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Meghan O’Leary
ENGL 399
Implications of the Different Versions of Irish Myths: Deirdre Myth
Listening to Irish poet Tony Curtis, perched on a stool in an old Irish schoolhouse, tell
the story of Deirdre, my imagination calls up the gory battle in the big field that he
describes so eloquently. The beautiful heroine is carried away, her lover dead, and
throws her upper body out of the carriage in order to bash her head open on the rocks
and branches. I can almost hear the clanging of armor, or hear the shocked cries of a
passerby watching Deirdre fling herself headfirst into death rather than live without
her love. Later, my teacher tells a less dramatic version. Deirdre dies in grief over her
dead lover, after he and his brothers are tricked out of their tent and ambushed.
Deirdre is dead even before the villain comes to claim her. The variable nature of myth
is present simply in the memories of these two adults, the versions they have always
known or been told, without knowing exactly where they heard it.
In Ireland, legend plays a large part in remembrance of the country’s history.
While events in Irish legends may be fictional, the attitudes and values they exhibit
have survived to become an embedded part of modern Irish culture. Various
characters and stories in Irish lore have survived from ancient Celtic mythology, and
can be learned now only from retellings written or translated by authors far
removed from the original storytellers. Many versions of many Irish myths exist in
the written form, and each has slight, or occasionally radical, differences. The myth
of Deirdre and Naoise, told in a series of stories known as the Ulster Cycle, provides
an effective example of a well-known Irish legend that is represented in many
different ways by different authors now. The original version of the story can never
be known, and the versions today may be far from what the original storyteller
conceived. Despite this departure from its original form, the various portrayals of
the myth in more modern times are just as, if not more important, as they indicate
the author’s intentions to cast the story in a specific light. The story has been tackled
by many authors, particularly some very influential Irish writers, and can be seen
from a nationalist perspective as a representation of the struggle between Ireland
and England as portrayed through Naoise and Deirdre against Conchobar. Versions
of the Deirdre myth as told by William Butler Yeats and John Millington Synge, and
translated by Lady Augusta Gregory, contain various differences that indicate the
unfixed nature of mythology and the ways in which the story can be molded to
portray different intentions.
Like other folklore, Celtic myths were first passed down through oral
tradition. As stories passed down through generations by word of mouth, they could
change depending on who was telling the story and when and where it was being
told. As time went on, the different versions that were eventually recorded in
writing may have varied greatly from their genuine templates, while still most likely
retaining their most important aspects. The Deirdre myth, as part of the Ulster
Cycle, is one of the stories that “were recorded from oral tradition between the 8th
and 11th century and are preserved in the 12th-century manuscripts The Book of
the Dun Cow (c. 1100) and The Book of Leinster (c. 1160) and also in later
compilations, such as The Yellow Book of Lecan (14th century)” (Ulster Cycle).
Deirdre specifically features in The Fate of the Sons of Usnech, describing the love
story between Deirdre and Naoise, one of the titular sons of Usnech, and their flight
along with his brothers from King Conchobar of Ulster, who wanted to marry
Deirdre. While Deirdre, Naoise, and Conchobar feature in the different versions of
the story, the events of the plot and the ways in which these events come about
differ in the voices of Yeats, Synge, and Lady Gregory.
Lady’s Gregory’s Cuchulain of Muirthemne is a translation including “Fate of
the Sons of Usnach.” Lady Gregory introduces her translation by reminding the
reader, “there is very little of the history of Cuchulain and his friends left in the
memory of the people, but only that they were brave men and good fighters, and
that Deirdre was beautiful” (Gregory). Deirdre’s beauty, and the ruin it created of
Ulster’s men, comes with a story, which Lady Gregory knew was important enough
to translate for future generations. Yeats provides a preface to the book, in which he
describes the ways in which translators translate manuscripts as best they can from
retellings of various versions of the story. He praises Lady Gregory’s translation, as
she consolidated and edited the many stories into one version that is as accurate
and understandable as she could make it. He starts off with, “I think this book is the
best that has come out of Ireland in my time,” and only continues to flatter the
version from there, making sure to note her commitment to upholding the lyrical
quality and meandering dialect used to describe the epic drama of these stories.
Lady Gregory’s translation of the Deirdre myth does appear to contain more detail
than Yeats’ own short story or Synge’s play.
Yeats’ version of the Deirdre myth includes a cast of romanticized characters.
Yeats is known for considering people in his works as symbols, and Deirdre and
Naoise prove to be no exception, as he emphasizes the love story between the two.
He highlights the romance of Naoise sweeping Deirdre off her feet and away from
Conchobar, as well as their unwavering devotion to each other until they very end.
