little or no user interface, preferring to spend their time monitoring and managing hardware devices, such as automobile engines and robotic arms.These embedded systems vary considerably. Some are general-purpose computers, running standard operating systems—such as Linux—with special-purpose applications to implement the functionality. Others are hardware devices with a special-purpose embedded operating system providing just the functionality desired.Yet others are hardware devices with applicationspecific integrated circuits (ASICs) that perform their tasks without an operatingsystem.The use of embedded systems continues to expand. The power of these devices, both as standalone units and as elements of networks and the web, is sure to increase as well. Even now, entire houses can be computerized, so that a central computer—either a general-purpose computer or an embedded system—can control heating and lighting, alarm systems, and even coffeemakers. Web access can enable a home owner to tell the house to heat up before she arrives home. Someday, the refrigerator can notify the grocery store when it notices the milk is gone.Embedded systems almost always run real-time operating systems. A real-time system is used when rigid time requirements have been placed on the operation of a processor or the flow of data; thus, it is often used as a control device in a dedicated application. Sensors bring data to the computer. The computer must analyze the data and possibly adjust controls to modify the sensor inputs. Systems that control scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, and certain display systems are realtime systems. Some automobile-engine fuel-injection systems, home-appliance controllers, and weapon systems are also real-time systems. A real-time system has well-defined, fixed time constraints. Processingmust be done within the defined constraints, or the system will fail. For instance, it would not do for a robot arm to be instructed to halt after it had smashed into the car it was building. A real-time system functions correctly only if it returns the correct result within its time constraints.

Contrast this system with a time-sharing system, where it is desirable (but not mandatory) to respond quickly, or a batch system, which may have no time constraints at all.

HARD REAL-TIME SYSTEMSHard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.

SOFT REAL-TIME SYSTEMSSoft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

TIME SHARING

A time sharing system allows many users to share the computer resources simultaneously. In other words, time sharing refers to the allocation of computer resources in time slots to several programs simultaneously. For example a mainframe computer that has many users logged on to it. Each user uses the resources of the mainframe -i.e. memory, CPU etc. The users feel that they are exclusive user of the CPU, even though this is not possible with one CPU i.e. shared among different users.

The time sharing systems were developed to provide an interactive use of the computer system. A time shared system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared computer. It allows many users to share the computer resources simultaneously. As the system switches rapidly from one user to the other, a short time slot is given to each user for their executions.

A time sharing system allows many users to share the computer resources simultaneously. In other words, time sharing refers to the allocation of computer resources in time slots to several programs simultaneously. For example a mainframe computer that has many users logged on to it. Each user uses the resources of the mainframe -i.e. memory, CPU etc. The users feel that they are exclusive user of the CPU, even though this is not possible with one CPU i.e. shared among different users.

The time sharing systems were developed to provide an interactive use of the computer system. A time shared system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared computer. It allows many users to share the computer resources simultaneously. As the system switches rapidly from one user to the other, a short time slot is given to each user for their executions.

The time sharing system provides the direct access to a large number of users where CPU time is divided among all the users on scheduled basis. The OS allocates a set of time to each user. When this time is expired, it passes control to the next user on the system. The time allowed is extremely small and the users are given the impression that they each have their own CPU and they are the sole owner of the CPU. This short period of time during that a user gets attention of the CPU; is known as a time slice or a quantum. The concept of time sharing system is shown in figure.

The time sharing system provides the direct access to a large number of users where CPU time is divided among all the users on scheduled basis. The OS allocates a set of time to each user. When this time is expired, it passes control to the next user on the system. The time allowed is extremely small and the users are given the impression that they each have their own CPU and they are the sole owner of the CPU. This short period of time during that a user gets attention of the CPU; is known as a time slice or a quantum. The concept of time sharing system is shown in figure.

MULTIPROGRAMMING

Multiprogramming is the technique of running several programs at a time using timesharing. It allows a computer to do several things at the same time. Multiprogramming creates logical parallelism. The concept of multiprogramming is that the operating system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously.

The operating system selects a job from the job pool and starts executing a job, when that job needs to wait for any i/o operations the CPU is switched to another job. So the main idea here is that the CPU is never idle Multi tasking: Multitasking is the logical extension of multi-programming.

The concept of multitasking is quite similar to multiprogramming but difference is that the switching between jobs occurs so frequently that the users can interact with each program while it is running. This concept is also known as time-sharing systems. A time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of time-shared system. 

For example, let us say you are printing a documet of 100 pages. While your computer is performing that, you still can do other jobs like typing a new document. So, more than one task is performed. One of the main differences between multiprogramming and multitasking is, "In multiprogramming, a user cannot interact (everything is decided by OS, like picking the next

program and sharing on time basis, etc...) where as in multitasking, a user can interact with the system (you can type a letter, while the other task of printing is going on)"

MULTIPROCESSING

Within the past several years, multiprocessor systems (also known as parallel systems or multicore systems) have begun to dominate the landscape of computing. Such systems have two or more processors in close communication,sharing the computer bus and sometimes the clock, memory, and peripheral devices. Multiprocessor systems first appeared prominently appeared in servers and have since migrated to desktop and laptop systems. Recently,multiple processors have appeared on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers.Multiprocessor systems have three main advantages:

1. Increased throughput. By increasing the number of processors,we expect to get more work done in less time. The speed-up ratio with N processors is not N, however; rather, it is less than N. When multiple processorscooperate on a task, a certain amount of overhead is incurred in keeping all the parts working correctly. This overhead, plus contention for shared resources, lowers the expected gain from additional processors. Similarly,N programmers working closely together do not produce N times the amount of work a single programmer would produce.

2. Economy of scale. Multiprocessor systems can cost less than equivalent multiple single-processor systems, because they can share peripherals, mass storage, and power supplies. If several programs operate on thesame set of data, it is cheaper to store those data on one disk and to have all the processors share them than to have many computers with local disks and many copies of the data.

3. Increased reliability. If functions can be distributed properly among several processors, then the failure of one processor will not halt the system, only slow it down. If we have ten processors and one fails, then each of the remaining nine processors can pick up a share of the work of the failed processor. Thus, the entire system runs only 10 percent slower,rather than failing altogether. Increased reliability of a computer system is crucial in many applications.

The ability to continue providing service proportional to the level of surviving hardware is called graceful degradation. Some systems go beyond graceful degradation and are called fault tolerant, because they can suffer a failure of any single component and still continue operation.

Fault tolerance requires a mechanism to allow the failure to be detected, diagnosed, and, if possible, corrected.The multiple-processor systems in use today are of two types. Some systems use asymmetric multiprocessing, in which each processor is assigned a specific task.Aboss processor controls the system; the other processors either look to the boss for instruction or have predefined tasks. This scheme defines a boss–worker relationship. The boss processor schedules and allocates work to the worker processors. The most common systems use symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), in which each processor performs all tasks within the operating system. SMP means that all processors are peers; no boss–worker relationship exists between processors. Figure 1.6 illustrates a typical SMP architecture. Notice that each processor has its own set of registers, as well as a private—or local —cache. However, all processors share physical memory

USES OF A NETWORK

The following are the potential needs for computer networks.  

Information exchange To exchange data and information between different individual users, it is necessary to interconnect the individual users' computers.

Resource sharing The cost of computer has corne down. However, the cost of a laser printer, bulk storage, and large enterprise software remains high. When computers are interconnected, there is a possibility that, users connected to the network may share the above mentioned resources.

The following are the distinct notes in favor of computer network.  

a. The computers, staff and information can be well managed b. A network provides the means to exchange data among the computers and to make programs and data available to people c. It permits the sharing of the resources of the machine d. Networking also provides the function of back-up. e. Networking provides a flexible networking environment. Employees can work at home by using through networks ties through networks into the computer at office.  

COMMON TYPES OF NETWORK HYBRID NETWORKS

1. Hybrid networks are the networks that are based on both peer-to-peer & client-server relationship.

2. Hybrid networks incorporate the best features of workgroups in peer-to-peer networks with the performance,

security and reliability of server-based networks.

3. Hybrid networks still provide all of the centralized services of servers, but they also allow users to share and manage

their own resources within the workgroup.

ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID NETWORK

1. Client Server application are still centrally located and managed.

2. Users can assign local access to resources in their computers.

3. Workgroups can manage resources without requiring assistance from network administrator.

DISADVANTAGES OF HYBRID NETWORK

1. Users may need to remember multiple passwords.

2. Files can be duplicated and changes overwritten between the computers with the shared folder and the Server.

3. Files saved on the workstation are not backed up.

STRUCTURE OF A NETWORK NETWORK TOPOLOGIES AND PROTOCOLS

Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent devices in the network see their logical or physical relations to one another. Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as :  

Bus Network Star Network Ring Network Mesh Network Star-Bus Network

Tree or Hierarchical Topology Network

TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender

and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS TOPOLOGY

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable.

When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

FEA TU R ES OF BU S TOP OLO GY

1. It transmits data only in one direction.2. Every device is connected to a single cable

AD VA N TA GES OF BU S TOP OLO GY

1. It is cost effective.2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.3. Used in small networks.4. It is easy to understand.5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

D ISA D V AN T AG ES OF BU S TOP OLO GY

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases. 3. Cable has a limited length. 4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING TOPOLOGY

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the

last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

FEA TU R ES OF R IN G TOP OLO GY

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

AD VA N TA GES OF R IN G TOP OLO GY

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

2. Cheap to install and expand

D ISA D V AN T AG ES OF R IN G TOP OLO GY

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR TOPOLOGY

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central

node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

FEA TU R ES OF STA R TOP OLO GY

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

AD VA N TA GES OF STA R TOP OLO GY

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.2. Hub can be upgraded easily.3. Easy to troubleshoot.4. Easy to setup and modify.5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

D ISA D V AN T AG ES OF STA R TOP OLO GY

1. Cost of installation is high.2. Expensive to use.3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH TOPOLOGY

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other.

Mesh has n(n-2)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing2. Flooding

ROU TIN G

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data

to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken

links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

FLOO DI NG

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The

network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

TY PE S OF MES H TOP OLO GY

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

FEA TU R ES OF MES H TOP OLO GY

1. Fully connected.2. Robust.3. Not flexible.

AD VA N TA GES OF MES H TOP OLO GY

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.2. It is robust.3. Fault is diagnosed easily.4. Provides security and privacy.

D ISA D V AN T AG ES OF MES H TOP OLO GY

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.2. Cabling cost is more.3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE TOPOLOGY

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical

topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

FEA TU R ES OF TR EE TOP OLO GY

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups. 2. Used in Wide Area Network.

AD VA N TA GES OF TR EE TOP OLO GY

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.3. Easily managed and maintained.4. Error detection is easily done.

D ISA D V AN T AG ES OF TR EE TOP OLO GY

1. Heavily cabled.2. Costly.3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID TOPOLOGY

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office

in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will

result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

FEA TU R ES OF HY BR ID TOP OLO GY

1. It is a combination of two or topologies2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

AD VA N TA GES OF HY BR ID TOP OLO GY

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.2. Effective.3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.4. Flexible.

D ISA D V AN T AG ES OF HY BR ID TOP OLO GY

1. Complex in design.2. Costly.

NETWORK MEDIA There are two types of networks that you can set-up.1. Wired Network2. Wireless Network

1. WIRED NETWORK: The Wired network is mostly set-up using an Ethernet Cable. This can be done using 3 technologies.

i) Twisted Pair Wires: 

This technology was invented by Alexander Graham Bell. These wires are the most oldest means of communication in computer networking. For more than 100 years, the phone technology has used these wires. Most of use these twisted wires in our homes and offices. These are the least expensive mode of communication used in networks. 

In this, there is a pair of  2 copper wire, each 1-2 mm thick, enrolled on each other in a spiral pattern. These are used to avoid interference from the nearby similar pairs. There are number of pairs bundled together in a cable by wrapping the pairs in a protective shield. A pair consists of a single communication link.

ii) Coaxial Cables:

Coaxial Cables same as twisted Wire cables consists of two copper wire. But in this, the two wires are concentric to each other. Coaxial Cables has a wire conductor in the centre , a circumferential outer conductor known as foil shield, and an insulating medium called the dielectric separating these two conductors. The outer conductor is protected in an outer jacket.

Coaxial Cables with this type of formation and special insulation and shielding, can achieve high data transmission rates. Coaxial cables are common in cable television systems.

iii) Fibre Optics:

An optical fibre is a flexible,  thin,transparent fibre made of high quality glass or plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair. Or you can also say an optical fibre is a thin, flexible medium that conducts pulses of light, with each pulse representing a bit of your data. Fibre optics can generate high Data Rates, so these are used for long distance communications, that require high speed and

least data loss. Optical Fibres have no electromagnetic interference and can process data at GB/sec of speed. 

This quality has made them popular in long run data transfers.

In United Kingdom and United States Of America and many other countries, most of them use fibre optics in distance telephone networks. 

But as they are very expensive also. So use of Fibre optics in local LAN , institutions, companies etc. is still not very popular. The joining of two or optical fibre is still more complex than joining two electrical wire or cables.

2. WIRELESS NETWORK:

i) Radio Waves:

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths greater than infra-red radiations. There frequency varies from as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 KHz . They travel by speed of light. Radio Waves can be natural and artificial also. Natural Radio Waves occur due to lighting and Artificial Radio waves are used in mobile, radio communication, radar systems etc.

ii) Terrestrial Radio Wave Communication:

Radio Waves doesn't need any physical wire to travel. They can penetrate through air, through walls and windows and can be used to deliver long distances messages. Terrestrial Radio Wave Communication can be divided into 3 parts:

          (a) The waves that can be operated over a short distance, say 3-5 metres.          (b) The waves that can operate in local area network say upto 100 metres          (c) The waves that can operate in wide areas of 1000's of kilometres.

Your devices such as wireless mouse, keyboards are operated in short distances.Your mobiles phones or cellular technology are operated in Wide area radio channel.

iii) Communication Satellites:A communication satellite links two or more transmitter or receiver that are situated on Earth, called as Ground Stations. The satellite receives the message or transmission on one frequency band, reproduce the signal using a repeater  and transmits the signal or the message on another frequency. There are basically two types of satellites are used in communications. These are:

                             (a)  Geostationary Satellites  

                             (b)  Low Earth Orbiting satellites (LEO satellites)

NETWORK HARDWARE

Network Interface Card

A network interface card (NIC) is used to connect a computer to the network. It includes two interfaces—one to connect to the network and one to connect to the computer itself. The NIC is the brains of the network connection, containing its own processor chip to help take some of the load off the computer's central processing unit (CPU). The more efficient the NIC card's circuitry, the less of a load it will place on the system. While this is not a big deal on a workstation, it can kill a server if it contains multiple NICs. When choosing a server network card, make sure you stick with a vendor who is known to produce high-performance cards.

There are a number of different varieties of NIC cards. The first thing to look at is how the card interfaces with the computer. There are three types of NIC card interfaces:

attaching to an external port on the computer such as the parallel port

installed internally in a Peripheral Component Interconnect Mezzanine/Computer Interface Adapter (PCIM/CIA) slot, now known simply as a PC slot

installed internally within the system connecting directly to the computer bus

Repeaters

Repeaters are simple two-port signal amplifiers. They are used in a bus topology to extend the maximum distance that can be spanned on a cable run. The strength of the signal is boosted as it travels down the wire. A repeater will receive a digital signal on one of its ports, amplify it, and transmit it out the other side.

A repeater is like a typical home stereo amplifier. The amp takes the signal it receives from the CD, tape deck, etc., and amplifies the signal and sends it on its way to the speakers. If the signal is a brand new Alanis Morisett CD, it simply boosts the signal and sends it on its way. If it's an old Grateful Dead concert tape that is inaudible from the amount of background hiss, it happily boosts this signal as well and sends it on its way.

Repeaters function similar to stereo amplifiers. They simply boost whatever they receive and send it on its way. Unfortunately the signal they receive could be a good frame of data, a bad frame of data, or even background noise. A repeater does not discern data quality; it simply looks at each of the individual digital pulses and amplifies them.

Hubs

Hubs are probably the most common piece of network hardware after network interface cards. Physically, they are boxes of varying sizes that have multiple female RJ-45 connectors. Each connector is designed to accept one twisted-pair cable outfitted with a male RJ-45 connector. This twisted-pair cable is then used to connect a single server or workstation to the hub.

Hubs are essentially multi-port repeaters that support twisted-pair cables in a star typology. Each node communicates with the hub, which in turn amplifies the signal and transmits it on its remaining ports. As with a repeater, hubs work at the electrical level. Because hubs have no way to determine if a frame is good or bad, they should be looked at, when you design your network typology, as functionally identical to repeaters.

bridge looks a lot like a repeater; it is a small box with two network connectors that attach to two separate portions of the network. A bridge incorporates the functionality of a repeater (signal amplification), but it actually looks at the frames of data, which is a great benefit. A common bridge is nearly identical to a repeater except for the indicator lights, as shown in Figure 4.8. A forward light flashes whenever the bridge needs to pass traffic from one collision domain to another.

Figure 4.8: A common bridgeSee full-sized image.

Switches

Switches are the marriage of hub and bridge technology. They resemble stackable hubs in appearance, having multiple RJ-45 connectors for connecting network systems. Instead of being a dumb amplifier like a hub, however, switches function as though they have a little miniature bridge built into each port. A switch will keep track of the MAC addresses attached to each of its ports and direct traffic destined for a certain address only to the port to which it is attached.

LAN AND WAN

LAN - LAN looks like an acronym that a board of directors spent a lot of money and time trying to create, but it actually stands for any generic local area network. A network is a group of computers and other devices connected together so they can pass information back and forth.

                 

          

• The local area network (LAN) is a network which is designed to operate over a small physical area such as an office, factory or a group of buildings. LANs are very widely used in a variety of applications.

• LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot. The personal computers and workstations in the offices are interconnected via LAN.

