Appendix C

Glossary of Photographic, Preservation, and Narrative Inquiry Terms

This brief glossary includes definitions of photographic, preservation and

Narrative Inquiry terms, as well as a number of archival concepts. Definitions of specific

photographic processes, archival functions, legal terms, and technical terms related to

digitizing are included in the relevant chapters and may be located by consulting the

index. For further information, see Zakia and Strobel (1996) and the Eastman Kodak

Company’s (n.d.) online glossary. For definitions of archival terms, see Pearce-Moses

(2005).

Appraisal:

Due to the influence of Antiques Road Show and eBay, much of the public believes that “appraisal” refers to an estimation of an item’s monetary worth or resale value. For archival restores, appraisal refers to a broader evaluation of the value(s), legal requirements, and usefulness of accessions for researchers, the SAA Glossary (Pearce-Moses, 2005) defines appraisal as

1. the process of identifying materials offered to an archivist that have sufficient value to be accessioned. 2. the process of determining the length of time records should be retained, based on legal requirements and on their current and potential usefulness. . . . [Appraisal typically takes into account] the records’ provenance and content, their authenticity and reliability, their order and completeness, their condition and cost to preserve them, and their intrinsic values. Appraisal often takes place within a larger institutional collecting policy and mission statement. (Pearce-Moses, 2005, p. 22)

Approaches to Inquiry:

This is an approach to qualitative research that has a distinguished history in one of the social science disciplines and that has spawned books, journals, and distinct methodologies. These approaches, as I call them, are known in other books as “ ‘strategies of inquiry’ (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994) or ‘varieties’ (Tesch, 1990)” (Creswell, 2007, p. 235).

Archival Processing:

Photographic processing procedures designed to result in maximum permanence and stability of negatives and prints through a series of precise fixing, washing,

and toning baths. Differs from ordinary processing by reducing the fixing time (and thus the retention of residual chemicals). Following thorough washing, photographs are treated with a gold solution or a toner, such as selenium. Archival processing requires the use of fiber-based rather than the resin-coated papers. Archival processing alone will not ensure permanence; adherence to precise storage and handling procedures, as specified by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), is also required. (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 487)

Archival Repository and Repository:

These terms refer to

any organization or department that has responsibility for photographs of enduring value. This includes corporate, governmental, museum, religious and university archives as well as special collections in historical societies, libraries, research institutes and other cultural heritage organizations. (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 492)

Archives:

Materials created or received by a person, family, or organization, public or private, in the conduct or their affairs and preserved because of the enduring value contained in the information they contain or as evidence of the function and responsibilities of the creator, especially those materials maintained using the principles of provenance, original order, and collective control. 2. A repository that collects and maintains records of enduring value. 3. A published collection of scholarly journals, typically as a periodical. (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 487)

Archivist:

“Any person who works with photographs in an archival setting, including paid employees, interns, and volunteers. The actual job titles may be archivist, conservator, curator, librarian, specialist, or technician” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. xv).

Artifactual Value:

Refers to “the physical qualities and expressive characteristics that determine the value of photographs for research products, such as exhibitions, presentations, and publications. Consider the photographs’ condition, generation, quality, quantity, uniqueness processes and formats, multiplicity, and rarity when making ratings” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 132).

Associational Value:

Refers to “direct personal association to the persons, places, and events the repository focuses upon. Consider such issues as ownership, other contributors, and related scholarship“ (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 132).

Autobiography:

This form of biographical writing is “the narrative account of a person’s life that he or she has personally written or otherwise recorded (Angrosino, 1989a)” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 184).

Axiological:

This qualitative assumption holds that all research is value laden and includes the value systems of the inquirer, the theory, the paradigm used, and the social and cultural norms for either the inquirer or the respondents (Creswell, 2003; Guba & Lincoln, 1988). Accordingly, the researcher admits and discusses these values in his or her research. (Creswell, 2007, p. 246)

Biographical Study:

This is the study of a single individual and his or her experiences as told to the researcher or as found in documents and archival materials (Denzin, 1989a). I use the term to connotate the broad genre of narrative writings that includes individual biographies, autobiographies, life histories, and oral histories. (Creswell, 2007, p. 282)

Chronology:

This is a common approach for undertaking a narrative form of writing in which the author presents the life in stages or steps according to the age of the individual (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Denzin, 1989a).