The tragedy comes inevitably to Yeats, a construction of fate, and the only course of
action for the lovers is to remain loyal until the end and refuse to live without one
another. The pair is seemingly uninterested in any kind of resistance to the death
they know is coming for them, accepting their intertwined tragic fates like true
idealized heroic lovers. Yeats uses this characterization of a stoic acceptance of
one’s fate to portray his idea of how one should behave; not that he expects his
readers to act like his heroes, but that these mythological figures represent an ideal
for the common people to strive for, even if they may never truly achieve the
greatness he envisions.
Synge’s play Deirdre of the Sorrows features a more independent Deirdre, less
passive than her character as portrayed by Yeats or Lady Gregory. Battle and honor
are particularly evident themes in this play, as the warlike nature of man is explored
through the actions of the heroes. There are more political undertones in Deirdre of
the Sorrows than in the other works, exhibited in Synge’s questioning of the rights of
King Conchobar to simply take what he wants because of his position. Deirdre and
Naoise can stand for the freedom and romanticized traditional Ireland, facing
against the foreign power of Conchobar and his desire to part the lovers and impose
his will upon everyone. Synge also provides a nationalist portrayal of the
importance of Irish culture. Ireland struggled to prove that its culture was individual
and worthwhile during its history of interference from other nations, and Synge
makes a point to identify the importance of Irish traditions and people. In resistance
to her future as Conchobar’s wife, Deirdre proclaims, “from this day I will turn the
men of Ireland like a wind blowing on the heath” (Synge). In Synge’s portrayal of
Deirdre, he recognizes a woman as more of an active participant of her life rather
than doomed to her fate, as in Yeats’ version, or commanded by men in Lady
Gregory’s translation.
In her translation, Lady Gregory chose to display the passive, innocent
Deirdre rather than the aggressive representation, although both types can be found
in earlier versions. Making this choice indicates a generally traditional view of
women, that they are there to provide the damsel to the men’s war hero stories. One
academic review states, “Lady Gregory's treatment of the Deirdre story in her
Cuchulain saga has often been cited as an example of self-imposed censorship;
critics have variously explained her adaptation of the story as indicative of her own
antifeminist inclinations, her tendency to romanticize, or her intention to uphold
Victorian ideals of femininity and propriety” (Golightly). By downgrading Deirdre’s
role in her story, she elevates Naoise and his brothers, Ainnle and Ardan, lending
credence to the nationalist glory of the male soldier fighting for justice against a
tyrant king. The translation gives the power to the men, which supports the
idolization of the hero and allows the everyday person to admire and strive to be
like Naoise, but in order to do so, Deirdre cannot be the propelling force in the story.
Many of the discrepancies among the three works are not in the form of the
events themselves, but in the characters’ reasoning behind what happened. Keeping
the bare bones of the story while changing the traits and intentions of the characters
allows for the artistic license that makes for all these valid versions of the Deirdre
story. Rising action occurs in the form of the group’s return to Ireland after fleeing
and hiding from Conchobar and his retribution for so long. The reason they return
differs depending on how the author wants to portray the characters’ thoughts and
interactions. In Yeats’ version, Naoise takes Conchobar’s word, conveyed through
Fergus, that he and Deirdre will be safe if they return to Ireland. Alternately, in
Synge’s play, Deirdre convinces Naoise to return to Ireland, even though Owen goes
into a fit and reveals Conchobar’s plan to renege on his word. Deirdre urges Naoise
to consider their need for a homeland, as they do not belong in hiding and all things
must come to an end. Fergus taunts Deirdre with her fear that remaining in hiding
as they age will cause Naoise to tire of her anyway. Deirdre does not want to be
known for being old and abandoned, and so she convinces Naoise, Ainnle, and Ardan
to return to Ireland to meet their destiny, whether they die or not. While she is
returning to almost certain death that really could have been avoided, she is also
refusing to hide from Conchobar any longer and chooses to put an end to her
waiting one way or another. She glorifies death and willingness to fight for Ireland,
professing, “It may be we do well putting a sharp end to the day is brave and
glorious, as our fathers put a sharp end to the kings of Ireland…Fergus, it’s a
lonesome thing to be away from Ireland always” (Synge). Giving Deirdre the power
to sway the men into returning gives Deirdre autonomy rather than painting her as
Naoise’s beautiful prop. Celtic roots in matriarchy lend credence to this version of
Deirdre, as well as appealing to the nationalist cause in Ireland which required the
participation, sacrifice, and inclusion of all its members, including women. This
sequence of events is slightly reversed in Lady Gregory’s translation, in which
Naoise welcomes Fergus, and forces Deirdre to return to Ireland even after she
protests that they will meet almost certain death and reveals that she has had very
strong premonitions against going back to Conchobar. Deirdre interprets her dream
with “Fergus that is coming to us with a message of peace from Conchobar, for
honey is not sweeter than a message of peace sent by a lying man” and Naoise
responds, “”Is there anything in it but troubled sleep and the melancholy of
woman?” (Gregory). Naoise ignores her caution and belittles her premonitions,
choosing instead to go back to the comfort and familiarity of his old land and taking
Fergus and Conchobar’s word that the lovers will find sanctuary in their previous
enemy’s old age and newfound forgiveness.