• The exchange of information and sharing of resources becomes easy because of LAN.

• Local Area Network technology connects people and machines within a site.

• A LAN is a form of local (limited-distance), shared packet network for computer communications.

• In LAN all the machines are connected to a single cable. Different types of. Topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star, Tree etc. are used for LANs.

• LAN uses a layered architecture and they are capable of operating at hundreds of Mbits/sec.

• A local area network (LAN) is usually a privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building or campus of upto a few kilometers in size.

• Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two personal computers and a printer in someone's office or home or it can extend throughout a company and include voice, sound and video peripherals.

• LAN s are widely used to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can be hardware like a printer or softwares or data.

• A common example of a LAN found in many business organizations, links a work group of task related computers, e.g. accounting and finance PCs, administrative PCs or engineering workstations.

• One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining clients.

• In a LAN its size can be determined by licensing restrictions on the number of users per copy of software or by restricting the number of users licensed to access the operating system.

• LAN's are also distinguished from MAN's and WAN's based on the transmission media they use and topology. In general a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium. The most common topologies used are bus, ring and star.

• The term LAN can also refer just to the hardware and software that allows you to connect all the devices together. In this sense, Local Talk is one kind of LAN, Ethernet is another. (AppleTalk is the protocol for Local Talk.)

The data rates for LAN range from 4 to 16 Mbps with the maximum of 100 Mbps.

WAN - WAN is the acronym for, Wide Area Network and refers to a network used to connect different equipments from remote areas. This technology connects sites that are in diverse locations. Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic area, such as New York, Canada, or the world. The geographical limit of WAN is unlimited. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network. Hence, a WAN may be defined as a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area to connect LANs together between different cities with the help of transmission facilities provided

by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies function at the lower three layers.

Normally, network services are provided by a Common Carrier of, for example, telephone company. Users can use services on rent basis. Available services include telephone network, leased line, packet switched network, X.25, ISDN, frame relay and cell relay.

WAN is composed of a number of autonomous computers that are distributed over a large geographical area. LAN can be extended across large distances using Satellite Bridge but still this cannot accommodate many computers arbitrarily. WAN must be scalable to long distances and many computers. Therefore, network must replace shared medium with packet switches to span long distances or many computers. Each switch moves an entire packet from one connection to another. This mechanism is called packet switching. These switches are nothing but a small computer with network interfaces, memory and program dedicated to packet switching function. These packet switches may connect to computers and to other packet switches, typically high-speed connections to other packet switches, lower speed to computers. These packet switches can be linked together to form WANs. WANs need not be symmetric or have regular connections, i.e. each switch may connect to one or more other switches and one or more computers.

INTERNET

Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative and self-sustaining facility accessible to hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the currently existing public telecommunication networks. Technically, what distinguishes the Internet is its use of a set of protocols called TCP/IP (for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Two recent adaptations of Internet technology, the intranet and the extranet, also make use of the TCP/IP protocol.

For most Internet users, electronic mail (email) practically replaced the postal service for short written transactions. People communicate over the Internet in a number of other ways including Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Internet telephony, instant messaging, video chat or social media. 

The most widely used part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (often abbreviated "WWW" or called "the Web"). Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a method of instant cross-referencing. In

most Web sites, certain words or phrases appear in text of a different color than the rest; often this text is also underlined. When you select one of these words or phrases, you will be transferred to the site or page that is relevant to this word or phrase. Sometimes there are buttons, images, or portions of images that are "clickable." If you move the pointer over a spot on a Web site and the pointer changes into a hand, this indicates that you can click and be transferred to another site.

Using the Web, you have access to billions of pages of information. Web browsing is done with a Web browser, the most popular of which are Chrome, Firefox and Internet Explorer. The appearance of a particular Web site may vary slightly depending on the browser you use. Also, later versions of a particular browser are able to render more "bells and whistles" such as animation, virtual reality, sound, and music files, than earlier versions.

The Internet has continued to grow and evolve over the years of its existence. IPv6, for example, was designed to anticipate enormous future expansion in the number of available IP addresses. In a related development, the Internet of Things (IoT) is the burgeoning environment in which almost any entity or object can be provided with a unique identifier and the ability to transfer data automatically over the Internet.

EXTRANET An extranet is a controlled private network allowing customers, partners, vendors, suppliers and other businesses to gain information, typically about a specific company or educational institution, and do so without granting access to the organization's entire network. An extranet is often a private part of a website. It is restricted to select users through user IDs, passwords and other authentication mechanisms on a login page.

An extranets may be viewed as an intranet mapped onto the public Internet or onto some other private network.

Advantages of extranets include:

The ability to exchange large volumes of data using electronic data interchange Sharing product data or catalogs with business partners Joint company collaboration and training Sharing services such as online banking applications among affiliated banks

Disadvantages are expensive implementation and maintenance if hosted internally and the

potential for compromised sensitive or proprietary information. Alternately, it may be hosted by an application service provider.

EMAIL AND ITS USES E-mail can be distributed to lists of people as well as to individuals. A shared distribution list can be managed by using an e-mail reflector. Some mailing lists allow you to subscribe by sending a request to the mailing list administrator. A mailing list that is administered automatically is called a list server.

E-mail is one of the protocols included with the Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols. A popular protocol for sending e-mail is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and a popular protocol for receiving it is POP3. Both Netscape and Microsoft include an e-mail utility with their Web browsers.

E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by telecommunication. (Some publications spell it email; we prefer the currently more established spelling of e-mail.) E-mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text. However, you can also send non-text files, such as graphic images and sound files, as attachments sent in binary streams. E-mail was one of the first uses of the Internet and is still the most popular use. A large percentage of the total traffic over the Internet is e-mail. E-mail can also be exchanged between online service provider users and in networks other than the Internet, both public and private.

USES OF EMAILEmail offers a non-urgent communication process that allows recipients to manage correspondence on their schedules. Email provides a flexibility of communication that allows senders or receivers to communicate on different schedules or in different time zones.

The mobility of email allows people to work and communicate from anywhere, and mobile access to email is not attached to a physical location.

This communication tool is also useful for a professional follow-up after a meeting or an interview. Unlike text messages or phone calls, email allows users to filter or screen, meaning they are able to create filters that prevent unwanted emails, such as spam or junk mail, from entering an inbox.

Email is useful for mass or one-to-many communication, allowing users to send information and messages to large amounts of potential customers or multiple colleagues working on a team.

Sending documents, images and links via email is easy with the use of scanners and other technology.

WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of online content that is formatted in HTML and accessed via

HTTP. The term refers to all the interlinked HTML pages that can be accessed over the Internet. The World

Wide Web was originally designed in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee while he was a contractor at CERN.

The World Wide Web is most often referred to simply as "the Web."

The World Wide Web is what most people think of as the Internet. It is all the Web pages, pictures, videos and

other online content that can be accessed via a Web browser. The Internet, in contrast, is the underlying

network connection that allows us to send email and access the World Wide Web. The early Web was a

collection of text-based sites hosted by organizations that were technically gifted enough to set up a Web

server and learn HTML. It has continued to evolve since the original design, and it now includes interactive

(social) media and user-generated content that requires little to no technical skills.

UNIT 3: DBMS

A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases.

DATABASE

A database (DB), in the most general sense, is an organized collection of data. More specifically, a database is an electronic system that allows data to be easily accessed, manipulated and updated.

In other words, a database is used by an organization as a method of storing, managing and retrieving information. Modern databases are managed using a database management system (DBMS).

Database Management Systems

A Database is a collection of records. Database management systems are designed as the means of managing all the records. Database Management is a software system that uses a standard method and running queries with some of them designed for the oversight and proper control of databases.

WHAT DOES DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE MEAN? A data definition language (DDL) is a computer language used to create and modify the structure of database objects in a database. These database objects include views, schemas, tables, indexes, etc.

This term is also known as data description language in some contexts, as it describes the fields and records in a database table.

NEED FOR DATABASES

Database management systems are important to businesses and organizations because they provide a highly efficient method for handling multiple types of data. Some of the data that are easily managed with this type of system include: employee records, student information, payroll,

accounting, project management, inventory and library books. These systems are built to be extremely versatile.

Without database management, tasks have to be done manually and take more time. Data can be categorized and structured to suit the needs of the company or organization. Data is entered into the system and accessed on a routine basis by assigned users. Each user may have an assigned password to gain access to their part of the system. Multiple users can use the system at the same time in different ways.

For example, a company's human resources department uses the database to manage employee records, distribute legal information to employees and create updated hiring reports. A manufacturer might use this type of system to keep track of production, inventory and distribution. In both scenarios, the database management system operates to create a smoother and more organized working environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATABASE

1. Should be able to store all kinds of data that exists in this real world. Since we need to work with all kinds of data and requirements, database should be strong enough to store all kinds of data that is present around us.

2. Should be able to relate the entities / tables in the database by means of a relation. i.e.; any two tables should be related. Let us say, an employee works for a department. This implies that Employee is related to a particular department. We should be able to define such a relationship between any two entities in the database. There should not be any table lying without any mapping.

3. Data and application should be isolated. Because database is a system which gives the platform to store the data, and the data is the one which allows the database to work. Hence there should be clear differentiation between them.

4. There should not be any duplication of data in the database. Data should be stored in such a way that it should not be repeated in multiple tables. If repeated, it would be unnecessary waste of DB space and maintaining such data becomes chaos.

5. DBMS has a strong query language. Once the database is designed, this helps the user to retrieve and manipulate the data. If a particular user wants to see any specific data, he can apply as many filtering conditions that he wants and pull the data that he needs.

6. Multiple users should be able to access the same database, without affecting the other user. i.e.; if teachers want to update a student’s marks in Results table at the same time, then they should be allowed to update the marks for their subjects, without modifying other subject marks. A good database should support this feature.

7. It supports multiple views to the user, depending on his role. In a school database, Students will able to see only their reports and their access would be read only. At the same time teachers will have access to all the students with the modification rights. But the database is the same. Hence a single database provides different views to different users.

8. Database should also provide security, i.e.; when there are multiple users are accessing the database, each user will have their own levels of rights to see the database.  Some of them will   be allowed to see whole database, and some will have only partial rights. For example, instructor who is teaching Physics will have access to see and update marks of his subject. He will not have access for other subjects. But the HOD will have full access on all the subjects.

9. Database should also support ACID property. i.e.; while performing any transactions like insert, update and delete, database makes sure that the real purpose of the data is not lost. For example, if a student’s address is updated, then it should make sure that there is no duplicate data is created nor there is any data mismatch for that student.

DATABASE EVIRONMENTThere are five major components in a database environment: data, hardware, software, people and procedures. The data is a collection of facts, typically related. The hardware is the physical devices in the database environment. Operating systems, database management systems and applications make up the software. Examples of people in the database environment are the system administrator, programmers and end users. Procedures are the instructions and rules for the database.

The database management system acts as the brain of the database environment; it organizes, stores, retrieves and protects the data stored there. Additionally, the database management system permits easy changes to stored data. The major database management system vendors are Oracle, IBM, Microsoft, Sql Server and Sybase.

THERE ARE FOUR STRUCTURAL TYPES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS: hierarchical databases, network databases, relational databases and object-oriented databases. The one that an organization chooses to use depends entirely on the nature of the data being stored and the transactions desired. It is not uncommon for an organization to utilize more than one database management system because one type may be better suited to a particular task than another. Many popular database management systems are chose due to their ease of use, security and versatility.

DATA MODELSCONCEPTUAL DATA MODEL

A CONCEPTUAL DATA MODEL is a summary-level data model that is most often used on strategic data projects.  It typically describes an entire enterprise.  Due to its highly abstract nature, it may be referred to as a CONCEPTUAL MODEL .

Common characteristics of a conceptual data model:

Enterprise-wide coverage of the business concepts.  Think CUSTOMER , PRODUCT , STORE , LOCATION , ASSET .

Designed and developed primarily for a business audience Contains around 20-50 entities (or concepts) with no or extremely limited number of

attributes described. Sometimes architects try to limit it to printing on one page. Contains relationships between entities, but may or may not include cardinality and

nullability. Entities will have definitions. Designed and developed to be independent of DBMS, data storage locations or

technologies.  In fact, it would address digital and non-digital concepts. This means it would model paper records and artifacts as well as database artifacts.

LOGICAL DATA MODEL

A LOGICAL DATA MODEL is a fully-attributed data model that is independent of DBMS, technology, data storage or organizational constraints.  It typically describes data requirements from the business point of view.  While common data modeling techniques use a relational model notation, there is no requirement that resulting data implementations must be created using relational technologies.

Common characteristics of a logical data model:

Typically describes data requirements for a single project or major subject area. May be integrated with other logical data models via a repository of shared entities Typically contains 100-1000 entities, although these numbers are highly variable

depending on the scope of the data model.

Contains relationships between entities that address cardinality and nullability (optionality) of the relationships.

Designed and developed to be independent of DBMS, data storage locations or technologies.  In fact, it may address digital and non-digital concepts.

Data attributes will typically have datatypes with precisions and lengths assigned. Data attributes will have nullability (optionality) assigned. Entities and attributes will have definitions. All kinds of other meta data may be included (retention rules, privacy indicators, 

volumetrics, data lineage, etc.) In fact, the diagram of a logical data model may show only a tiny percentage of the meta data contained within the model.

A logical data model will normally be derived from and or linked back to objects in a conceptual data model.

PHYSICAL DATA MODEL

A PHYSICAL DATA MODEL is a fully-attributed data model that is dependent upon a specific version of a data persistence technology.  The target implementation technology may be a relational DBMS, an XML document, a NoSQL data storage component, a spreadsheet or any other data implementation option.

Common characteristics of a physical data model:

Typically describes data requirements for a single project or application. Sometimes even a portion of an application.

May be integrated with other physical data models via a repository of shared entities Typically contains 10-1000 tables, although these numbers are highly variable depending

on the scope of the data model. Contains relationships between tables that address cardinality and nullability (optionality)

of the relationships. Designed and developed to be dependent on a specific version of a DBMS, data storage

location or technology. Columns will  have datatypes with precisions and lengths assigned. Columns will have nullability (optionality) assigned. Tables and columns will have definitions.

Will also include other physical objects such as views, primary key constraints, foreign key constraints, indexes, security roles, store procedures, XML extensions, file stores, etc.

The diagram of a physical data model may show only a tiny percentage of the meta data contained within the model.

TYPES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS:There are four structural types of database management systems:

Hierarchical databases. Network databases. Relational databases. Object-oriented databases

HIERARCHICAL DATABASES (DBMS) :

In the Hierarchical Database Model we have to learn about the databases. It is very fast and simple. In a hierarchical database, records contain information about there groups of parent/child relationships, just like as  a tree structure. The structure implies that a record can have also a repeating information. In this structure Data follows a series of records, It is a set of field values attached to it. It collects all  records together as a record type. These record types are the equivalent of tables in the relational model, and with the individual records being the equivalent of rows. To create links between these record types, the hierarchical model uses these type

Relationships.             

Advantage : Hierarchical database can be accessed and updated rapidly because in this model structure is like as a tree and the relationships between records are defined in advance. This feature is a two-edged.

Disadvantage : This type of database structure is that each child in the tree may have only one parent, and relationships or linkages between children are not permitted, even if they make sense from a logical standpoint. Hierarchical databases are so in their design. it can adding a new field or record requires that the entire database be redefined.   

Network Database: A network databases are mainly used on a large digital computers. It more connections can be made between different types of data, network databases are considered more efficiency It contains limitations must be considered when we have to use this kind of database. It is Similar to the hierarchical databases, network databases .Network databases are similar to hierarchical databases by also having a hierarchical structure. A network database looks more like a cobweb or interconnected network of records.

In network databases, children are called members and parents are called occupier. The difference between each child or member can have more than one parent.

The Approval of the network data model similar with the esteem of the hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modeled with more than one parent per child. The network model authorized the modeling of many-to-many relationships in data.

The network model is very similar to the hierarchical model really. Actually the hierarchical model is a subset of the network model. However, instead of using a single-parent tree hierarchy, the network model uses set theory to provide a tree-like hierarchy with the exception that child tables were allowed to have more than one parent. It supports many-to-many relationships.

RELATIONAL DATABASES :

In relational databases, the relationship between data files is relational. Hierarchical and network databases require the user to pass  a hierarchy in order to access needed data. These databases connect to the data in different files by using common data numbers or a key field. Data in relational databases is stored in different access control tables, each having a key field that mainly identifies each row. In the relational databases are more reliable than either the hierarchical or network database structures. In relational databases, tables or files filled up with data are called relations (tuples) designates a row or record, and columns are referred to as attributes or fields.

Relational databases work on each table has a key field that uniquely indicates each row, and that these key fields can be used to connect one table of data to another.

The relational database has two major reasons:

1. Relational databases can be used with little or no training.2. Database entries can be modified without specify the entire body.

Properties of Relational Tables:

In the relational database we have to follow some properties which are given below.

It's Values are Atomic In Each Row is alone. Column Values are of the Same. Columns is undistinguished. Sequence of Rows is Insignificant. Each Column has a common Name.

  OBJECT-ORIENTED MODEL :

In this Model we have to discuss the functionality of the object oriented Programming .It takes more than  storage of programming language objects. Object DBMS's increase the semantics of the C++ and Java .It provides full-featured database programming capability, while containing native language compatibility. It adds the database functionality to object programming languages.This approach is the analogical of the application and database development into a constant data model and language environment. Applications require less code, use more natural data modeling, and code bases are easier to maintain. Object

developers can write complete database applications with a decent amount of additional effort.

The object-oriented database derivation is the integrity of object-oriented programming language systems and consistent systems. The power of the  object-oriented databases comes from the cyclical treatment of both consistent data, as found in databases, and transient data, as found in executing programs.