Collection:

1. A group of materials with some unifying characteristic. 2. Materials assembled by a person, organization, or repository from a variety of sources; an artificial collection. 3. The holdings of a repository. 4. Also refers to any grouping of photographs including formal record groups, series, family papers, corporate records, and thematically assembled collections-sometimes called artificial collections. (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 487)

Description:

Refers to “any activities or access tools that provide systematic information about photographs, including catalog, finding aids authority files, and other metadata” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. xv).

Digital Photograph Description.

Electronic photographs taken by digital cameras need extent statements just like their paper, film, glass, metal, and cloth counterparts. Digital cameras began to take hold in the 1990s, and the resulting “born-digital” photographs already dominate in news and much commercial photography work. Archival description techniques can handle this new kind of photography.

• Describe the images as “photographs,” not “computer files,” to highlight their pictorial nature.

• Add durable electronic addresses to finding aids to provide ongoing access. The address can point to a whole collection of digital photographs as well as to individual photos. Example: http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppbd 00071

• Use an access point, such as “digital photographs,” to highlight the work type.

• Mention the type of file in the physical description.Example: 23 photographs (digital): JPEG files, color • Open the file’s header to check for descriptive information, such as

capture date, file type, photographer’s name, and even a caption title. (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 174)

Epiphanies:

“These are special events in an individual’s life that represent turning points. They vary in their impact from minor epiphanies to major epiphanies, and they may be positive or negative (Denzin, 1989a)” (Creswell, 2007, p. 233).

Epistemological:

This is another philosophical assumption for the qualitative researcher. It addresses the relationship between the researcher and that being studied as interrelated, not independent. Rather than “distance,” as I call it, a “closeness” follows between the researcher and that being researched. This closeness, for example, is manifest through time in the field, collaboration, and the impact that that being researched has on the researcher. (Creswell, 2007, p. 247)

Evidential Value.

Refers to

a photograph collection’s ability to provide significant information about the activities, functions, origins, and structure of its creator, which might be an organization, family, or individual. Archivists seek photographs that document not only the typical range of organizational functions, but that also show the various interrelationships, between functions and parts of the organization. Collections without a known creator, provenance, chain of custody, and original

order have a low evidential value. Collections with some of this information have a moderate value. A complete and intact chain of custody, original order, and provenance equal high evidential value. (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 99)

Feminist Research Approaches:

“In feminist research methods, the goals are to establish collaborative and nonexploitative relationships, to place the researcher within the study so as to avoid objectification, and to conduct research that is transformative (Olesen, 2005; Stewart, 1994)” (Creswell, 2007, p. 247).

Finding Aid:

The SAA Glossary (Pearce-Moses, 2005) defines a finding aid as “1. A tool that facilitates discovery of information within a collection of records. 2. A description of records that gives the repository physical and intellectual control over the materials and that assists users to gain access to and understand the materials” (Pearce-Moses, 2005, p. 168).

Foreshadowing:

This term refers to “the technique that writers use to portend the development of

ideas (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). The wording of the problem statement, purpose

statement, and research subquestions foreshadow the methods—the data collection and

data analysis-used in the study” (Creswell, 2007, pp. 247-248).

Historical Context: This is the context in which “the researcher presents the life

of the subject. The context may be the subject’s family, the subject’s society, or the

history, social, or political trends of the subject’s times (Denzin, 1989a)” (Creswell,

2007, p. 233).

Informational value: Refers to “the data, information, and knowledge captured

within the collections. When assessing candidate photographs consider such factors as

documentation, era, genres, subject matter, usability of the information, and the ratio of

photographs of enduring value to photographs of short term or little value” (Ritzenthaler

& Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 132).

Inquiry. The concept of inquiry is vast. It covers a wide variety of views,

attitudes, and ways of thinking. The histories and personal narratives of inquiry may

coincide with or cross boundaries to varying degrees with the actual inquiries that we

undertake. Researchers approach narrative inquiries with one of several versions of a

formalistic and reductionistic history of inquiry. Therefore, narrative inquirers need to

construct their own narrative of inquiry histories and be alert to possible tensions between

those narrative histories and the narrative research they undertake.