Embedded in the Deirdre story are the themes of magic and mysticism that
are still prevalent in Irish culture. The way the authors choose to represent the
influence of magic also influences the way in which traditional Irish culture is
represented. In Yeats’ story and Synge’s play, the only real reference to
otherworldly forces comes from the prophecy, referenced by Synge in his repetitive
use of “the troubles that are foretold” while Yeats merely implies the presence of the
prophecy as the catalyst of the events he describes, relying on fate to serve as the
only otherworldly force really guiding his story. Both authors seem to downplay the
role of specific magic, accounting for a more modern Irish audience that relied on
earthly forces to protect them from the unrest in their own lives. In contrast, Lady
Gregory includes more of the magic that would be evident in earlier translations,
giving Cathbad the druid, who initially gives the prophecy “Let Deirdre be her name;
harm will come through her…O Deirdre, on whose account many shall weep, on
whose account many women will be envious, there will be trouble on Ulster for your
sake” (Gregory). Conchobar’s resultant expectations of her beauty and her role in
history cause him to hide her away until she can become his wife. This greed and
recklessness is put into motion by the prophecy, and it is not the last the reader sees
of Cathbad the druid’s meddling. Conchobar requests his help later, assuring
Cathbad that his enchantment on the sons of Usna will foster peace, and then
brutally slaying them. Cathbad’s anger at being tricked manifests in a curse on
Conchobar’s descendants that none of them shall rule. Lady Gregory including the
force of magic affecting the line of succession casts magic in an important role as a
force that can affect history. This choice can be seen as a decision to stick to earlier
translations, which undoubtedly emphasized magic before religion found its way to
Ireland, and provides a counterpoint to many translations by Christian monks who
would have downplayed or left out as much mysticism, perceived as paganism, as
possible. Reclaiming Irish culture and asserting its importance requires
acknowledgement of ancient customs and beliefs, which Lady Gregory showcases as
a vital part of the events of Deirdre’s story.
Honor and heroism also feature in Celtic culture. While gallantry and chivalry
may make one think of medieval times, literature describing traditional Celtic
stories stresses the value of honor and the dangers of disgrace. Understanding the
importance of honor and reputation is vital to a true interpretation of Deirdre’s
story, as it guides the characters’ actions and motives. Fergus is unanimously
featured as a character who is tricked by Conchobar. He truly believes Conchobar’s
word that he wants a peaceful reunion with Naoise and Deirdre and means them no
harm, and Yeats paints Naoise as an honorable man who would take a gentleman at
his word. Naoise remarks, “Being High King, he cannot break his faith. I have his
word and I must take that word, or prove myself unworthy of my nurture under a
great man’s roof” (Yeats). This expectation makes Conchobar’s attack even more
onerous, as he betrays the ideals of his time and not only condemns his own
reputation, but causes Fergus to also break his promise of safety. In all three
versions of the death of the sons of Usna, Fergus is angry that Conchobar lied to him
and vows revenge. Synge’s Fergus sets fire to the house for revenge, perpetuating
the cyclical violence and warlike nature that permeates Ulster’s men. Vengeance
does not mean victory for Conchobar, and reneging on his oath results in his men
turning on him. Fergus struggles with his sense of honor and duty in Lady Gregory’s
version, as Conchobar chooses him as his messenger because he says that even if
Naoise and Deirdre came to harm, he could not hurt his king. Conchobar rewards
Fergus’s loyalty by forcing him to attend a welcome feast, which his sense of honor
would not allow him to avoid, forcing him to abandon his charges to whatever
Conchobar has planned for them. Emphasizing the strengths and pitfalls of the
mythic Celtic warriors’ sense of honor notes the consequences of breaking one’s
word and glorifies the perfect chivalric knight figure, a stock character the average
reader knows to look up to and attempt to emulate in his or her own actions. Using
literature as a guide for how to act is one purpose of stories and why legends are
used to explain people and the world in general.