Object-oriented databases use small, recyclable separated of software called objects. The objects themselves are stored in the object-oriented database. Each object contains of two elements:

1. Piece of data (e.g., sound, video, text, or graphics).2. Instructions, or software programs called methods, for what to do with the data.

Disadvantage of Object-oriented databases

1.  Object-oriented databases have these disadvantages.2. Object-oriented database are more expensive to develop.3. In the Most organizations are unwilling to abandon and convert from those databases.

They have already invested money in developing and implementing.

The benefits to object-oriented databases are compelling. The ability to mix and match reusable objects provides incredible multimedia capability.

UNIT 4:HTML & CSS

Sample HTML Document<!DOCTYPE html><html><head><title>Page Title</title></head><body>

<h1>My First Heading</h1> HTML Tags /Elements <p>My First Paragraph.</p>

</body></html>

Output of Html--------------------My First HeadingMy first paragraph.

Tags used in the ExampleUsing this description, a web browser can display a document with a heading and a paragraph

HTML TagsHTML tags are keywords (tag names) surrounded by angle brackets:<tagname>content</tagname> HTML tags normally come in pairs like <p> and </p>The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tagThe end tag is written like the start tag, but with a slash before the tag name The start tag is often called the opening tag. The end tag is often called the closing tag.HTML ElementsHTML elements are written with a start tag, with an end tag, with the content in between:

<tagname> content </tagname> The HTML element is everything from the start tag to the end tag:

<p>My first HTML paragraph.</p> Start tag content End tag<h1> My First Heading </h1> <p> My first paragraph. </p> <br>    

Some HTML elements do not have an end tag.Eg. Img,

Web BrowsersThe purpose of a web browser (Chrome, IE, Firefox, Safari) is to read HTML documents and display them.The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses them to determine how to display the document:

Creating HTMLHTML EditorsHTML can be edited by using professional HTML editors like: Microsoft WebMatrix, Sublime TextWe can use ext editor like Notepad (PC) or TextEdit (Mac) and follow the steps below :Step 1: Open NotepadStep 2: Write Some HTMLStep 3: Save the HTML PageStep 4: View HTML Page in Your Browser

Common HTML Elements and AttributesDocType DeclarationThe <!DOCTYPE> declaration helps the browser to display a web page correctly.There are different document types on the web.To display a document correctly, the browser must know both type and version.The doctype declaration is not case sensitive. All cases are acceptable:

Common Declarations

HTML5<!DOCTYPE html> HTML 4.01<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"> XHTML 1.0<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> HTML Head Elements

HTML Head ElementThe HTML <head> ElementThe HTML <head> element has nothing to do with HTML headings. The HTML <head> element contains meta data. Meta data are not displayed. The HTML <head> element is placed between the <html> tag and the <body> tag:Example<!DOCTYPE html><html><head>  <title>My First HTML</title>  <meta charset="UTF-8"></head><body>

HTML Head Tags

Sample Html Head<head><title> Head Tag Contents Document</title><base href="http://www.w3schools.com/images/" target="_blank"><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="theme.css"><meta charset="UTF-8"><meta name="description" content="Free Web tutorials"><meta name="keywords" content="HTML,CSS,XML,JavaScript"><meta name="author" content="Hege Refsnes">

<script language="JavaScript"></script></head> HTML Body ElementsHTML Heading Tags

HTML HeadingsHTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags:Example<h1>This is a heading</h1><h2>This is a heading</h2><h3>This is a heading</h3> Output

This is heading 1This is heading 2This is heading 3

HTML HeadingsHeadings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags.<h1> defines the most important heading. <h6> defines the least important heading.Example<h1>This is a heading</h1><h2>This is a heading</h2><h3>This is a heading</h3> Headings Are ImportantUse HTML headings for headings only. Don't use headings to make text BIG or bold.Search engines use your headings to index the structure and content of your web pages.Users skim your pages by its headings. It is important to use headings to show the document structure.h1 headings should be main headings, followed by h2 headings, then the less important h3, and so on.

HTML ParagraphsHTML paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag:Example

<p>This is a paragraph.</p><p>This is another paragraph.</p> OutputThis is a paragraph.This is a paragraph.

Don't Forget the End Tag

Some HTML elements will display correctly, even if you forget the end tag:Example<html><body><p>This is a paragraph<p>This is a paragraph</body></html>The example above works in all browsers, because the closing tag is considered optional. Never rely on this. It might produce unexpected results and/or errors if you forget the end tag.

Empty HTML Elements HTML elements with no content are called empty elements.<br> is an empty element without a closing tag (the <br> tag defines a line break).Empty elements can be "closed" in the opening tag like this: <br />.HTML5 does not require empty elements to be closed. But if you want stricter validation, or you need to make your document readable by XML parsers, you should close all HTML elements.

HTML AttributesHTML elements can have attributes.Attributes provide additional information about an element.Attributes are always specified in the start tag.Attributes come in name/value pairs like: name="value“.Common attributes as lang, title, href, size, alt.Lang attributeThe document language can be declared in the <html> tag.

The language is declared in the lang attribute.Declaring a language is important for accessibility applications (screen readers) and search engines:<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="en-US"><body></body></html>

Title AttributeHTML paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag.In this example, the <p> element has a title attribute. The value of the attribute is "About W3Schools“.When the mouse is moved over the element the attribute value is displayed. Example<p title="About W3Schools“> W3Schools is a web developer's site.

Href attributeHTML links are defined with the <a> tag. The link address is specified in the href attribute: Clicking the link redirects the page to the url given in the href attribute. Example<a href="http://www.w3schools.com">This is a link</a>

Size AttributesHTML images are defined with the <img> tag.The filename of the source (src), and the size of the image (width and height) are all provided as attributes:

Example<img src="w3schools.jpg" width="104" height="142">

The image size is specified in pixels: width="104" means 104 screen pixels wide.

Alt AttributeThe alt attribute specifies an alternative text to be used, when an HTML element cannot be displayed.The value of the attribute can be read by "screen readers". This way, someone "listening" to the webpage, i.e. a blind person, can "hear" the element.Example

<img src="w3schools.jpg" alt="W3Schools.com" width="104" height="142">

Tips for CodingAlways Use Lowercase AttributesAlways Quote Attribute ValuesDouble style quotes are the most common in HTML

HTML Horizontal RulesThe <hr> tag creates a horizontal line in an HTML page.The hr element can be used to separate content:Example<p>This is a paragraph.</p><hr><p>This is a paragraph.</p><hr>OutputThis is a paragraph.This is a paragraph.

The HTML <title> ElementThe HTML <title> element is meta data. It defines the HTML document's title.The title will not be displayed in the document, but might be displayed in the browser tab. The HTML <meta> ElementThe HTML <meta> element is also meta data.It can be used to define the character set, and other information about the HTML document.

HTML Line BreaksThe HTML <br> element defines a line break.Use <br> if you want a line break (a new line) without starting a new paragraph:

Example<p>This is<br>a para<br>graph with line breaks</p> The <br> element is an empty HTML element. It has no end tag.

HTML Style AtributeEvery HTML element has a default style (background color is white and text color is black).Changing the default style of an HTML element, can be done with the style attribute.This example changes the default background color from white to lightgrey:Example<body style="background-color:lightgrey“><h1>This is a heading</h1><p>This is a paragraph.</p></body>

HTML Style AttributeThe HTML style attribute has the following syntax:style="property:value“. The property is a CSS property. The value is a CSS value.You will learn more about CSS later in this tutorial. HTML Text Color.The color property defines the text color to be used for an HTML element:Example<h1 style="color:blue">This is a heading</h1><p style="color:red">This is a paragraph</p>OutputThis is a headingThis is a paragraph.

HTML Text Formatting

HTML FontsThe font-family property defines the font to be used for an HTML element:Example<h1 style="font-family:verdana">This is a heading</h1><p style="font-family:courier">This is a paragraph.</p>The <font> tag, supported in older versions of HTML, is not valid in HTML5. HTML Text SizeThe font-size property defines the text size to be used for an HTML element:Example<h1 style="font-size:300%">This is a heading</h1><p style="font-size:160%">This is a paragraph.</p>

HTML Text AlignmentThe text-align property defines the horizontal text alignment for an HTML element:Example<h1 style="text-align:center">Centered Heading</h1><p>This is a paragraph.</p>The <center> tag, supported in older versions of HTML, is not valid in HTML5.HTML Text Formatting Tags

HTML text formatting SampleSample OutputThis text is bold

This text is italic

This is superscript

HTML Links

HTML LinksHTML links are defined with the <a> tag:<a href="http://www.w3schools.com">This is a link</a> Clicking the Hyperlink below loads the www.w3schools.com webpage.The link's destination is specified in the href attribute. Attributes are used to provide additional information about HTML elements.Output

This is a link

HTML LinksLinks can be created using an absolute url.<p><a href="http://www.w3schools.com/html/">Visit our HTML tutorial</a></p>Also a relative url /pages within the website can be used : <p><a href="html_images.asp">HTML Images</a> is a link to a page on this website.</p>Color of the links can be changed using stylesheet.

Changing the Color of HTML Links

<!DOCTYPE html><html><head><style>a:link { color: blue; background-color: transparent; text-decoration: none;}a:visited { color: pink; background-color: transparent; text-decoration: none;}a:hover { color: red; background-color: transparent; text-decoration: underline;}a:active { color: yellow; background-color: transparent; text-decoration: underline;}</style></head><body><p>You can change the default colors of links</p><a href="html_images.asp" target="_blank">HTML Images</a> </body></html>

HTML Images

HTML images are defined with the <img> tag.The source file (src), alternative text (alt), and size (width and height) are provided as attributes:Images can also be used instead of text in case of hyperlinks.Example<img src="w3schools.jpg" alt="W3Schools.com" width="104" height="142">

HTML Lists – Displaying Vital InformationOrdered Lists : Basic Default List is an Unordered List. <ul> tag. For items in the list we use <li> tag. Example :

<ul><li>Coffee</li><li>Tea</li><li>Milk</li></ul>

Output : 1. Coffee2. Tea

3. Milk

Bullet Style can be changed. <ul style="list-style-type:square">

Removal of bullets can be done by setting style to none. <ul style="list-style-type:none">The lists can also be nested within one another. <ul><li>Coffee</li><li>Tea<ul><li>Black tea</li><li>Green tea</li></ul></li><li>Milk</li></ul>

Unordered ListFor unordered list use the <ol> tag to number the items. (numbering can also be done using alphabets and roman numerals). <ol><li>Coffee</li><li>Tea</li><li>Milk</li></ol> Gives the following output : Coffee Tea Milk

For letters use <ol type="A">For roman letters use <ol type="I">Description ListFor Description list use <dl> tag. <dt> for the Item and <dd> for the Description of the Item. <dl>

<dt>Coffee</dt><dd>- black hot drink</dd><dt>Milk</dt><dd>- white cold drink</dd></dl>Gives the following output Coffee

- black hot drink Milk

- white cold drink

HTML Div TagUsed with CSS to apply Stylesheets to certain segments of html code.By Default the browsers place a line break before and after the div tagEg. <!DOCTYPE html><html><body>

<p>This is some text.</p>

<div style="color:#0000FF"><h3>This is a heading in a div element</h3><p>This is some text in a div element.</p></div>

<p>This is some text.</p>

</body></html>

Embedding Applications

Applications such as flash file, applets can be embedded in html using the <embed> tag.

It is better to use the embed tag for applets than applet tag since applet tag is unsupported in HTML5.

HTML Forms

The <form> ElementHTML forms are used to collect user input.The <form> element defines an HTML form.HTML forms contain form elements.Form elements are different types of input elements, text box, text area, select drop down box, checkboxes, radio buttons, submit buttons, and more.<form>.form elements.</form>Eg. <!DOCTYPE html><html><body>

<form>First name:<br><input type="text" name="firstname"><br>Last name:<br><input type="text" name="lastname"> <br><input type="radio" name="gender" value="male" checked> Male<br><input type="radio" name="gender" value="female"> Female<br></form>

<p>Note that the form itself is not visible.</p>

<p>Also note that the default width of a text input field is 20 characters.</p>

</body></html>Input ElementsThe <input> Element

The <input> element is the most important form element. The <input> element has many variations, depending on the type attribute.Radio Button Input<input type="radio"> defines a radio button.Radio buttons let a user select ONE of a limited number of choices:

Submit Button<input type="submit"> defines a button for submitting a form to a form-handler.The form-handler is typically a server page with a script for processing input data.

The Action AttributeThe action attribute defines the action to be performed when the form is submitted.The common way to submit a form to a server, is by using a submit button.2 Actions can be used - POST and GETGET is used for simple information as in a search query. POST is used for sensitive information that needs to be updated in the server.

Fieldset - Grouping Form Data The <fieldset> element groups related data in a form.The <legend> element defines a caption for the <fieldset> element.

HTML TablesAn HTML table is defined with the <table> tag.

Each table row is defined with the <tr> tag. A table header is defined with the <th> tag. By default, table headings are bold and centered. A table data/cell is defined with the <td> tag.

Table with Column Spanning multiple Columns<!DOCTYPE html><html><head><style>table, th, td {border: 1px solid black;border-collapse: collapse;}th, td {padding: 5px;

text-align: left; }</style></head><body><h2>Cell that spans two columns:</h2><table style="width:100%"><tr>

<th>Name</th><th colspan="2">Telephone</th>

</tr><tr>

<td>Bill Gates</td> <td>555 77 854</td> <td>555 77 855</td>

</tr></table>

</body></html>

Table with Padding<!DOCTYPE html><html>

<head><style>table, th, td {

border: 1px solid black;border-collapse: collapse;

}th, td {

padding: 2px;}</style></head>

<body><table style="width:100%"><tr>

<td>Jill</td><td>Smith</td><td>50</td>

</tr><tr>

<td>Eve</td><td>Jackson</td><td>94</td>

</tr>

<tr><td>John</td><td>Doe</td><td>80</td>

</tr></table><p>Try to change the padding to 5px.</p></body></html>

CSS – Cascading Style SheetsWhen a browser reads a style sheet, it will format the HTML document according to the information in the style sheet.

CSS describes how HTML elements are to be displayed on screen, paper, or in other media CSS saves a lot of work. It can control the layout of multiple web pages all at once External stylesheets are stored in CSS files

Three Ways to Insert CSSThere are three ways of inserting a style sheet:

External style sheet Internal style sheet Inline style

External Style SheetWith an external style sheet, you can change the look of an entire website by changing just one file!Each page must include a reference to the external style sheet file inside the <link> element. The <link> element goes inside the <head> section:

Example<head><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css"></head>

An external style sheet can be written in any text editor. The file should not contain any html tags. The style sheet file must be saved with a .css extension.

Here is how the "myStyle.css" looks:

body {    background-color: lightblue;}

h1 {    color: navy;    margin-left: 20px;}

Internal Style SheetAn internal style sheet may be used if one single page has a unique style.Internal styles are defined within the <style> element, inside the <head> section of an HTML page:

Example<head><style>body {    background-color: linen;}

h1 {    color: maroon;    margin-left: 40px;} </style></head>

Inline StylesAn inline style may be used to apply a unique style for a single element.To use inline styles, add the style attribute to the relevant element. The style attribute can contain any CSS property.The example below shows how to change the color and the left margin of a <h1> element:

Example<h1 style="color:blue;margin-left:30px;">This is a heading.</h1>Tip: An inline style loses many of the advantages of a style sheet (by mixing content with presentation). Use this method sparingly

Multiple Style SheetsIf some properties have been defined for the same selector (element) in different style sheets, the value from the last read style sheet will be used. 

Example Assume that an external style sheet has the following style for the <h1> element:

h1 {    color: navy;}then, assume that an internal style sheet also has the following style for the <h1> element:h1 {    color: orange;    }If the internal style is defined after the link to the external style sheet, the <h1> elements will be "orange":

Example<head><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css"><style>h1 {    color: orange;}</style></head>However, if the internal style is defined before the link to the external style sheet, the <h1> elements will be "navy":

Example<head><style>h1 {    color: orange;}</style><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="mystyle.css"></head>

Cascading OrderWhat style will be used when there is more than one style specified for an HTML element?Generally speaking we can say that all the styles will "cascade" into a new "virtual" style sheet by the following rules, where number one has the highest priority:

1. Inline style (inside an HTML element)2. External and internal style sheets (in the head section)3. Browser default

So, an inline style (inside a specific HTML element) has the highest priority, which means that it will override a style defined inside the <head> tag, or in an external style sheet, or a browser default value.Using Internal Stylesheets

The CLASS AttributeThe CLASS attribute is used to specify the style class to which the element belongs. For example, the style sheet may have created the punk andwarning classes:.punk { color: lime; background: #ff80c0 }P.warning { font-weight: bolder; color: red; background: white }These classes could be referenced in HTML with the CLASS attribute:<H1 CLASS=punk>Proprietary Extensions</H1><P CLASS=warning>Many proprietary extensions can have negative side-effects, both on supporting and non-supporting browsers...<H2 CLASS=punk>Class extensions</H2>In this example, the punk class may be applied to any BODY element since it does not have an HTML element associated with it in the style sheet. Using the example's style sheet, the warning class may only be applied to the P element.Same Classes can be used for different tags.

The ID AttributeThe ID attribute is used to define a unique style for an element. A CSS rule such as#id1 { font-size: larger }may be applied in HTML through the ID attribute:<P ID=id1>Welcome to the Web Design Group!</P>Each ID attribute must have a unique value over the document. The value must be an initial letter followed by letters, digits, or hyphens. The letters are restricted to A-Z and a-z.The use of ID is appropriate when a style only needs to be applied once in any document. ID contrasts with the STYLE attribute in that the former allows medium-specific styles and can also be applied to multiple documents (though only once in each document).

Working with HTML Web Templates

1. A website template is a pre-built website composed of HTML pages that include integrated images, text content and support files for font styles and Javascripts. The end user plugs their information, text and images, into the pre-built design and then uploads to a web hosting account for viewing on the Internet.