Interpretive Qualitative Research:

This is an approach to qualitative research that has become interwoven into the core characteristics of qualitative research. It recognizes the self-reflective nature of qualitative research and emphasizes the role of the researcher as an interpreter of the data and an individual who represents information. It also acknowledges the importance of language and discourse in qualitative research, as well as issues of power, authority, and domination in all facets of the qualitative inquiry (see Denzin and Lincoln, 2005, and Clarke, 2005). (Creswell, 2007, p. 248)

Intrinsic Value:

Archivists use a catchall concept called intrinsic value to cover several archival values. The Society of American Archivists Glossary (Pearce-Moses, 2005) defines intrinsic value as “The usefulness or significance of an item derived from its physical or associational qualities, inherent in its original form and generally independent of its content, that are integral to its material nature and would be lost in reproduction.” The UNSECO Audiovisual Glossary (Gibson, 2001) definition includes such factors as aesthetic or artistic qualities, market value, physical format, scarcity, uniqueness, and the value of the informational content. Generally, “intrinsic value” applies only to records in their original form (e.g., original camera negatives or transparencies or prints made from original camera negatives). To be “original,” images must retain their original physical characteristics: document type, format, genre, layout, materials, medium, physical support, and process.

Within the archival science of “diplomats” the definition of the phrase intrinsic value includes a detailed protocol that incorporates the administrative context of the creation of the photograph, the documentary context of the action, as well as a means of validation and responsibility for actions.

For photographic collections, the concept of “intrinsic value” has proven most useful as archivists attempt to determine whether a particular image or image series will receive conservation treatment as a copy (e.g., digital or

microfilm image). Intrinsic value is also an indicator of the need for special security or access protections. Photographs may have high intrinsic value while having little or no informational, evidential, or associational value. Using the simpler and more explicit categories of artifactual, evidential, informational, and associational value during appraisal work can help clarify the reasons for acquiring photographs. (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 84)

Issue Subquestions: These are “subquestions in a qualitative study that follow

the central underlying question. They are written to address the major concerns and

perplexities to be resolved, the “issue” of a study (Stake, 1995). They typically are few in

number and are posed as questions” (Creswell, 2007, p. 248).

Life-Course Stages and Experiences: These are “stages in an individual’s life or

key events that become the focus for the biographer (Denzin, 1989a)” (Creswell, 2007, p.

233).

Life History: This is a

form of biographical writing in which the researcher reports an extensive record of a person’s life as told to the researcher (see Geiger, 1986). Thus, the individual being studied is alive and life as lived in the present is influenced by personal, institutional, and social histories (Cole, 1994). The investigator may use different disciplinary perspectives (Smith, 1994), such as the exploration of an individual’s life as representative of a culture, as in an anthropological life history. (Creswell, 2007, p. 233)

Narrative. “Narrative is understood as a spoken or written text giving an account

of an event/action or series of events/actions, chronologically connected” (Czarniawska,

2004, p. 17).

Narrative Research: This is “an approach to qualitative research that is both a

product and a method. It is a study of stories or narrative or descriptions of a series of

events that accounts for human experiences (Pinnegar & Daynes, 2006)” (Creswell, 2007,

p. 233).

Oral History:

In this biographical approach, the researcher gathers personal recollections of events and their causes and effects from an individual or several individuals. This information may be collected through tape recordings or through written works of individuals who have died or are still living. It often is limited to the distinctly “modern” sphere and to accessible people (Plummer, 1983). (Creswell, 2007, p. 233)

Original print:

Print made from an original negative and contemporary with the time the photograph was made; sometimes referred to as “vintage print.” in the context of artistic expression, original print is sometimes considered the master image created by the artist (photographer). (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 487)

Paradigm or Worldview: This is

the philosophical stance taken by the researcher that provides a basic set of beliefs that guides action (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). It defines, for its holder, “the nature of the world, the individual’s place in it, and the range of possible relationships to that world” (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, p. 107). Denzin and Lincoln (1994) further call this the “net that contains the researcher’s epistemological, ontological, and methodological premises” (p. 13). In this discussion, I extend this “net” to also include the axiological and rhetorical assumptions. (Creswell, 2007, p. 248)

Photographs: “A general designation for images from nature in any format or

genre created by means of the action of light. Includes digital as well as photochemical

media” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 491).

Point of View: “The photographer’s perspective or relationship to the image

(e.g., aerial photographs or bird’s-eye view)” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p.

491).

Progressive-Regressive Method: This is “an approach to writing a narrative in

which the researcher begins with a key event in the subject’s life and then works forward

and backward from that event (Denzin, 1989a0” (Creswell, 2007, p. 233).

Qualitative Research: This is

an inquiry process of understanding based on a distinct methodological tradition of inquiry that explores a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting. (Creswell, 2007, p. 248)

Record Group: “A group of record series related by provenance. The term is

typically associated with government and corporate records” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-

O’Connor, 2006, p. 491).

Record Schedule.

A record schedule is a formal agreement between an organization that produces records and the repository that will receive the records when they are no longer used for current business. The agreement specifies the ultimate disposition of each type of recording by indicating the date for transfer of records of enduring value to the archives to transfer records of temporary value to another body, such as a paper-recycling firm, when no longer needed. During their active lifetime, records may be referred to as▪ temporary (saved in the creating office while their administrative value lasts, then discarded), or▪ permanent (transferred to the archives when their active administrative value ends). (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 79)

Reflexivity: Macbeth (2001) defines reflexivity as “a deconstructive exercise for

locating the intersections of author, other, text, and world, and for penetrating the

representational exercise itself” (Macbeth, 2001, p. 35).

Restorying: This is “an approach in narrative data analysis in which the

researcher retell the stories of individual experiences, and the new story typically has a

beginning, middle, and ending (Ollerenshaw & Creswell, 2002)” (Creswell, 2007, p.

233).

Selfobject:

Selfobject refers to those affective experiences that are sought by the self to build and maintain, or restore, cohesion. Selfobject experiences are central to motivations. A selfobject is an object that, or a person who, is used by the subject

in the service of the subject’s self. (Lichtenberg, Lachmann, & Fosshage, 2001, pp. 123-124)

The selfobject relationship refers to an intrapsychic experience and does not describe the

interpersonal relationship (Wolf, 1988, p. 128).

Self object experience: AE will add

Sequencing: “A series of linked images that as a group explain a process,

illustrate a story, or show an activity” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 491).

Single Individual:

This is the person studied in a narrative research. This person may be an individual with great distinction or an ordinary person. This person’s life may be a lesser life, a great life, a thwarted life, a life cut short, or a life miraculous in its unapplauded achievement (Heilbrun, 1988). (Creswell, 2007, pp. 233-234)

Stories:

These are aspects that surface during an interview in which the participant describes a situation, usually with a beginning, a middle, and an end, so that the researcher can capture a complete idea and integrate it, intact, into the qualitative narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Czarniawska, 2004; Denzin, 1989a). (Creswell, 2007, p. 235)

Syntax: The “term used by William Ivins in his seminal work, Prints and Visual

communication (1953), to denote the physical and technical characteristics, and

consequently the informational possibilities, of various print mediums, including

photographs” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. 492).

Verisimilitude: “This is a criterion for a good literary study, in which the writing

seems ‘real’ and ‘alive,’ transporting the reader directly into the world of the study

(Richardson, 1994)” (Creswell, 2007, p. 249).

Visual Literacy: The SAA Glossary (Pearce-Moses, 2005) defines visual literacy

as “the ability to decipher cultural and technological systems that express meaning using

graphic images, icons, or symbols” (Pearce-Moses, 2005, p. 404). “In more general

terms, visual literacy is the ability to understand (read) and use (write) images and to

think and learn in terms of images” (Ritzenthaler & Vogt-O’Connor, 2006, p. xvi).

Appendix D

Glossary of Selected Terms from Analytical Psychology

Jung presents the work of individuation in terms of finding meaning in the later

stages of life, as well as experiencing the archetypes of the preinfantile period, which are

based in the joys. sorrows, and unfinished work of our ancestors. The tension of

opposites creates the archetypal energy, which enables each of us to mediate between

conscious and unconscious, since these living archetypes cannot be experienced directly

in our world.

Amplification:

indicates the technical procedure that attempts to reinforce the image from the outside by letting it resonate in an echo chamber . . . comprised of images borrowed from collective consciousness . . . in the memory of mankind . . . to color and deepen the specific tone of an image. Thus, amplification is not primarily concerned with the meaning of images. . . . Amplification is an activity, an operatio, to speak in alchemical terms—you let the dream image echo off commonly existent images that resemble it. (Bosnak, 1988, p. 109)

Anima:

The anima is an unconscious subject-imago analogous to the persona. Just as the persona is the image of [him]self which the subject presents to the world, and which is seen by the world, so the anima is the image of the subject in [his] relation to the collective unconscious, or an expression of unconscious collective contents unconsciously constellated by [him]. The anima is the face of the subjects as seen by the collective unconscious. (Jung, 1916/1977, p. 304)

(Latin: “soul”). The unconscious, feminine side of a man’s personality. She is personified in dreams by images of women ranging from prostitute and seductress to spiritual guide (Wisdom). She is the eros principle, hence a man’s anima development is reflected in how he relates to women. Identification with the anima can appear as moodiness, effeminacy, and oversensitivity. Jung calls the anima the archetype of life itself. (Woodman, 1982, p. 195)