2. Template designs are self contained, or stand alone, web sites downloaded in zip file format. This allows the purchaser to completely own and freely use the website they are developing including all source code, stock photos and files.

3. Web templates and website templates are the same thing. An HTML web template may be built using HTML or XHTML and will include CSS and Javascript code. PHP and ASP templates in most cases will also include either HTML or XHTML code.

4. A website can not be built using only CSS. CSS is the code used to format the style of an HTML or XHTML website. CSS code can be either included in a webpage with the HTML code (in-line css), or it can be in an externally linked CSS style sheet file.

5. Code specifically for mobile devices may be included in a second file called "media-queries.css". Media Queries is css code that detects the browser screen width and can dynamically change a webpage layout to conform to the specific device resolution.

MEDIA QUERIES - WHAT IS A MEDIA QUERY? Media query is a CSS technique introduced in CSS3.It uses the @media rule to include a block of CSS properties only if a certain condition is true.Example 1: Resize the browser window. When the width of this document is less than 500 pixels, the background-color is "lightblue", otherwise it is "lightgreen".<!DOCTYPE html><html><head><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"/><style>body { background-color:lightgreen;}

@media only screen and (max-width: 500px) { body { background-color:lightblue; }}</style></head>

<body><p>Resize the browser window. When the width of this document is less than 500 pixels, the background-color is "lightblue", otherwise it is "lightgreen".</p></body></html>

Example 2 : Resize the browser window. When the width of this document is larger than the height, the background-color is "lightblue", otherwise it is "lightgreen <!DOCTYPE html>

<html><head><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"><style>body { background-color: lightgreen;}

@media only screen and (orientation: landscape) { body { background-color: lightblue; }}</style></head><body><p>Resize the browser window. When the width of this document is larger than the height, the background-color is "lightblue", otherwise it is "lightgreen".</p></body></html>

JQUERY -UIjQuery is a lightweight, "write less, do more", JavaScript library. The purpose of jQuery is to make it much easier to use JavaScript on your website.JQuery takes a lot of common tasks that require many lines of JavaScript code to accomplish, and wraps them into methods that you can call with a single line of code.jQuery also simplifies a lot of the complicated things from JavaScript, like AJAX calls and DOM manipulation.The jQuery library contains the following features:

HTML/DOM manipulation CSS manipulation HTML event methods Effects and animations AJAX Utilities and plugins

WHY JQUERY?There are lots of other JavaScript frameworks out there, but jQuery seems to be the most popular, and also the most extendable.Many of the biggest companies on the Web use jQuery, such as:

Google Microsoft IBM Netflix

JQUERY SYNTAXThe jQuery syntax is tailor-made for selecting HTML elements and performing some action on the element(s).

Basic syntax is: $(selector).action() A $ sign to define/access jQuery A (selector) to "query (or find)" HTML elements A jQuery action() to be performed on the element(s)

Examples:$(this).hide() - hides the current element.$("p").hide() - hides all <p> elements.$(".test").hide() - hides all elements with class="test".$("#test").hide() - hides the element with id="test".

THE DOCUMENT READY EVENTYou might have noticed that all jQuery methods in our examples, are inside a document ready event:

$(document).ready(function(){

   // jQuery methods go here...

}); This is to prevent any jQuery code from running before the document is finished loading (is ready).It is good practice to wait for the document to be fully loaded and ready before working with it. This also allows you to have your JavaScript code before the body of your document, in the head section.

Eg. Para disappears on Clicking

<!DOCTYPE html><html><head><script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.12.4/jquery.min.js"></script><script>$(document).ready(function(){ $("p").click(function(){ $(this).hide(); });});</script></head><body><p>If you click on me, I will disappear.</p><p>Click me away!</p>

<p>Click me too!</p></body></html>

Browser Detection Property browser.browsername and browser .version property can be used to detect browser as well as version to take appropriate action. Certain handling of attributes especially

01 $(document).ready(function() {

02   if ($.browser.mozilla && $.browser.version >= "2.0" ){

03    alert('Mozilla above 1.9');04   }05   

06   if( $.browser.safari ){

07    alert('Safari');08   }09  

10   if( $.browser.opera){

11    alert('Opera');12   }13  

14   if ($.browser.msie && $.browser.version <= 6 ){

15    alert('IE 6 or below version');16   }17  18   if ($.browser.msie && $.browser.version > 6){19    alert('IE above 6');20   }21 });

New elements in HTML5HTML5 <DATALIST> ELEMENT

The <datalist> element specifies a list of pre-defined options for an <input> element.Users will see a drop-down list of the pre-defined options as they input data.The list attribute of the <input> element, must refer to the id attribute of the <datalist> element.<!DOCTYPE html>

<html><body>

<form action="action_page.php"> <input list="browsers" name="browser"> <datalist id="browsers"> <option value="Internet Explorer"> <option value="Firefox"> <option value="Chrome"> <option value="Opera"> <option value="Safari"> </datalist> <input type="submit"></form>

<p><b>Note:</b> The datalist tag is not supported in Safari or IE9 (and earlier).</p>

</body></html>

HTML5 <KEYGEN> ELEMENTThe purpose of the <keygen> element is to provide a secure way to authenticate users.The <keygen> element specifies a key-pair generator field in a form.When the form is submitted, two keys are generated, one private and one public.The private key is stored locally, and the public key is sent to the server.The public key could be used to generate a client certificate to authenticate the user in the future.Eg.<!DOCTYPE html><html><body>

<form action="action_page.php"> Username: <input type="text" name="user"> <br><br> Encryption: <keygen name="security"> <br><br> <input type="submit"></form>

</body></html>

HTML5 <OUTPUT> ELEMENT The <output> element represents the result of a calculation (like one performed by a script).<!DOCTYPE html><html><body><form action="action_page.php" oninput="x.value=parseInt(a.value)+parseInt(b.value)"> 0 <input type="range" id="a" name="a" value="50"> 100 + <input type="number" id="b" name="b" value="50"> = <output name="x" for="a b"></output> <br><br> <input type="submit"></form></body></html>

CSS3CSS3 is the latest standard for CSS. CSS3 is completely backwards-compatible with earlier versions of CSS.

CSS3 MODULES

CSS3 has been split into "modules". It contains the "old CSS specification" (which has been split into smaller pieces). In addition, new modules are added.

Some of the most important CSS3 modules are:

Selectors Box Model Backgrounds and Borders Image Values and Replaced Content Text Effects 2D/3D Transformations Animations Multiple Column Layout User Interface

Most of the new CSS3 properties are implemented in modern browsers.

Basic Shapes Basic shapes such as square, circle, rectangle , triangle can be created by using div tags with CSS styling.

Sample code for creating a rectangle, square, circle are given below : Complicated shapes such as circles and ovals are achieved using the border-radius attribute.

Square

#square {width: 100px;height: 100px;background: red;

}<div id="square"></div>

Rectangle

#rectangle {width: 200px;height: 100px;background: red;

}

<div id="square"></div>

Circle

#circle {width: 100px;height: 100px;background: red;-moz-border-radius: 50px;-webkit-border-radius: 50px;border-radius: 50px;

}<div id="circle"></div>

Oval

#oval {width: 200px;height: 100px;background: red;-moz-border-radius: 100px / 50px;-webkit-border-radius: 100px / 50px;border-radius: 100px / 50px;

}

<div id="oval"></div>

Triangle

#triangle-up {width: 0;height: 0;border-left: 50px solid transparent;border-right: 50px solid transparent;border-bottom: 100px solid red;

}<div id="triangle-up"></div>

TEXT AND SHADOW CSS3 SHADOW EFFECTS

With CSS3 you can add shadow to text and to elements. The attributes below allow us to provide shadow to elements that contain text and box shaped elements especially div tags.

text-shadow box-shadow

Text ShadowFollowing code can be used to create shadow for text elements. <style>h1 { text-shadow: 2px 2px; }</style></head><body><h1>Text-shadow effect!</h1>

Box Shadow Similar effect can be achieved for box using box-shadow attribute

div {

width: 300px;

height: 100px;

padding: 15px;

background-color: yellow;

box-shadow: 10px 10px;}

CSS3 also has new attributes for text elements.

CSS3 TEXT PROPERTIES

The following table lists the new CSS3 text properties:

Property

Description

text-align-last

Specifies how to align the last line of a text

text-emphasis

A shorthand for setting text-emphasis-style and text-emphasis-color in one declaration

text-justify

Specifies how justified text should be aligned and spaced

text-overflow

Specifies how overflowed content that is not displayed should be signaled to the user

word-break

Specifies line breaking rules for non-CJK scripts

word-wrap

Allows long words to be able to be broken and wrap onto the next line

Basic Animation using CSS3WHAT ARE CSS3 ANIMATIONS?

An animation lets an element gradually change from one style to another.You can change as many CSS properties you want, as many times you want.To use CSS3 animation, you must first specify some keyframes for the animation.Keyframes hold what styles the element will have at certain times.

THE @KEYFRAMES RULE

When you specify CSS styles inside the @keyframes rule, the animation will gradually change from the current style to the new style at certain times.

To get an animation to work, you must bind the animation to an element. The following example binds the "example" animation to the <div> element. The animation will lasts for 4 seconds, and it will gradually change the background-color of the <div> element from "red" to "yellow":

Example code:

/* The animation code */@keyframes example {

    from {background-color: red;}    to {background-color: yellow;}}

/* The element to apply the animation to */div {    width: 100px;    height: 100px;    background-color: red;    animation-name: example;    animation-duration: 4s;}

CSS3 ANIMATION PROPERTIESThe following table lists the @keyframes rule and all the animation properties:

Property Description@keyframes Specifies the animation code

animation A shorthand property for setting all the animation properties

animation-delay

Specifies a delay for the start of an animation

animation-direction

Specifies whether an animation should play in reverse direction or alternate cycles

animation-duration

Specifies how many seconds or milliseconds an animation takes to complete one cycle

animation-fill-mode

Specifies a style for the element when the animation is not playing (when it is finished, or when it has a delay)

animation-iteration-count

Specifies the number of times an animation should be played

animation-name

Specifies the name of the @keyframes animation

animation-play-state

Specifies whether the animation is running or paused

animation-timing-function

Specifies the speed curve of the animation

Add Video to Web pagePLAYING V IDEOS IN HTML

Before HTML5, a video could only be played in a browser with a plug-in (like flash).

The HTML5 <video> element specifies a standard way to embed a video in a web page.THE HTML <VIDEO> ELEMENT

To show a video in HTML, use the <video> element:

Eg. <!DOCTYPE html><html><body><video width="320" height="240" controls> <source src="movie.mp4" type="video/mp4"> <source src="movie.ogg" type="video/ogg"> Your browser does not support the video tag.</video></body></html>

Javascript : Client side scripting language. JavaScript Can Change HTML Content/attributes/element. Follows a Document Object Model. (DOM) JavaScript to program the behavior of web pages In HTML, JavaScript code must be inserted between <script> and </script> tags. JavaScript can be placed in the <body> and the <head> sections of an HTML page. Any no. of script tags can be used.

JS Variables Functions, Conditional IF and loopsVariables:JAVASCRIPT VARIABLESJavaScript variables are containers for storing data values.In this example, x, y, and z, are variables:var x = 5;var y = 6;var z = x + y;From the example above, you can expect:

x stores the value 5 y stores the value 6 z stores the value 11

We can declare many variables in one stmt

Eg. <!DOCTYPE html><html>

<body><h1>JavaScript Variables</h1><p>You can declare many variables in one statement.</p>

<p id="demo"></p><script>

var person = "John Doe", carName = "Volvo", price = 200;document.getElementById("demo").innerHTML = carName;

</script></body></html>

Syntax for Functions:For example, a function can be executed when an event occurs, like when the user clicks a button.function NAME(PARAMETER1, PARAMETER2, PARAMETER3) {    CODE TO BE EXECUTED}Eg.<!DOCTYPE html><html><head><script>function myFunction() { document.getElementById("demo").innerHTML = "Paragraph changed.";}</script></head><body><h1>JavaScript in Head</h1><p id="demo">A Paragraph.</p><button type="button" onclick="myFunction()">Try it</button></body></html>

Eg. Number Validation================<!DOCTYPE html><html><body>

<h1>JavaScript Can Validate Input</h1><p>Please input a number between 1 and 10:</p><input id="numb">

<button type="button" onclick="myFunction()">Submit</button><p id="demo"></p>

<script>function myFunction() {

var x, text;

// Get the value of the input field with id="numb" x = document.getElementById("numb").value;

// If x is Not a Number or less than one or greater than 10 if (isNaN(x) || x < 1 || x > 10) { text = "Input not valid"; } else { text = "Input OK"; } document.getElementById("demo").innerHTML = text;}</script>

</body></html>

If Conditions and LoopsConditional statements are used to perform different actions based on different conditions.

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTSVery often when you write code, you want to perform different actions for different decisions.You can use conditional statements in your code to do this.In JavaScript we have the following conditional statements:

Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed

THE IF STATEMENT USE THE  IF STATEMENT TO SPECIFY A BLOCK OF JAVASCRIPT CODE TO BE EXECUTED IF A CONDITION IS TRUE .SYNTAX

if (condition) {      BLOCK OF CODE TO BE EXECUTED IF THE CONDITION IS TRUE}

eg. <!DOCTYPE html><html><body>

<p>Display "Good day!" if the hour is less than 18:00:</p>

<p id="demo">Good Evening!</p>

<script>if (new Date().getHours() < 18) { document.getElementById("demo").innerHTML = "Good day!";}

</script>

</body></html>

If else stmt:Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition is false.if (condition) {    block of code to be executed if the condition is true} else {     block of code to be executed if the condition is false}

Loops : For LoopLoops can execute a block of code a number of times.

JavaScript LoopsLoops are handy, if you want to run the same code over and over again, each time with a different value.Often this is the case when working with arrays:The for loop is often the tool you will use when you want to create a loop.The for loop has the following syntax:for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {    code block to be executed}Statement 1 is executed before the loop (the code block) starts.Statement 2 defines the condition for running the loop (the code block).Statement 3 is executed each time after the loop (the code block) has been executed.for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) {    text += "The number is " + i + "<br>";}While Loop

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true.

SYNTAXwhile (C O N D I T I O N ) {    code block to be executed}

In the following example, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long as a variable (i) is less than 10:

EXAMPLEwhile (i < 10) {    text += "The number is " + i;    i++;}

NEW ELEMENTS IN HTML5

Below is a list of the new HTML5 elements, and a description of what they are used for.

NEW SEMANTIC /STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

HTML5 offers new elements for better document structure:

Tag Description

<article> Defines an article in the document

<aside>Defines content aside from the page content

<bdi>Defines a part of text that might be formatted in a different direction from other text

<details>Defines additional details that the user can view or hide

<dialog> Defines a dialog box or window

<figcaption>Defines a caption for a <figure> element

<figure>Defines self-contained content, like illustrations, diagrams, photos, code listings, etc.

<footer>Defines a footer for the document or a section

<header>Defines a header for the document or a section

<main> Defines the main content of a

document

<mark> Defines marked or highlighted text

<menuitem> Defines a command/menu item that the user can invoke from a popup menu

<meter>Defines a scalar measurement within a known range (a gauge)

<nav>Defines navigation links in the document

<progress> Defines the progress of a task

<rp>Defines what to show in browsers that do not support ruby annotations

<rt>

Defines an explanation/pronunciation of characters (for East Asian typography)

<ruby>Defines a ruby annotation (for East Asian typography)

<section> Defines a section in the document

<summary>Defines a visible heading for a <details> element

<time> Defines a date/time

<wbr> Defines a possible line-break

NEW FORM ELEMENTS

Tag Description

<datalist>

Defines pre-defined options for input controls

<keygen>

Defines a key-pair generator field (for forms)

<output> Defines the result of a calculation

Read all about old and new form elements in HTML Form Elements.

NEW INPUT TYPES

New Input Types New Input Attributes

color date datetime datetime-local email month number range search tel time

autocomplete autofocus form formaction formenctype formmethod formnovalidate formtarget height and width list min and max

url week

multiple pattern (regexp) placeholder required step

HTML5 - NEW ATTRIBUTE SYNTAX

HTML5 allows four different syntaxes for attributes.

This example demonstrates the different syntaxes used in an <input> tag:

Type Example

Empty <input type="text" value="John" disabled>

Unquoted

<input type="text" value=John>

Double-quoted

<input type="text" value="John Doe">

Single-quoted

<input type="text" value='John Doe'>

In HTML5, all four syntaxes may be used, depending on what is needed for the attribute.

HTML5 GRAPHICS

Tag Description

<canvas>

Draw graphics, on the fly, via scripting (usually JavaScript)

<svg> Draw scalable vector graphics

.

NEW MEDIA ELEMENTS

Tag Description

<audio> Defines sound content

<embed>

Defines containers for external applications (like plug-ins)

<source> Defines sources for <video> and <audio>

<track> Defines tracks for <video> and <audio>

<video> Defines video or movie content

UNIT 5: ADOBE PHOTOSHOP 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ADOBE PHOTOSHOP

OVERVIEW OF ADOBE PHOTOSHOP

Adobe Photoshop is a powerful photo and image editing application. Part of the Adobe suite of productivity software, Photoshop is considered by many to be a benchmark in the world of professional digital image solutions.

PHOTOSHOP IS NOT A DRAWING PROGRAM!

This is a very common source of confusion and frustration. Although it is possible to use Photoshop to design and construct original graphics, you will find that it is difficult and limited. The reason is that Photoshop is not intended to be used for this type of work. Photoshop is an image editing tool, not a design tool. To create original images, Adobe provides other specialist programs such as Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Image Ready.

SO WHAT DOES PHOTOSHOP DO?

The real power of Photoshop is in working with existing images. Typical tasks include treating and manipulation, compositing, converting to different formats, printing, etc.