Animus:

The animus is the deposit of all women’s ancestral experiences of man. . . . He is also a creative and procreative being not in the sense of masculine creativity, but

in the sense that he brings forth something we might call the spermatic world. (Jung, 1928/1977, p. 209)(Latin: “spirit”). The unconscious, masculine side of a woman’s personality. He personified the logos principle. Identification with the animus can cause a woman to become rigid, opinionated, and argumentative. More positively, he is the inner man who acts as a bridge between the woman’s ego and her own creative resources in the unconscious. (Woodman, 1982, p. 195)

Archetype: “Archetypal qualities are not individually acquired but inherited . . .

inborn forms of perception and apprehension, which are the a priori determinants of all

psychic processes” (Jung, 1919/1981, p. 132 [CW 8, para. 270]).

Irrepresentable in themselves, but their effects appear in consciousness as the archetypal images and ideas. These are universal patterns or motifs which come from the collective unconscious and are the basic content of religious, mythologies, legends, and fairytales. They emerge in individuals through dreams and visions. (Woodman, 1982, p. 195)

According to Jung, they are “a kind of readiness to produce over and over again the same or similar mythical ideas . . . [and] are recurrent impressions made by subjective reactions” (Jung, 1943/1977, p. 69 [CW 7, para. 108]), and they “are of course always at work everywhere” (Jung, 1943/1977, p. 109 [CW 7, para. 184]).

Complex: “An emotionally charged group of ideas or images. At the ‘center’ of a

complex is an archetype or archetypal image” (Woodman, 1982, pp. 195). The core

complexes are archetypal and the shell complexes manifest on the personal level.

Addressing core complexes is what creates change in the personality and the shell

complex. Sedgwick (2001) suggests that

complexes are emotionally based personality structures, tied to certain images, and they circulate, as it were, around the conscious personality, popping up when a situation or an image touches them. They then, to varying extents, temporarily supplant the personality depending on their strength or the strength or cohesiveness of the ego. (Sedgwick, 2001, pp. 30-31)

Complexes are reflected in four ways: (a) identification with (cannot see it), (b)

compulsiveness (automatic reflex), (c) inflation (feel self-righteous power), and (d)

projection.

Individuation: “The conscious realization of one’s unique psychological reality,

including both strengths and limitations. It leads to the experience of the Self as the

regulating center of the psyche” (Woodman, 1982, p. 195). Individuation is “becoming

and being one’s unique self, that is, the unique combination of general human traits that

comprise one’s particular person” (Sedgwick, 2001, p. 72). Jung (1943/1977) presents the

work of individuation in terms of finding meaning in the later stages of life, as well as

finding the archetypes of the preinfantile period that are based in the joys and sorrows of

our ancestors. Again, the tension of opposites creates the energy for each of us to be able

to look for a way to mediate between conscious and unconscious, since these living

archetypes cannot be brought straight out into our world. Jung leads us to a definition of

individuation, by way of the transcendent function, which is not aimless, but leads to

revelation and realization using unconscious symbolism that expresses wholeness and

perfection (such as the circle and the quaternity): he calls this the individuation process.

He assumes the individual is inherently whole, and able to use the tension-of-opposites

energy, the compensatory nature of dreams, in their unconscious underground, towards

the self-regulation of the psyche—namely towards wholeness and individuation.

Self:

I have called [this] centre the self. Intellectually the self is no more than a psychological concept, a construct that serves to express an unknowable essence which we cannot grasp as such, since by definition it transcends our powers of comprehension. It might equally well be called the “God within us.” The beginnings of our whole psychic life seem to be inextricably rooted in this point, and all our highest and ultimate purposes seem to be striving towards it. (Jung, 1928/1977, p. 238)

Conscious and unconscious are complementary to one another to form a totality, which is the self. The self is a quantity that is supraordinate to the conscious ego. It embraces not only the conscious but also the unconscious psyche, and is a personality which we also are. (Jung, 1928/1977, p. 177)

The self is “the archetype of wholeness and the regulating center of the personality. It is

experienced as a transpersonal power which transcends the ego, e.g., God” (Woodman,

1982, p. 196).

Shadow:

An unconscious part of the personality characterized by traits and attitudes, whether negative or positive, which the conscious ego tends to reject or ignore. It is personified in dreams by persons of the same sex as the dreamer. Consciously assimilating one’s shadow usually results in an increase of energy. (Woodman, 1982, p. 196)