Photoshop is very strong in the world of printed media and is popular with newspapers and other publishers

And for editing photos for web designing n development.

COMPATIBILITY

Photoshop tends to work well with other applications. As well as integrating seamlessly with other Adobe products (such as Premiere, Illustrator, etc), Photoshop formats are also widely recognised and able to be imported into programs such as Macromedia Fireworks, Corel Draw, etc.

1.1 OVERVIEW OF PS

Photoshop is Adobe's photo editing, image creation and graphic design software. The software provides many image editing features for raster (pixel-based) images as

well as vector graphics. It uses a layer-based editing system that enables image creation

and altering with multiple overlays that support transparency. Layers can also act as masks or filters, altering underlying colors. Shadows and other effects can be added to the layers. Photoshop actions include automation features to reduce the need for repetitive tasks. An option known as Photoshop CC (Creative Cloud) allows users to work on content from any computer.

Photoshop been the industry standard image manipulation program for so long that its name has become a verb: It is common parlance to say that an image has been “photoshopped” or even just “shopped." Shopped, in this context, is synonymous with edited, manipulated or faked --  often regardless of the software actually used. 

2.0 PHOTOSHOP CS(CREATIVE SUITE) FOR ALL USERS (WHAT’S NEW)

No matter how you use Photoshop CS, you can take advantage of improved file management, and better ways to track and securely share your work.

Enhanced File Browser

In Adobe Photoshop CS, the File Browser comes into its own as your digital imaging hub. With flags, keywords, and editable metadata, you can now use the File Browser to quickly organize and locate the image assets you need. Perform batch procedures on groups of images without having to first open the image files in Photoshop. (See Using the File Browser (Photoshop).)

Easily customize your keyboard shortcuts

Create, edit, and save multiple keyboard shortcut sets for menu items, tools, and palette commands, so the functions that you use most are always at your fingertips. (See Customizing keyboard shortcuts.)

Quickly create, view, and edit custom file information

Use the File Browser to quickly search for files using editable metadata, without having to open each file. Fully customize your image metadata with custom panels and fields in the File Info dialog, and use the File Browser to edit the metadata of one or many images at a time. (See Adding metadata to files.)

Create slide shows and PDF presentations

Easily bind multiple files into a single, multi-page Adobe PDF document, complete with optional page transitions and security. (See Creating a PDF presentation.)

Collaborate with Web photo galleries

Use professionally-designed Web Photo Gallery templates, including support for client feedback with no extra Web coding required. (See Creating Web photo galleries (Photoshop).)

Track your editing history

Save your editing history in a external log file and in metadata attached to individual files. (SeeWorking with the Edit History Log.)

Easily access and use multiple filters

The new Filter Gallery brings Photoshop CS filters into a single, easy-to-use dialog. Now you can access, control, and apply multiple filters at once, with a new, larger preview for easier planning of stacked filter effects. (See Using the Filter Gallery.)

Use enhanced scripting

Save time by automating repeated tasks, such as outputting your layers to files or saving Layer Comps as separate pages of an Adobe PDF file, using custom or new built-in scripts. See the documentation available in your Photoshop CS/Scripting Guide folder.

Customize the Help menu

Use the new how-to topics by choosing them from the Help menu. Or, create your own how-to topic and have it appear in the Help menu. (For more information, choose Help > How to Create How Tos.)

3.0 LOOKING AT THE WORK AREA

Photoshop work area A. Menu bar B. Options bar C. Toolbox D. Active image area E. Palette well F. Palettes

About the work area

The work area consists of the following components:

Menu bar

The menu bar contains menus for performing tasks. The menus are organized by topic. For example, the Layers menu contains commands for working with layers.

Options bar

The options bar provides options for using a tool. (See Using the options bar.)

Toolbox

The toolbox holds tools for creating and editing images. (See Using the tools.)

Palette well (Photoshop)

The palette well helps you organize the palettes in your work area. (See Using the palette well.)

Palettes

Palettes help you monitor and modify images. (See Using palettes.)

TOOLBOX OVERVIEW

USING TOOLS IN ADOBE TOOL BOX

You select a tool by clicking its icon in the toolbox. A small triangle at the lower right of a tool icon indicates hidden tools. Positioning the pointer over a tool displays a tool tip with the tool's name and keyboard shortcut.

To show or hide the toolbox:

Choose Window > Tools. A check mark indicates the item is showing.

To move the toolbox:

Drag the toolbox by its title bar.

To select a tool:

Do one of the following:

Click its icon or press its keyboard shortcut. If the icon has a small triangle at its lower right corner, hold down the mouse button to view the hidden tools. Then, click the tool you want to select. Press the tool's keyboard shortcut. The keyboard shortcut is displayed in its tool tip.

GETTING IMAGES INTO PHOTOSHOP AND IMAGEREADY

Working with bitmap images and vector graphics

Computer graphics fall into two main categories--bitmap and vector. You can work with both types of graphics in Photoshop and ImageReady; moreover, a Photoshop file can contain both bitmap and vector data. Understanding the difference between the two categories helps as you create, edit, and import artwork.

About bitmap images- raster graphics

Bitmap images--technically called raster images--are made up of a grid of dots known as pixels. When working with bitmap images, you edit pixels rather than objects or shapes. Bitmap images are the most common electronic medium for continuous-tone images, such as photographs or digital paintings, because they can represent subtle gradations of shades and color.

Bitmap images can lose detail when scaled on-screen because they are resolution-dependent, they contain a fixed number of pixels, and each pixel is assigned a specific location and color value. Bitmapped images can look jagged if they're printed at too low a resolution because the size of each pixel is increased (see Understanding image size and resolution).

Example of a bitmap image at different levels of magnification.

ABOUT VECTOR GRAPHICS

Vector graphics are made up of mathematically defined lines and curves called vectors. This means that you can move, resize, or change the color of a line without losing the quality of the graphic.

Vector graphics are resolution-independent--that is, they can be scaled to any size and printed at any resolution without losing detail or clarity. As a result, vector graphics are the best choice for representing bold graphics that must retain crisp lines when scaled to various sizes (logos, for example).

Example of a vector graphic at different levels of magnification

Note: Because computer monitors can display images only on a grid, both vector graphics and bitmap images are displayed as pixels on-screen (see Monitor resolution).

UNDERSTANDING IMAGE SIZE AND RESOLUTION

Understanding the relationship between the pixel dimension of an image and its print resolution is key to producing high-quality images. The amount of detail in an image depends on its pixel dimensions, while the image resolution controls how much space the pixels are printed over. For example, you can modify an image's resolution without changing the actual pixel data in the image--all you change is the printed size of the image. However, if you want to maintain the same output dimensions, changing the image's resolution requires a change in the total number of pixels.

Illustration of Pixel dimensions equal document (output) size times resolution with these callouts: A. Decreasing the resolution without changing pixel dimensions (no resampling) B. Original dimensions and resolution C. Decreasing the resolution at same document size decreases pixel dimensions (resampling)

Pixel dimensions equal document (output) size times resolution A. Decreasing the resolution without changing pixel dimensions (no resampling) B. Original dimensions and resolution C. Decreasing the resolution at same document size decreases pixel dimensions (resampling)

Opening and importing images

You can open and import images in various file formats. The available formats appear in the File Browser, the Open dialog box, the Open As dialog box (Windows), or the Import submenu.

WORKING WITH COLOR : COLOR MODES

RGB mode CMYK mode Lab mode Bitmap mode Grayscale mode

Photoshop's RGB mode uses the RGB model, assigning an intensity value to each pixel ranging from 0 (black) to 255 (white) for each of the RGB components in a color image. For example, a bright red color might have an R value of 246, a G value of 20, and a B value of 50. When the values of all three components are equal, the result is a shade of neutral gray. When the value of all components is 255, the result is pure white; when the value is 0, pure black.

RGB images use three colors, or channels, to reproduce up to 16.7 million colors on-screen;

The CMYK model is based on the light-absorbing quality of ink printed on paper. As white light strikes translucent inks, certain visible wavelengths are absorbed while others are reflected back to your eyes.

In theory, pure cyan (C), magenta (M), and yellow (Y) pigments should combine to absorb all light and produce black. For this reason these colors are called subtractive colors. Because all printing inks contain some impurities, these three inks actually produce a muddy brown and must be combined with black (K) ink to produce a true black. (K is used instead of B to avoid confusion with blue.) Combining these inks to reproduce color is called four-color process printing.

The subtractive (CMY) and additive (RGB) colors are complementary colors. Each pair of subtractive colors creates an additive color, and vice versa.

CMYK MODE

In Photoshop's CMYK mode, each pixel is assigned a percentage value for each of the process inks. The lightest (highlight) colors are assigned small percentages of process ink colors, the darker (shadow) colors higher percentages. For example, a bright red might contain 2% cyan, 93% magenta, 90% yellow, and 0% black. In CMYK images, pure white is generated when all four components have values of 0%.

BITMAP MODE

This mode uses one of two color values (black or white) to represent the pixels in an image. Images in Bitmap mode are called bitmapped 1-bit images because they have a bit depth of 1. (See Specifying 8-bit color display (Photoshop).)

GRAYSCALE MODE

This mode uses up to 256 shades of gray. Every pixel of a grayscale image has a brightness value ranging from 0 (black) to 255 (white). Grayscale values can also be measured as percentages of black ink coverage (0% is equal to white, 100% to black). Images produced using black-and-white or grayscale scanners typically are displayed in Grayscale mode.

These guidelines apply to converting images to and from Grayscale mode:

You can convert both Bitmap-mode and color images to grayscale. To convert a color image to a high-quality grayscale image, Photoshop discards all color information in the original image. The gray levels (shades) of the converted pixels represent the luminosity of the original pixels.

Using other color pickers

In addition to the default Adobe Color Picker, you can use the built-in color pickers on your system or a plug-in color picker to select colors. Any plug-in color pickers you install appear under Color Picker in the General section of the Preferences dialog box. For information on installing and using a plug-in color picker, see the documentation that came with the plug-in.

To use the Windows Color Picker (Windows):1. Choose Edit > Preferences > General.2. Choose Windows from the Color Picker menu, and click OK.3.

PRODUCING CONSISTENT COLOR COLOR MANAGEMENT

Colors in an image will sometime look different when viewed on different monitors. They may also look very different when printed on your desktop printer or printed in a publication. If you need to produce consistent color across different devices, managing color should be an essential part of your workflow.

BASIC STEPS FOR PRODUCING CONSISTENT COLOR

A color management system is built into Photoshop. To use Photoshop's color management system successfully, you will need to follow some basic steps.

To start managing the color in your workflow:1. Calibrate your monitor. Use a visual calibration method, like Adobe Gamma (Windows) or Monitor Calibrator (Mac OS), or use third-party software and hardware for more accurate calibration.2. Specify the color settings when you first launch Photoshop. The color settings in the Photoshop Color Settings dialog box control how the color management system works with RGB, CMYK, and grayscale images.

When first launching Photoshop, an alert will tell you that the color settings will be configured using default settings (Web Graphics Defaults) and ask if you wish to customize the color settings. Do one of the following: Click No to accept the default settings. Keep in mind that the default settings might be appropriate for keeping colors consistent when images are viewed on a computer monitor, but may not be optimum for printing images. For better control of the Photoshop color management system, click Yes to customize the color settings in Photoshop when first launching the program. This opens the Color Settings dialog box. In the Color Settings dialog box, choose a preset option from the Settings menuFor the maximum control of the Photoshop color management system, click Yes to customize the color settings in Photoshop when first launching the program. This opens the Color Settings dialog box. In the Color Settings dialog box, select the Advanced Mode option and specify the individual settings.

It is important to use the same color settings in other color-managed applications such as Adobe Illustrator, Adobe InDesign, and Adobe Acrobat® in order to make your color consistent between the

applicationsCreate or acquire profiles of devices in your workflow, such as your desktop printer. The Photoshop color management system needs to know the behavior of the devices in your workflow in order to properly convert the color values in a document so the devices produce consistent color. Common ways to obtain a profile include:

Incorporate color management into your various workflows

MAKING COLOR AND TONAL ADJUSTMENTSBASIC STEPS FOR CORRECTING IMAGES

The following workflow overview is a starting point for correcting the tonality and color of an image.

Note: For some images, the use of the quick adjustment commands in Photoshop and ImageReady might give satisfactory results. For more information on the various Auto commands, see Making quick overall adjustments to an image.

TO MAKE COLOR AND TONAL ADJUSTMENTS:

1. (Photoshop) Use the histogram to check the quality and tonal range of the image. For information on using the histogram, see Using a histogram to view the tonal range of an image (Photoshop).2. Adjust the color balance to remove unwanted color casts or to correct oversaturated or undersaturated colors.

You can choose from the following color adjustment methods:

(Photoshop) Auto Color command

Quickly corrects the color balance in an image. Although its name implies an automatic adjustment, you can fine tune how the Auto Color command behaves. For more information, see Using the Auto Color command (Photoshop).

(Photoshop) Match Color command

Matches the color from one photo to another photo, from one layer to another layer, and from a selection in an image to another selection in the same image or different image. This command also adjusts the luminance and color range and neutralizes color casts in an image. For more information, see Using the Match Color command (Photoshop).

(Photoshop) Color Balance command

Changes the overall mixture of colors in an image. For more information, see Using the Color Balance command (Photoshop).

Hue/Saturation command

Adjusts the hue, saturation, and lightness values of the entire image or of individual color components. For more information on the Hue/Saturation command, see Using the Hue/Saturation command.

(Photoshop) Replace Color command

Replaces specified colors in an image with new color values. For more information on the Replace Color command, see Using the Replace Color command (Photoshop).

(Photoshop) Selective Color command

Adjusts the amount of process colors in individual color components. For more information on the Selective Color command, see Using the Selective Color command (Photoshop).

(Photoshop) Channel Mixer command

Modifies a color channel and makes color adjustments not easily done with other color adjustment tools. For more information on the Channel Mixer command, see Mixing color channels (Photoshop).

Levels command

Adjusts color balance by setting the pixel distribution for individual color channels. For more information on the Levels command, see Using Levels to adjust color (Photoshop).

(Photoshop) Curves command

Provides up to 14 controls points for highlight, midtone, and shadow adjustments for individual channels. For more information on the Curves command, see Using the Curves dialog box (Photoshop).

Photo Filter command

Makes color adjustments by simulating the effects of photographing with a Kodak Wratten filter in front of a camera lens. For more information on the Photo Filter command, see Using the Photo Filter command (Photoshop).

3. Adjust the tonal range.

Begin tonal corrections by adjusting the values of the extreme highlight and shadow pixels in the image, setting an overall tonal range for the image. This process is known as setting the highlights and shadows or setting the white and black points.

Setting the highlights and shadows typically redistributes the midtone pixels appropriately. However, you may need to adjust your midtones manually.

There are several different ways to set an image's tonal range:

You can drag sliders along the histogram in the Levels dialog box. For more information using the sliders in Levels, see Using Levels to set highlights, shadows, and midtones. (Photoshop) You can adjust the shape of the graph in the Curves dialog box. This method lets you adjust any point along a 0-255 tonal scale and provides the greatest control over an image's tonal quality. For more information on using the Curves command, see Using the Curves dialog box (Photoshop). (Photoshop) You can assign target values to the highlight and shadow pixels using either the Levels or Curves dialog box. This can help preserve important highlight and shadow details in images being sent to a printing press or laser printer. You might also need to tweak the target values after sharpening. For more information on setting target values, see Setting highlight and shadow target values (Photoshop). Adjust the tonality in the shadow and highlight areas using the Shadow/Highlight command. This adjustment is especially useful to correct photos, where the subject is silhouetted due to strong backlighting or where the subject is a bit light from being too close to the camera flash. For more information on the Shadow/Highlight command, see Using the Shadow/Highlight command (Photoshop).

(Optional) Make other special color adjustments.

Once you have corrected the overall color balance of your image, you can make optional adjustments to enhance colors or produce special effects. For more information on special color effects, see Applying special color effects to images.

Sharpen the edges of the image.

As one of the final steps, use the Unsharp Mask filter to sharpen the clarity of edges in the image. The amount of sharpening required for an image varies due to differences in quality produced by different digital cameras and scanners. For more information on sharpening images, see Sharpening images.

(Photoshop) Use the Output sliders in the Levels dialog box or the Curves dialog box to bring important details in the highlights and shadows into the gamut of an output device, like a desktop printer. Do this if your image is being sent out to a printing press and you know the characteristics of the press.

Because sharpening increases the contrast of neighboring pixels, it's possible that some pixels in critical areas might become unprintable on the press that you're sending your images to. This is why it's best to tweak the output settings after sharpening. For more information on adjusting the output settings, see Setting highlight and shadow target values (Photoshop).

READING A HISTOGRAM

The histogram also gives a quick picture of the tonal range of the image, or the image key type.

A low-key image has detail concentrated in the shadows; a high-key image has detail concentrated

in the highlights; and an average-key image has detail concentrated in the midtones. An image

with full tonal range has a number of pixels in all areas. Identifying the tonal range helps

determine appropriate tonal corrections.

ILLUSTRATION OF HOW TO READ A HISTOGRAM WITH THESE CALLOUTS: A. OVEREXPOSED PHOTO B. PROPERLY EXPOSED PHOTO WITH FULL TONALITY C. UNDEREXPOSED PHOTO

SELECTINGThere are separate sets of tools to make selections of bitmap and vector data. For example, to select bitmap pixels, you can use the marquee tools or the lasso tools.

To select vector data, you can use the pen or shape tools, which produce precise outlines called paths. You can convert paths to selections or convert selections to paths. (See Converting between paths and selection borders (Photoshop).)

Using the Select menu

Using the marquee tools

Using the Lasso, Polygonal Lasso, and Magnetic Lasso tools

Setting options for the Lasso, Polygonal Lasso, and Magnetic Lasso tools

Using the Magic Wand tool

USING THE SELECT MENU

You can use commands in the Select menu to select all pixels, to deselect, or to reselect.

To select all pixels on a layer within the canvas boundaries:•Select the layer in the Layers palette.•Choose Select > All.

To deselect selections:

Do one of the following:•Choose Select > Deselect.•If you are using the Rectangle Marquee tool, the Rounded Rectangle Marquee tool (ImageReady), the Elliptical Marquee tool, or the Lasso tool, click anywhere in the image outside the selected area.

To reselect the most recent selection:

Choose Select > Reselect.Using the marquee tools

The marquee tools let you select rectangles, ellipses, rounded rectangles (ImageReady), and 1-pixel rows and columns. By default, a selection border is dragged from its corner.

TO USE THE MARQUEE TOOLS:

•Select a marquee tool:•Rectangle Marquee Rectangular Marquee tool to make a rectangular selection. •Elliptical Marquee Elliptical Marquee tool to make an elliptical selection.•Single Row Single Row Marquee tool or Single Column Single Column Marquee tool Marquee to define the border as a 1-pixel-wide row or column.

In the options bar, specify whether to add a new selection Add a New Selection button, add to a selection Add to a Selection button, subtract from a selection Subtract from a Selection button, or select an area intersected by other selections Area Intersected by Other Selections button.

•Specify a feathering setting in the options bar. Turn anti-aliasing on or off for the Rounded Rectangle tool or the Elliptical Marquee tool. (See Softening the edges of a selection.)

•For the Rectangle tool, the Rounded Rectangle tool, or the Elliptical Marquee tool, choose a style in the options bar:•Normal to determine marquee proportions by dragging. •Fixed Aspect Ratio to set a height-to-width ratio. Enter values (decimal values are valid in Photoshop) for the aspect ratio. For example, to draw a marquee twice as wide as it is high, enter 2 for the width and 1 for the height. •Fixed Size to specify set values for the marquee's height and width. Enter pixel values in whole numbers. Keep in mind that the number of pixels needed to create a 1-inch selection depends on the resolution of the image. (See Understanding image size and resolution.)•For aligning your selection to guides, a grid, slices, or document bounds, do one of the following to snap your selection:•(Photoshop) Choose View > Snap, or choose View > Snap To and choose a command from the submenu. The marquee selection can snap to a document boundary and more than one Photoshop Extra. This is controlled in the Snap To submenu. (See Using the Snap command.)•(ImageReady) Choose View > Snap To > Guides.•Do one of the following to make a selection:•With the Rectangle tool, the Rounded Rectangle tool, or the Elliptical Marquee tool, drag over the area you want to select. Hold down Shift as you drag to constrain the marquee to a square or circle (release the mouse button before Shift to keep the shape contsrained). To drag a marquee from its center, hold down Alt (Windows) or Option (Mac OS) after you begin dragging.

TRANSFORMING AND RETOUCHING

Changing the size of the work canvasRotating and flipping entire imagesCropping imagesTransforming objectsRetouching and repairing imagesUsing the Liquify filterCreating panoramic images using Photomerge (Photoshop)

USING THE LIQUIFY FILTER

The Liquify filter lets you push, pull, rotate, reflect, pucker, and bloat any area of an image. The distortions you create can be subtle or drastic, which makes the Liquify command a powerful tool for retouching images as well as creating artistic effects.

Distorting an image using the Liquify filter

Retouching and repairing images

Following are the list of tools used for retouching and repairing images : Using the Clone Stamp toolUsing the Pattern Stamp toolUsing the Healing Brush tool (Photoshop)Using the Patch tool (Photoshop)Using the Color Replacement toolUsing the Smudge tool (Photoshop)Using the Blur tool (Photoshop)Using the Sharpen tool (Photoshop)Using the Dodge tool and the Burn tool (Photoshop)Using the Sponge tool (Photoshop) Short description of each of the tool is available in the toolbox section.

USING THE COLOR REPLACEMENT TOOL

The Color Replacement tool simplifies replacing specific colors in your image. You can paint over a targeted color--for example, a person's red eyes in an image--with a corrective color.

Note: The Color Replacement tool doesn't work in images in Bitmap, Indexed, or Multichannel color modes.

Red eyes repaired using the Color Replacement tool

To use the Color Replacement tool:1. Select the Color Replacement tool  .2. Choose a brush tip in the options bar. Generally, you'll want to keep the blending mode set to Color (see Setting options for painting and editing tools).3. For the Sampling option, choose one of the following:

Continuous to sample colors continuously as you drag Once to replace the targeted color only in areas containing the color that you first click Background Swatch to erase only areas containing the current background color

For the Limits option, select one of the following: Discontiguous to replace the sampled color wherever it occurs under the pointer Contiguous to replace colors that are contiguous with the color immediately under the pointer Find Edges to replace connected areas containing the sampled color while better preserving the sharpness of shape edges

For tolerance, enter a percentage value (ranging from 0 to 255) or drag the slider. Choose a low percentage to replace colors very similar to the pixel you click, or raise the percentage to replace a broader range of colors.To define a smooth edge to the areas you correct, select Anti-aliased.Choose a foreground color to use to replace the unwanted color.Click the color you want to replace in the image.Drag in the image to replace the targeted color.

USING THE HEALING BRUSH TOOL (PHOTOSHOP)

The Healing Brush tool lets you correct imperfections, causing them to disappear into the surrounding image. Like the cloning tools, you use the Healing Brush tool to paint with sampled pixels from an image or pattern. However, the Healing Brush tool also matches the texture, lighting, transparency, and shading of the sampled pixels to the source pixels. As a result, the repaired pixels blend seamlessly into the rest of the image.

Sampled pixels and healed image

To use the Healing Brush tool:1. Select the Healing Brush tool  .2. Click the brush sample in the options bar and set brush options in the pop-up palette:

For more information on the Diameter, Hardness, Spacing, Angle, and Roundness options, seeCustomizing brush tips (Photoshop). If you're using a pressure-sensitive digitizing tablet, choose an option from the Size menu to vary the size of the healing brush over the course of a stroke. Choose Pen Pressure to base the variation on the pen pressure. Choose Stylus Wheel to base the variation on the position of the pen thumbwheel. Choose Off to not vary the size.

Choose a blending mode from the Mode pop-up menu in the options bar: Choose Replace to preserve noise, film grain, and texture at the edges of the brush stroke.

For more information on the Normal, Multiply, Screen, Darken, Lighten, Color, and Luminosity modes, see Selecting a blending mode.

Choose a source to use for repairing pixels in the options bar: Sampled to use pixels from the current image, or Pattern to use pixels from a pattern. If you chose Pattern, select a pattern from the Pattern pop-up palette. (See Creating and managing patterns.)Select Aligned in the options bar to sample pixels continuously, without losing the current sampling point, even if you release the mouse button. Deselect Aligned to continue to use the sampled pixels from the initial sampling point each time you stop and resume painting.Select Use All Layers in the options bar to sample data from all visible layers. Deselect Use All Layers to sample only from the active layer.For the Healing Brush tool in sampling mode, set the sampling point by positioning the pointer in any open image and Alt-clicking (Windows) or Option-clicking (Mac OS).

Note: If you are sampling from one image and applying to another, both images must be in the same color mode unless one of the images is in Grayscale mode. Drag in the image.

FREEZING AREAS

By freezing areas of the preview image, you protect those areas from changes. Frozen areas are covered by a mask that you paint using the Freeze tool  . You can also use an existing mask, selection, or transparency to freeze areas. You can view the mask in the preview image to help you with your distortions. You can use the icons' pop-up menus in the Mask Options area of the Liquify dialog box to choose how the frozen, or masked, areas of the preview image work (see Using mask options).

Using the Freeze tool

Select the Freeze tool   and drag over the area you want to protect. Shift-click to freeze in a straight line between the current point and the previous point that you clicked or Shift-clicked.

Using a selection, mask, or transparency channel

Choose Selection, Layer Mask, Transparency, or Quick Mask from the pop-up menu from one of the five options in the Mask Options area of the dialog box (see Using mask options).

Freezing all thawed areas

Click the Mask All button in the Mask Options area of the dialog box.

Inverting thawed and frozen areas

Click Invert All in the Mask Options area of the dialog box.

Showing or hiding frozen areas

Select or deselect Show Mask in the View Options area of the dialog box.

Changing the color of frozen areas

Choose a color from the Mask Color pop-up menu in the View Options area of the dialog box.

DRAWINGABOUT SHAPES AND PATHSWhen you draw in Photoshop, you create vector shapes--mathematically defined lines and curves. You use the drawing tools to create shape layers and work paths. Shapes are resolution-independent--they maintain crisp edges when resized, printed to a PostScript printer, saved in a PDF file, or imported into a vector-based graphics application. You can use shapes to make selections and create libraries of custom shapes with the Preset Manager.In Photoshop, paths are used for making selections and defining areas of an image. The outline of a shape is a path. Paths are made up of one or more straight or curved segments. Each segment is marked by anchor points, which work like pins holding wire in place. You can easily change the shape of a path by editing its anchor points. The Paths palette helps you manage paths. You can't use paths in ImageReady.Illustration of Drawing options with these callouts: A. Shape layers B. Paths C. Fill pixels

Drawing options A. Shape layers B. Paths C. Fill pixels

USING THE SHAPE TOOLS In Photoshop, you can quickly select, resize, and move a shape, and you can edit a shape's attributes (such as stroke, fill color, and style). ImageReady shapes are object-oriented, meaning that you can resize and move the shapes (see Using the Free Transform command) but not the outline of the shape. In ImageReady, you can easily align shapes as you draw them using smart guides (see Using guides and the grid).

PAINTING

Painting involves changing the colors of pixels using a painting tool. You can apply colors gradually, with soft edges and transitions, and manipulate individual pixels using powerful filter effects.

Photoshop provides the Brush tool and the Pencil tool to let you paint with the current foreground color. By default, the Brush tool creates soft strokes of color and the Pencil tool creates hard-edged, freehand lines. However, you can change these default characteristics by resetting the tool's brush options. You can also use the Brush tool as an airbrush to apply sprays of color to an image.

To use the Brush tool or Pencil tool:•Specify a foreground color. (See Choosing foreground and background colors.)•Select the Brush tool Brush tool or Pencil tool Pencil tool . •Do the following in the options bar:•Choose a brush and set brush options. (See Working with brushes.) •Choose a bending mode from the Mode menu. (See Selecting a blending mode.)•Specify an opacity by dragging the Opacity slider. (See Specifying opacity, flow, strength, or exposure.)•For the Brush tool, specify a flow rate by dragging the Flow slider. (See Specifying opacity, flow, strength, or exposure.)•(Photoshop) Click the Airbrush button Airbrush button to use the brush as an airbrush. (See Creating airbrush effects (Photoshop).)•For the Pencil tool, select Auto Erase to paint the background color over areas containing the foreground color. (See Using the Auto Erase option.)

USING CHANNELS AND MASKSUsing the Channels palette (Photoshop)

The Channels palette lets you create and manage channels and monitor the effects of editing. The palette lists all channels in the image--composite channel first (for RGB, CMYK, and Lab images), then individual color channels, spot color channels, and finally alpha channels. A thumbnail of the channel's contents appears to the left of the channel name; the thumbnail automatically updates as you edit the channel.

VIEWING CHANNELS

You can use the palette to view any combination of individual channels. For example, you can view an alpha channel and the composite channel together to see how changes made in the alpha channel relate to the entire image. By default, individual channels are displayed in grayscale.

To display the Channels palette:1. Choose Windows > Channels, or click the Channels palette tab.2. Use the scroll bars or resize the palette to see additional channels.

When a channel is visible in the image, an eye icon   appears to its left in the palette.

To show or hide a channel:

Click in the eye column next to the channel to show or hide that channel. (Click the composite channel to view all default color channels. The composite channel is displayed whenever all the color channels are visible.)

To show or hide multiple channels, drag through the eye column in the Channels palette.

These guidelines apply to channels you display: In RGB, CMYK, or Lab images, you can view the individual channels in color. (In Lab images, only thea and b channels appear in color.) If more than one channel is active, the channels always appear in color. In alpha channels, selected pixels appear as white; unselected pixels appear as black (partially transparent or selected pixels appear as gray). These are the channel default options. If you display an alpha channel at the same time as color channels, the alpha channel appears as a transparent color overlay, analogous to a printer's rubylith or a sheet of acetate. To change the color of this overlay or set other alpha channel options, see Creating alpha channels (Photoshop).

USING MASKSCREATING AND EDITING LAYER MASKS

You can obscure an entire layer or layer set, or just a selected part of it, using a layer mask. You can also edit a layer mask to add or subtract from the masked region. A layer mask is a grayscale image, so what you paint in black will be hidden, what you paint in white will show, and what you paint in gray shades will show in various levels of transparency.

Background painted with black, description card painted with gray, basket painted with whiteBackground painted with black, description card painted with gray, basket painted with White

You can also edit a layer mask to add or subtract from the masked region. A layer mask is a grayscale image, so what you paint in black will be hidden, what you paint in white will show, and what you paint in gray shades will show in various levels of transparency.Background painted with black, description card painted with gray, basket painted with white Background painted with black, description card painted with gray, basket painted with white

TO A DD A MA SK T HA T SH O WS O R H ID E S T HE E NT I RE L AY E R :

•CH OO S E SE LE C T > DE SE L E CT T O CL E A R A NY SE L E CT I ON BO RD E RS IN T HE IM AG E .

• IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE , SE L E CT T HE L AY E R O R L AY E R SE T T O WH I CH T O A DD A MA SK .

•DO O NE O F T HE FO L L OW I NG :

•TO CRE A T E A MA SK T HA T RE V E AL S T HE E NT I RE L AY E R , CL I CK T HE NE W LA YE R MA SK

NE W LA YE R

MA SK BU T T ON BU T T ON IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE , O R CH O OS E LA YE R > AD D LA YE R

MA SK > RE VE A L AL L .

•TO CRE A T E A MA SK T HA T H ID E S T HE E NT I RE L AY E R , AL T CL I CK (W IN D O WS ) O R OPT I O N-CL I CK (MA C OS) T HE NE W LA YE R MA SK BU T T ON , O R CH O OS E LA YE R > AD D LA YE R MA SK > H ID E AL L .

TO A DD A MA SK T HA T SH O WS O R H ID E S A SE L E CT I ON :

• IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE , SE L E CT T HE L AY E R O R L AY E R SE T T O WH I CH T O A DD A MA SK .•SE LE C T T HE A RE A IN T HE IM AG E , A ND D O O NE O F T HE FO L L OW I NG :•CL IC K T HE NE W LA YE R MA SK BU T T ON NE W LA YE R MA SK BU T T ON IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE T O CRE A T E A MA SK T HA T RE V E AL S T HE SE L E CT I ON .•CH OO S E LA YE R > AD D LA YE R MA SK > RE VE A L SE LE C TI O N O R H ID E SE LE C TI O N .

TO E DI T A L AY E R MA SK :•CL IC K T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE T O MA KE IT A CT IV E .•SE LE C T A NY O F T HE E DI T I NG O R PA I NT I N G T OO L S .

NO TE : TH E FO RE G RO U N D A ND BA CK G RO U ND CO L OR S D EF A UL T T O G RA YS CA L E V AL U E S WH E N T HE MA SK IS A CT IV E . •DO O NE O F T HE FO L L OW I NG :•TO SU BT R AC T FR OM T HE MA SK A ND RE V E AL T HE L AY E R , PA I NT T HE MA SK WI T H WH I T E .•TO MA KE T HE L AY E R PA RT I A LL Y V IS IB L E , PA I NT T HE MA SK WI T H G RA Y .•TO A DD T O T HE MA SK A ND H ID E T HE L AY E R O R L AY E R SE T , PA I NT T HE MA SK WI T H BL A CK .

TO E DI T T HE L AY E R IN S T EA D O F T HE L AY E R MA SK , SE L E CT IT BY CL I CK IN G IT S T HU MB NA I L IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE . TH E PA I NT B RU SH IC O N PA IN T BRU S H IC O N A PP EA RS T O T HE L EF T O F T HE T HU MB NA I L T O IN D I CA T E T HA T Y OU A RE E DI T I NG T HE L AY E R .

T IP IC O NTO PA S TE A CO PI E D SE L E CT I ON IN T O A L AY E R MA SK , AL T-CL I CK (W IN D O WS ) O R OPT I O N-CL I CK (MA C OS) T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE T O SE L E CT A ND D IS PL A Y T HE MA SK CH A NN E L . CH OO S E ED IT > PA ST E , D RA G T HE SE L E CT I ON IN T HE IM AG E T O PR OD U CE T HE D ES I RE D MA SK I NG E FF EC T , A ND CH O OS E SE LE C T > DE SE L E CT . CL IC K T HE L AY E R T HU MB NA I L IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE T O D ES E L EC T T HE MA SK CH A NN E L .

TO SE L E CT A ND D IS PL A Y T HE L AY E R MA SK CH A NN E L (PH OT O SH O P ) :

DO O NE O F T HE FO L L OW I NG :•AL T-CL I CK (W IN D O WS ) O R OPT I O N-CL I CK (MA C OS) T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L T O V IE W O NL Y T HE G RA YS CA L E MA SK . TH E E YE IC O NS IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE A RE D IMM ED BE CA U SE A LL L AY E RS O R L AY E R SE T S A RE H ID D E N . TO RE D IS PL A Y T HE L AY E RS , AL T-CL I CK O R OPT I O N -CL I CK T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L , O R CL I CK A N E YE IC O N .•HO LD D OW N AL T+SH IF T (W IN D O WS ) O R OPT I O N+SH IF T (MA C OS), A ND CL I CK T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L T O V IE W T HE MA SK O N T OP O F T HE L AY E R IN A RU BY L IT H MA SK I NG CO L OR . HO LD D OW N AL T+SH IF T O R OPT I O N+SH IF T , A ND CL I CK T HE T HU MB NA I L A GA I N T O T UR N O FF T HE CO L OR D IS PL A Y .

TO D IS AB L E O R E NA BL E A L AY E R MA SK :DO O NE O F T HE FO L L OW I NG :•SH IF T -CL I CK T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE .•SE LE C T T HE L AY E R WI T H T HE L AY E R MA SK Y OU WA N T T O D IS AB L E O R E NA BL E , A ND CH O OS E LA YE R > D IS A BL E LA YE R MA SK O R LA YE R > E N AB LE LA YE R MA SK .

A RE D X A PP EA RS O VE R T HE MA SK T HU MB NA I L IN T HE LA YE RS PA L E T TE WH E N T HE MA SK IS D IS AB L ED , A ND T HE L AY E R 'S CO N TE N T A PP EA RS WI T H OU T MA SK I NG E FF EC T S .

TO CH A NG E T HE RU BY L IT H D IS PL A Y FO R A L AY E R MA SK (PH OT O SH O P ) :•DO O NE O F T HE FO L L OW I NG :•AL T-CL I CK (W IN D O WS ) O R OPT I O N-CL I CK (MA C OS) T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L T O SE L E CT T HE L AY E R MA SK CH A NN E L ; T HE N D OU BL E -CL I CK T HE L AY E R MA SK T HU MB NA I L . •DO UB LE -CL I CK T HE L AY E R MA SK CH A NN E L IN T HE CH AN N E LS PA L E T TE .•TO CH O OS E A N EW MA SK CO L OR , IN T HE LA YE R MA SK D IS PL A Y OPT I O NS D IA L O G BO X , CL I CK T HE CO L OR SW A TC H , A ND CH O OS E A N EW CO L OR .•TO CH A NG E T HE O PA CI T Y , E NT E R A V AL U E BE T WE E N 0% A ND 100%.

BO TH T HE CO L OR A ND O PA CI T Y SE T T IN G S A FF EC T O NL Y T HE A PP EA RA N CE O F T HE MA SK A ND H AV E N O E FF EC T O N H OW U ND E RL Y IN G A RE AS A RE PR OT E CT E D . FO R E XA MP L E , Y OU MI GH T WA N T T O CH A NG E T HE S E SE T T IN G S T O MA KE T HE MA SK MO RE E AS I LY V IS IB L E A GA I NS T T HE CO L OR S IN T HE IM AG E .•CL IC K OK.

USING LAYERSCREATING NEW LAYERS AND LAYER SETSYou can create empty layers and add content to them, or you can create new layers from existing content. When you create a new layer, it appears either above the selected layer or within the selected layer set in the Layers palette.

To create a new layer or layer set using default options:

Click the New Layer button   or New Layer Set button   in the Layers palette.

To create a new layer or layer set and specify options:1. Do one of the following:

Choose Layer > New > Layer or choose Layer > New > Layer Set. Choose New Layer or New Layer Set from the Layers palette menu. Alt-click (Windows) or Option-click (Mac OS) the New Layer button or New Layer Set button in the Layers palette. Ctrl-click (Windows) or Command-click (Mac OS) the New Layer button or New Layer Set button in the Layers palette to add a layer below the currently selected layer.

Set layer options, and click OK: Name to specify a name for the layer or layer set. (See Renaming layers.) Use Layer Below to Create Clipping Mask. This option is not available for layer sets. (See Creating clipping masks.) Color to assign a color to the layer or layer set. (See Color coding layers.) Mode to specify a blending mode for the layer or layer set. (See Choosing a blending mode.) Opacity to specify an opacity level for the layer or layer set. (See Setting layer opacity.) (Photoshop) Fill with Mode-neutral color to fill the layer with a preset, neutral color. (See Filling new layers with a neutral color.)

To create a new layer that uses the style of an existing layer, see Applying preset styles.

To create a new layer with the same effects as an existing layer (ImageReady):1. Select the existing layer in the Layers palette.2. Drag the layer to the New Layer button at the bottom of the Layers palette. The newly created layer contains all the effects of the existing one.

To copy a layer set:Drag an existing layer set to the New Layer button.

To convert a selection into a new layer:1. Make a selection.2. Do one of the following:

Choose Layer > New > Layer Via Copy to copy the selection into a new layer. Choose Layer > New > Layer Via Cut to cut the selection and paste it into a new layer.

To create a new layer set from linked layers:

Choose Layer > New > Layer Set from Linked. (See Linking layers.)

To add new or existing layers to a layer set:

Do one of the following: Select the layer set in the Layers palette and click the New Layer button  . Drag a layer to the layer set folder. Drag a layer set folder into another layer set folder. The layer set and all of its layers move.

To nest layer sets:

Drag an existing layer set to the New Layer Set button  .

Using the Layers palette

The Layers palette lists all layers, layer sets, and layer effects in an image. You can accomplish many tasks--such as creating, hiding, displaying, copying, and deleting layers--using the buttons in the Layers

palette. You can access additional commands and options in the Layers palette menu and the Layers menu.

Photoshop Layers palette A. Layers palette menu B. Layer set C. Layer D. Layer thumbnail E. Layer effect

Displaying the Layers palette Choose Window > Layers. Be sure to move the palette from the dock to enable the palette menu.

Using the Layers palette menu Click the triangle   in the upper right corner of the palette to access commands for working with layers.

Changing the size of layer thumbnails Choose Palette Options from the Layers palette menu, and select a thumbnail size.

Changing thumbnail contents (ImageReady)Choose Palette Options from the Layers palette menu, and select Entire Document to display the contents of the entire document. Select Layer Bounds to restrict the thumbnail to the object's pixels on the layer. This makes it easier to see in the Layers palette. Check the Show Layer Group Thumbnails box to show a composite image of the group rather than the group icon.

Expanding and collapsing layer sets Click the triangle to the left of a layer set folder. In Photoshop, press Alt (Windows) or Option (Mac OS) when clicking the triangle to expand or collapse all effects applied to layers contained within the set. Press Alt (Windows) or Option (Mac OS) when clicking the triangle to expand or collapse all sets, including nested layer sets. Press Ctrl (Windows) or Command (Mac OS) when clicking to see all sets at the same level as the selected one.

RASTERIZING LAYERS

You cannot use the painting tools or filters on layers that contain vector data (such as type layers, shape layers, and vector masks) and generated data (such as fill layers). However, you can rasterize these layers to convert their contents into a flat, raster image.

To rasterize a single layer:

1. Select the layer you want to rasterize.2. Choose Layer > Rasterize, and choose an option from the submenu.To rasterize multiple layers:

Do one of the following:

Link the layers you want to rasterize, and choose Layer > Rasterize > Linked Layers. (See Linking layers.) To rasterize all layers that contain vector and generated data, choose Layer > Rasterize > All Layers.

SETTING LAYER OPACITY

A layer's opacity determines to what degree it obscures or reveals the layer beneath it. A layer with 1% opacity appears nearly transparent, while one with 100% opacity appears completely opaque.

To specify opacity for a layer or layer set:

1. Select a layer or layer set in the Layers palette.Note: You cannot change the opacity of a background layer or a locked layer. You can, however, convert a background layer to a regular layer that does support transparency. See About the background layer.

2. Do one of the following: In the Layers palette, enter a value in the Opacity text box or drag the Opacity pop-up slider. Choose Layer > Layer Style > Blending Options. Enter a value in the Opacity text box or drag the Opacity pop-up slider. Select the Move tool and type a number on your keyboard for the percentage of opacity for the selected layer.Note: To view blending options for a text layer, choose Layer > Layer Style > Blending Options, or choose Blending Options from the Add a Layer Style button at the bottom of the Layers palette menu.

APPLYING FILTERS FOR SPECIAL EFFECTS

Filters-Using the Filter Gallery

Using the Filter Gallery, you can apply filters cumulatively, and apply individual filters more than once. You can also rearrange filters and change the settings of each filter you've applied to achieve the effect you want.

Note that not all available filters can be applied using the Filter Gallery. To learn how to apply these filters, see Applying filters individually.

Displaying the Filter Gallery Choose Filter > Filter Gallery.

Displaying filter thumbnails Click a filter category name to display previews of available filter effects.

Changing the display of the filter preview

You can do any of the following to change the display of the filter preview area: Use the + or - button under the preview area to zoom in or zoom out of the image. Click the zoom bar (where the zoom percentage appears) to choose a zoom percentage.

Click the Show/Hide button     at the top of the dialog box to hide the filters thumbnails. Hiding the thumbnails expands the preview area. Drag in the preview area with the Hand tool to see a different area of the image.

Filter Gallery dialog box A. Preview B. Thumbnail of selected filter C. Show/Hide filter thumbnails D.Filters pop-up menu E. Options for selected filter F. List of filter effects to apply or arrange G. Filter effect selected but not applied H. Filter effects applied cumulatively but not selected I. Hidden filter effect

Applying and arranging filter effects

Filter effects are applied in the order you select them. You can rearrange filters once you apply them by dragging a filter name to another position in the list of applied filters. Rearranging filter effects can dramatically change the way your image looks. Click the eye icon   next to a filter to hide the effect in the preview image. You can also delete applied filters by selecting the filter and clicking the Delete Effect Layer button  .

Filters in Photoshop

The built-in filters are grouped into 14 submenus. In addition, any third-party filters installed appear at the bottom of the Filter menu.

Filters Types

Artistic filters

Blur filters

Brush Stroke filters

Distort filters

Noise filters (Photoshop)

Pixelate filters

Render filters

Sharpen filters

Sketch filters

Stylize filters

Texture filters

Video filters

Other filters

Digimarc filters

USING TYPECREATING TYPE

You can create horizontal or vertical type anywhere in an image. Depending on how you use the type tools, you can enter point type or paragraph type. Point type is useful for entering a single word or a line of characters; paragraph type is useful for entering and formatting the type as one or more paragraphs.

Type entered as point type (top) and in a bounding box (bottom)

Type entered as point type (top) and in a bounding box (bottom)

When you create type, a new type layer is added to the Layers palette. In Photoshop, you can also create a selection border in the shape of the type.

Note: In Photoshop, a type layer is not created for images in Multichannel, Bitmap, or Indexed Color mode, because these modes do not support layers. In these image modes, type appears on the background.

Working with type layers

Once you create a type layer, you can edit the type and apply layer commands to it. You can change the orientation of the type, apply anti-aliasing, convert between point type and paragraph type, create a work path from type, or convert type to shapes. You can move, restack, copy, and change the layer options of a type layer as you do for a normal layer. You can also make the following changes to a type layer and still edit the type:

•Apply transformation commands from the Edit menu, except for Perspective and Distort.

Note: To apply the Perspective or Distort commands, or to transform part of the type layer, you must first rasterize the type layer, turning the type shapes into a pixel image. Keep in mind that rasterized type no longer has vector outlines and is uneditable as type. For more information, see Rasterizing type layers.

•Use layer styles.

•Use fill shortcuts. To fill with the foreground color, press Alt+Backspace (Windows) or Option+Delete (Mac OS); to fill with the background color, press Ctrl+Backspace (Windows) or Command+Delete (Mac OS).

•Warp type to conform to a variety of shapes.

DESIGNING WEB PAGES When designing Web pages using Photoshop and ImageReady, keep in mind the tools and features that are available in each application. Photoshop provides tools for creating and manipulating static images for use on the Web. You can divide an image into slices, add links and HTML text, optimize the slices, and save the image as a Web page. ImageReady is designed for professional Web page layout. You can more easily work with layers as if they were independent objects: selecting, grouping, aligning, and arranging them. In addition, ImageReady includes tools and palettes for advanced Web processing and creating dynamic Web images like animations and rollovers.

The graphics tools and features in Photoshop and ImageReady simplify most Web design tasks:

Page design In ImageReady, preset document sizes for pages and banners, grids, guidelines, and smart guides simplify page layout. Both Photoshop and ImageReady let you add content to layouts using the text, drawing, and painting tools. In ImageReady, you can arrange and align content using layers, layer sets, and grouped layers. To experiment with different page compositions or to export variations of a page, use the Layer Comps palette. See About layer comps and the Layer Comps palette.

Slices When your page composition is ready for output to the Web, both Photoshop and ImageReady provide the Slice tool to let you divide page layouts or complex graphics into areas and specify independent compression settings (and smaller file sizes). (See Creating and viewing slices.)

Rollovers The Web Content palette in ImageReady enables you to track slices and their rollover states. For example, you can create a button for a Web page that glows whenever the user moves the pointer over it, and you can manage the button states and activities in those states. (See About slices.)

Animations For creating simple Web animations, ImageReady provides the Animation palette, giving you the ability to determine, frame by frame, the appearance of an animation that can be exported as an animated GIF or SWF file. You can create animation in conjunction with sets of slices, nested tables, percentage width tables, and remote rollovers, where you mouse over one image and a different image changes.

Export and image optimization When your page or graphic is ready for final export, the Save For Web dialog in Photoshop and the Optimization palette in ImageReady enables you to precisely determine how the page or graphic should be exported. Additionally, you can export an HTML file with the actual images. This text file instructs a browser how to properly display exported images and rollover effects. (See Setting HTML output options.) Note: You can preview most Web effects directly in Photoshop or ImageReady. However, the appearance of an image on the Web depends on the operating system, color display system, and browser used to display the image. Be sure to preview images and pages in different browsers, on different operating systems, and with different color bit depths. (See Previewing an image in a browser.) Remote rollovers are best previewed in a browser.

Preparation in Adobe GoLive Additionally, Photoshop and ImageReady files can be opened directly in Adobe GoLive. Slices, URLs, and other Web features in Photoshop files are accessible in GoLive for management and editing. For more information on using GoLive, see the Adobe GoLive User Guide.

Automating the workflow Photoshop and ImageReady have a robust system that enables you to automate repetitive tasks. For example, ImageReady droplets allow designers to quickly convert a batch of images into a Web-ready format. (See Automating Tasks.)

USING THE SAVE FOR WEB DIALOG BOX (PHOTOSHOP)You use the Save for Web dialog box to select optimization options and preview optimized artwork.

Save for Web dialog box A. Toolbox B. Preview pop-up menu C. Optimize pop-up menu D. Color Table pop-up menu E. Zoom text box F. Original image G. Optimized image

Displaying the Save for Web dialog box

Choose File > Save for Web.

Previewing images

Click a tab at the top of the image area to select a display option: Original to view the image with no optimization, Optimized to view the image with the current optimization settings applied, 2-Up to view two versions of the image side by side, or 4-Up to view four versions of the image side by side.

If the entire artwork is not visible in the Save for Web dialog box, you can use the Hand tool to bring another area into view. Select the Hand tool   (or hold down the spacebar), and drag in the view area to pan over the image. You can also use the Zoom tool to magnify or reduce the view. Select the Zoom tool  , and click in a view to zoom in; hold down Alt (Windows) or Option (Mac OS), and click in a view to zoom out. Alternately, you can specify a magnification level in the Zoom text box/pop-up menu at the bottom of the Save for Web dialog box. You can type in a percentage or choose from one of the preset Zoom options.

Selecting a new version

You can try different optimization settings in the Optimized pane or, to compare different optimizations side by side, use the 2-up or 4-up pane. If you're working in 2-Up or 4-Up view, you must select a version before you apply optimization settings. A black frame indicates which version is selected.

Viewing annotations

The annotation area below each image in the Save for Web dialog box provides valuable optimization information. The annotation for the original image shows the filename and file size. The annotation for the optimized image shows the current optimization options, the size of the optimized file, and the estimated download time using the selected modem speed. You can choose a modem speed in the Preview pop-up menu.

CREATING ROLLOVERS AND ANIMATIONS

About working with layers in rollovers and animations

You work with layers in ImageReady to create rollover buttons and animations. Placing the image content for a rollover on its own layer allows you to make changes to the layer's style, visibility, and position to create rollover effects. Likewise, placing each element of an animation on its own layer establishes it as an independent object and enables you to change the position and appearance of the object across a series of frames.You can also work with rollover effects for layer slices other than the one you have selected. You can use these remote rollovers to create effects such as launching an application or running an animation in the Over state. See Creating remote rollovers.

Illustration of a rollover. The button is on its own layer; effects are added to the layer to create a new appearance of the button for the Over state. The text for the word "EVENTS" is also on a separate layer.

Illustration of an animation. The bicycle image is on its own layer; the position of the layer changes in each frame of the animation.

PREPARING GRAPHICS FOR WEBABOUT OPTIMIZATIONOptimization is the process of fine-tuning the display quality and file size of an image for use on the Web or other online media. Adobe Photoshop and Adobe ImageReady give you an effective range of controls for compressing the file size of an image while optimizing its online display quality.There are two methods of optimizing images:•For basic optimization, the Photoshop Save As command lets you save an image as a GIF, JPEG, PNG, or WBMP file. Depending on the file format, you can specify image quality,

background transparency or matting, color display, and downloading method. However, any Web features--such as slices, links, animations, and rollovers--that you've added to a file are not preserved.

For complete information on using the Save As command to save an image as a GIF, JPEG, or PNG file, see Saving images. •For precise optimization, you can use the optimization features in Photoshop or ImageReady to preview optimized images in different file formats and with different file attributes. You can view multiple versions of an image simultaneously and modify optimization settings as you preview the image to select the best combination of settings for your needs. You can also specify transparency and matting, select options to control dithering, and resize the image to specified pixel dimensions or a specified percentage of the original size.

When you save an optimized file using the Save for Web (Photoshop) or Save Optimized (ImageReady) command, you can choose to generate an HTML file for the image. This file contains all the necessary information to display your image in a Web browser.

The Save for Web (Photoshop) or Save Optimized (ImageReady) commands are designed specifically to provide a more robust and intuitive set of options for saving an image file for use on the Web. This includes a refined sensitivity to file size and image color palette that is unavailable from the Save As command. When creating graphics for Web use, the Save for Web / Save Optimized commands are recommended.

ADOBE ILLUSTRATORABOUT ADOBE ILLUSTRATOR

Illustrator is a vector drawing program. It is often used to draw illustrations, cartoons, diagrams, charts and logos. Unlike bitmap images that stores information in a grid of dots, Illustrator uses mathematical equations to draw out the shapes. This makes vector graphics scalable without the loss of resolution.

Advantages of Vector Graphics

Scalable without resolution loss Lines are crisp and sharp at any sizes Print at high resolution Smaller file size Good for drawing illustrations

Disadvantages of vector graphics

Drawings tend to look flat and cartoon Hard to produce photo realistic drawings

DRAW WITH THE PEN TOOL DRAW STRAIGHT LINE SEGMENTS WITH THE PEN TOOL

The simplest path you can draw with the Pen tool is a straight line, made by clicking the Pen tool to create two anchor points. By continuing to click, you create a path made of straight line segments connected by corner points.

Clicking Pen tool creates straight segments.

1. Select the Pen tool.2. Position the Pen tool where you want the straight segment to begin, and click to define the first

anchor point (do not drag).3. Click again where you want the segment to end (Shift-click to constrain the angle of the segment

to a multiple of 45°).4. Continue clicking to set anchor points for additional straight segments.

The last anchor point you add always appears as a solid square, indicating that it is selected. Previously defined anchor points become hollow, and deselected, as you add more anchor points.

5. Complete the path by doing one of the following:

To close the path, position the Pen tool over the first (hollow) anchor point. A small circle appears next to the Pen tool pointer  when it is positioned correctly. Click or drag to close the path.

To leave the path open, Ctrl-click (Windows) or Command-click (Mac OS) anywhere away from all objects.

To leave the path open, you can also select a different tool, or choose Select > Deselect in Illustrator or Edit >Deselect All in InDesign. In InDesign or Illustrator, you can also simply press Enter or Return to leave the path open.

DRAW CURVES WITH THE PEN TOOL

You create a curve by adding an anchor point where a curve changes direction, and dragging the direction lines that shape the curve. The length and slope of the direction lines determine the shape of the curve.

Curves are easier to edit and your system can display and print them faster if you draw them using as few anchor points as possible. Using too many points can also introduce unwanted bumps in a curve. Instead, draw widely spaced anchor points, and practice shaping curves by adjusting the length and angles of the direction lines.

1. Select the Pen tool.2. Position the Pen tool where you want the curve to begin, and hold down the mouse button.

The first anchor point appears, and the Pen tool pointer changes to an arrowhead. (In Photoshop, the pointer changes only after you’ve started dragging.)

3. Drag to set the slope of the curve segment you’re creating, and then release the mouse button.

In general, extend the direction line about one third of the distance to the next anchor point you plan to draw. (You can adjust one or both sides of the direction line later.)

Hold down the Shift key to constrain the tool to multiples of 45°.

Drawing the first point in a curve

A. Positioning Pen tool B. Starting to drag (mouse button pressed) C. Dragging to extend direction lines 

4. Position the Pen tool where you want the curve segment to end, and do one of the following:

To create a C-shaped curve, drag in a direction opposite to the previous direction line. Then release the mouse button.

Drawing the second point in a curve

To create an S-shaped curve, drag in the same direction as the previous direction line. Then release the mouse button.

Drawing an S curve

5. Continue dragging the Pen tool from different locations to create a series of smooth curves. Note that you are placing anchor points at the beginning and end of each curve, not at the tip of the curve.

6. Complete the path by doing one of the following:

To close the path, position the Pen tool over the first (hollow) anchor point. A small circle appears next to the Pen tool pointer  when it is positioned correctly. Click or drag to close the path.

note: To close a path in InDesign, you can also select the object and choose Object > Paths > Close Path.

To leave the path open, Ctrl-click (Windows) or Command-click (Mac OS) anywhere away from all objects.

To leave the path open, you can also select a different tool, or choose Select > Deselect in Illustrator or Edit >Deselect All in InDesign.

REPOSITION ANCHOR POINTS AS YOU DRAW After you click to create an anchor point, keep the mouse button pressed down, hold down the spacebar, and drag to

reposition the anchor point.

F INISH DRAWING A PATH Complete a path in one of the following ways:

To close a path, position the Pen tool over the first (hollow) anchor point. A small circle appears next to the Pen tool pointer  when it is positioned correctly. Click or drag to close the path.

Note: TO CLOSE A PATH IN INDESIGN , YOU CAN ALSO SELECT THE OBJECT AND CHOOSE OBJECT  > PATHS  > CLOSE PATH .

To leave a path open, Ctrl-click (Windows) or Command-click (Mac OS) anywhere away from all objects.

To leave the path open, you can also select a different tool, or choose Select > Deselect in Illustrator or Edit > Deselect All in InDesign. In InDesign, you can also simply press Enter or Return to leave the path open.

Logo Designing in Illustrator

STEPS

1.

Start by choosing a font that best suits your style and individuality. After choosing the type of font you want to use, type your name. Set your font to a 60 to 100 pt. size.

2.

<img alt="Image titled

2

Vectorize the font by following this path: select the font > right-click and then click on create outlines. After vectorizing your font, select it > right-click and then click ungroup.

3. <img 3

Because the letters are not grouped together anymore, you can move the letters around as you wish. You may want more space between the characters. Our you may want to crunch them together. After doing this, select the letters and click unite on your pathfinder’s window.

4. <img 4

The next step is to color the fill and the stroke of your name and to create a star shape.

Here are some sample colors used on the logo but you can also choose other colors. Indigo: C=100, M=100, Y=0, K=58; Plum: C=0, M=100, Y=15, K=60; Maroon: C=100, M=0, Y=60, K=37; Tangerine Red: C=0, M=100, Y=55, K=0; Rosy Pink: C=0, M=76, Y=38, K=0.

After coloring the fill and stroke of your name, place a star on the top middle your name. Rotate the star 25 degrees and then later -25 degrees. Then click copy. Place the 2 stars on the top left and right side of your name.

You can use any shape or character that best fits your personality. If you'd like to use a banana instead of a star, that's okay.

5

Select the 3 stars and scale them to 70 percent smaller and then 40 percent smaller again. Color the fill from biggest to the smallest star, tangerine red, maroon and indigo. Make sure that the left and right biggest star is placed on the back of your name.

5.

<img

6

Create a rainbow by creating half-circles. Create a half-circle and scale it to 90 percent smaller and then click copy. Keep doing this until the last half-circle is 60 percent smaller.

6. <img 7

After creating all the graphics of your logo, play around with the colors and strokes of your name. You want your logo to be unique, after all.

Click the appearance window where you will be able to see what fill color is used and how many strokes are placed.

The next step is to add strokes on your name. Add strokes by dragging your first stroke to the “create a new layer” icon. Do these until you have four strokes on your name, make each stoke also 2 pts. higher than previous one.

Change also the fill of your name from maroon to white.

7. <img

8

Select everything (or CTRL+A) and group together.

8. <img alt="Image titled Create a Logo in Adobe Illustrator Step 9" 9

Vectorize the strokes so that whenever you resize the logo to a size smaller or bigger the strokes will stay the same. Vectorize by selecting group > object > path > outline stroke.

9. You can now resize your logo.

10. <img

11

Here's the final artwork that will be used for the logo.

11.

CREATING USING SYMBOLS IN ILLUSTRATOR

ABOUT SYMBOLS

A SYMBOL is an art object that you can reuse in a document. For example, if you create a symbol from a flower, you can then add INSTANCES of that symbol multiple times to your artwork without actually adding the complex art multiple times. Each symbol instance is linked to the symbol in the Symbols panel or to a symbols library. Using symbols can save you time and greatly reduce file size.

With DYNAMIC SYMBOLS , symbols can share a master shape but different instances of the symbol can have dynamically modified appearances. If the master shape is modified, symbol instances receive the new modification, but maintain their own modifications as well.

Symbols also provide excellent support for SWF and SVG export. When you export to Flash, you can set the symbol type to MovieClip. Once in Flash, you can choose another type if necessary. You can also specify 9-slice scaling in Illustrator so that the symbols scale appropriately when used for user interface components.

ABOUT DYNAMIC SYMBOLS

There are requirements that need a symbol to appear the same, consistently across a project or artwork. However, some may need to represent different attributes or appearances.

Example: An apparel designer may design a new shirt that needs to be shown in a number of different colorways, or arrangement of colors. That shirt can now be defined as a dynamic symbol, and the colors needed to represent the colorways applied. If the design needs to update the shirt design, such as a new collar shape, the shirt symbol can be edited and all instances of that shirt will be automatically updated, but will maintain their any individually-applied, unique colorways.

The Dynamic Symbols feature makes symbols more powerful by allowing use of appearance overrides in its instances, yet keeping its relation with the master symbol intact. Appearance edits include colors, gradients, and patterns.

Advantages of Dynamic Symbols

Instances of Dynamic Symbols can be modified using the Direct Selection tool. When the appearance of an instance is modified, the change does not affect the relationship with

the master symbol. Changes to the appearance of the master symbol reflects in all instances. However, individual

edits to instances are retained, too. A symbol nested within a Dynamic Symbol can be replaced by another symbol. This provides

greater flexibility to customize symbols.

You can select all the dynamic symbols available in a document using the Select > Same command.

Note:

If a Dynamic Symbol is opened in an older version of Illustrator, the symbol is expanded.

After you place a symbol, you can edit the symbol’s instances on the artboard and, if you want, redefine the original symbol with the edits. The symbolism tools let you add and manipulate multiple symbol instances at once.

Artwork with symbol instances

PLACE OR CREATE A SYMBOL PLACE A SYMBOL

1. Select a symbol in the Symbols panel or a symbol library.2. Do one of the following:

Click the Place Symbol Instance button  in the Symbols panel to place the instance in the center of the current viewable area of the document window.

Drag the symbol to the artboard where you want it to appear. Choose Place Symbol Instance from the Symbols panel menu.

note: A single symbol placed anywhere in your artwork (as opposed to existing only in the panel) is called an instance.

CREATE A SYMBOL

1. Select the artwork you want to use as a symbol.

Note:

While creating Dynamic Symbols, do not include text, placed images, or mesh objects.

2. Do one of the following:

Click the New Symbol button in the Symbols panel. Drag the artwork to the Symbols panel. Choose New Symbol from the panel menu.3. In the Symbol Options dialog box, type a name for the symbol.4. Select the symbol type as Movie Clip or Graphic.5. Select the type of symbol you want to create - Dynamic or Static. The default setting is Dynamic.6. (OPTIONAL) If you plan to export the symbols to Flash, do the following: Select Movie Clip for type. Movie Clip is the default symbol type in Flash and in Illustrator. Specify a location on the Registration grid where you want to set the symbol’s anchor point. The

location of the anchor point affects the position of the symbol within the screen coordinates. Select Enable Guides For 9-Slice Scaling if you want to utilize 9-Slice scaling in Flash. 7. Select the Align to Pixel Grid option to apply the pixel-align property to the symbol. For more

information, see Aligning symbols to pixel grid.

You can create symbols from most Illustrator objects, including paths, compound paths, text objects, raster images, mesh objects, and groups of objects. However, you cannot create a symbol from linked art or some groups, such as groups of graphs.

ADD SUBLAYERS FOR SYMBOLS

Symbols now have an independent layer hierarchy, which is maintained when you expand symbols. You can create sublayers for symbols in symbol editing mode.

Ability to create sublayers for symbols in edit mode

Paste Remember Layers option is honored when you paste content in symbol editing mode.

FILL AND EFFECTS IN ILLUSTRATOR PAINTING METHODS

Illustrator provides two methods of painting:

Assigning a fill, stroke, or both to an entire object Converting the object to a Live Paint group and assigning fills or strokes to the separate edges and faces of paths

within it

Paint an object

After you draw an object, you assign a fill, stroke, or both to it. You can then draw other objects that you can paint similarly, layering each new object on top of the previous ones. The result is something like a collage made out of shapes cut from colored paper, with the look of the artwork depending on which objects are on top in the stack of layered objects.

Paint a Live Paint group

With the Live Paint method, you paint more like you would with a traditional coloring tool, without regard to layers or stacking order, which can make for a more natural workflow. All objects in a Live Paint group are treated as if they are part of the same flat surface. This means you can draw several paths and then color separately each area enclosed by these paths (called a FACE). You can also assign different stroke colors and weights to portions of a path between intersections (called an EDGE). The result is that, much like a coloring book, you can fill each face and stroke each edge with a different color. As you move and reshape paths in a Live Paint group, the faces and edges automatically adjust in response.

An object consisting of a single path painted with the existing method has a single fill and a single stroke (left). The same object converted to a Live Paint group can be painted with a different fill for each face and a different stroke for each edge (right).

Painting an object the traditional way leaves some areas that can't be filled (left). Painting a Live Paint group with gap detection (center) lets you avoid gaps and overprinting (right).

ABOUT FILLS AND STROKES

A FILL is a color, pattern, or gradient inside an object. You can apply fills to open and closed objects and to faces of Live Paint groups.

A STROKE can be the visible outline of an object, a path, or the edge of a Live Paint group. You can control the width and color of a stroke. You can also create dashed strokes using Path options, and paint stylized strokes using brushes.

Note: WHEN WORKING WITH LIVE PAINT GROUPS , YOU CAN APPLY A BRUSH TO AN EDGE ONLY IF YOU ADD A STROKE TO THE GROUP USING THE APPEARANCE PANEL .

The current fill and stroke colors appear in the Tools panel.

Fill and Stroke controls

F ILL AND STROKE CONTROLS

Controls for setting the fill and stroke are available in the Tools panel, the Control panel, and the Color panel.

Use any of the following controls in the Tools panel to specify color:

Fill button 

Double-click to select a fill color using the Color Picker.

Stroke button 

Double-click to select a stroke color using the Color Picker.

Swap Fill And Stroke button 

Click to swap colors between the fill and stroke.

Default Fill And Stroke button  

Click to return to the default color settings (white fill and black stroke).

Color button  

Click to apply the last-selected solid color to an object with a gradient fill or no stroke or fill.

Gradient button 

Click to change the currently selected fill to the last-selected gradient.

None button 

Click to remove the selected object’s fill or stroke.

You can also specify color and stroke for a selected object by using the following controls in the Control panel:

Fill color

Click to open the Swatches panel or Shift-click to open an alternate color mode panel, and choose a color.

Stroke color

Click to open the Swatches panel or Shift-click to open an alternate color mode panel, and choose a color.

Stroke panel

Click the word Stroke to open the Stroke panel and specify options.

Stroke weight

Choose a stroke weight from the pop-up menu.

APPLY A FILL COLOR TO AN OBJECT

You can apply one color, pattern, or gradient to an entire object, or you can use Live Paint groups and apply different colors to different faces within the object.

1. Select the object using the Selection tool ( ) or the Direct Selection tool ( ).

2. Click the Fill box in the Tools panel or the Color panel to indicate that you want to apply a fill rather than a stroke.

Fill box active. The Fill box is above the stroke box.

3. Select a fill color by doing one of the following:

Click a color in the Control panel, Color panel, Swatches panel, Gradient panel, or a swatch library.

Double-click the Fill box and select a color from the Color Picker. Select the Eyedropper tool and Alt-click (Windows) or Option-click (Mac OS) an object to apply

the current attributes, including the current fill and stroke. Click the None button  to remove the object’s current fill.

Brochure creation in Adobe Illustrator

A brochure is a piece of paper that includes photos, graphics and information. There are many types of brochures such as the Z-fold which has 4 - 6 panels, a bi-fold which has 4 panels and a tri-fold which has 6 panels. For this tutorial were going to create a tri-fold brochure and make it print ready. Follow this tutorial and learn how to create a tri-fold brochure using Adobe Illustrator CS5.

Prepare your file by making it print ready.

1. Create a letter size document (11x8.5 inches) and change the document color mode to CMYK. You can do this by going to file > document color mode > CMYK Color.

2. Add color swatches such as red, pink, green, yellow and dark yellow. Keep in mind that you can also choose your own colors. Written below are some combinations of the colors used on the tutorial. Red: C=0, M=67, Y=50, K=0; Pink: C=0, M=31, Y=37, K=0; Green: C=59, M=0, Y=33, K=0; Yellow: C=0, M=0, Y=51, K=0; Dark Yellow: C=0, M=7, Y=66, K=0.

2Now you need to create a crop guide by using a rectangular shape. A crop guide is a guide used by

printers to know where to trim your brochure once printed. Create the shape with a size of 11x8.5 inches

and color the stroke using the registration swatch. Change also the weight of the stroke to a 0.1 pt.

3. <Then divide your 11

inches (27.9 cm) width-space into 3. Mark your division using guides and then place dashed lines on

them. To create your dashed line use the line segment tool to create a line then click dashed line on your

strokes panel or window.

4. <img alt="Image

4Add crop marks on your document. To add crop marks, select your crop guide or rectangular shape and

then go to effect and click on crop marks.

5.

5Group everything together. Select all (or Ctrl+A), right-click and click on group.

6.

6Make a copy of the group and rename them “FRONT” and “INSIDE.” To make a copy drag the group

to your create new layer icon.

7.

8. Make a Brochure in Adobe Illustrator Step 7"

7Create the contents of your document. Now that you have finished preparing your brochure, it's time to

add editorial content. Start by creating backgrounds using your rectangular shape and selecting colors on

your color swatch. Make sure that your rectangular shape is extended and not exactly fitted on your crop

guide.

9. 8Create content for the front, back and inside flap of the brochure (or the “FRONT” group). Create

your content by combining photos, graphics and texts. You can follow the layout on the accompanied

illustration or create your own also.

10.

9And finally, it is time to add content on the left, middle and right inside panels of your brochure (or

your “INSIDE” group). Once you do that, you are done.

11. 10Here's a sample of the final artwork when folded.