Deirdre’s story is ultimately a tragedy, resulting not only in her death but in
the deaths of Naoise, Ainnle, and Ardan because of Conchobar’s treachery. In all
three versions, Naoise dies before Deirdre; however, the way the pair dies differs
depending on what the author chooses to convey with each death. Yeats, with his
romantic ideals and star-crossed lovers plot, writes Naoise and Deirdre accepting
their deaths with dignity. “What need have I,” Naoise announces nobly, “that gave up
all for love, to die like an old king out of a fable, fighting and passionate?” (Yeats).
They are willing to sacrifice for one another, and die with honor, as Deirdre
connives her way to Naoise’s body and conceals them both before quietly dying
herself over the body of her lover. In Synge’s version, Naoise and Deirdre seem to
know they are likely returning to face death at the hands of the king and his men,
and the brothers die after Naoise goes out to assist them in battle, and dies in the
process. Deirdre dramatically stabs herself over the grave and falls beside the sons
of Usna. Synge uses the drama to increase the tragedy and injustice of the noble
foursome’s deaths while still expressing admiration for their bravery in the face of
death. Lavarcham concludes the play by speaking remorsefully, “Deirdre is dead,
and Naisi is dead; and if the oaks and stars could die for sorrow, it’s a dark sky and a
hard and naked earth we’d have this night” (Synge). Even Fergus, usually so
energetic and brazen in his defense of the king, tells Conchobar dejectedly that the
war is ended, if only for the night. Lady Gregory’s version of the deaths of the
protagonists is more involved, as Ainnle, Ardan, and Naoise battle and are able to
return to the house where Deirdre waits. All three brothers are brutally decapitated
in one sword strike at Conchobar’s command. Deirdre, depressed and slightly mad
with sorrow, hollowly lives for months in a fishing village and eventually exchanges
her ring for a knife to stab herself in the water, throwing her knife into the sea so
that nobody can be blamed for her death. Drawing out Deirdre’s depression and
decision to kill herself brings Deirdre down from the level of a great heroine and
into a more relatable role of a widow, gutted by grief and abandoning her place as a
Great Woman to come to terms with Naoise’s death and her subsequent suicide.
This violence comes not only at the end of Deirdre’s story, but provides an
undercurrent through the whole tale, reflecting its background of a brutal and
ongoing war in Ulster. This war was between kings, while the events of The Ulster
Cycle, such as Deirdre’s story and The Fate of the Sons of Usna, tell of the men in
Ulster who are affected by the war. Men are represented as heroes, larger-than-life
characters who, juxtaposed with unsavory characters, provide tales of gallantry and
chivalry intended to impress and inspire listeners and readers. This comparison of
the fine line between heroism and violence, warriors and villains, exists primarily in
the male characters. While Naoise and his brothers fight and kill in battle, their
intentions to defend Deirdre make their violence necessary and honorable.
Meanwhile, Conchobar’s violence stems from deceit and dishonor, in an attempt to
satisfy his own greed. Conchobar kills the sons of his sister, Usna, imitating the real
war going on in the background pitting family members against one another for the
cause. Symbolizing strategy and control, a chessboard features in Yeats’ story
showing the pieces as all part of a larger structure, unable to avoid their fates, which
Naoise notes are ominous. One scholar reviews, “Even when it becomes obvious that
Conchubar means to kill them, Naisi does not apologize, but instead says they must
face their deaths with calm, chiding Deirdre for her weakness when she cannot sit
calmly with him and play chess” (“Deirdre: Beyond the Politics Into Poetry and
Myth”). Yeats uses the chessboard to continue to cast Deirdre as a feminine victim in
the game of war men play with such devastating skill. The chessboard also makes an
appearance in Lady Gregory’s version of the Deirdre story, as Deirdre tries to
distract Naoise from Fergus’s arrival at their hideaway by urging him to continue
playing with the board in front of them. She fails in this endeavor, another moment
where the woman tries and fails to play the game with the men.
Conchobar as a character raises the question of the rights of a governing
power. As king, Conchobar feels that he is owed the beautiful Deirdre as his wife,
despite the prophecy that she will bring ruin upon Ulster. Even though she does not
love him, he is obsessed with possessing her, and goes so far as to slay her lover in
an attempt to force her to marry him. He then expects Deirdre to contentedly live
out her life as his wife, despite his murder of Naoise. In Lady Gregory’s translation,
Conchobar’s villainy is further apparent by his desire to hunt down Deirdre and
Naoise only if Deirdre is still the most beautiful woman in the land. This is no quest
for true love, so Conchobar has nothing to redeem his greed. Synge points out the
errors of allowing Conchobar whatever he wants simply because he is in power,
noting through Lavarcham, “You’ll not have her though you’re ready to destroy
mankind and skin the gods to win her. There’s things a king can’t have, Conchubor”
(Synge). Yeats also emphasizes Conchobar’s faults, as the First Musician, who serves
as a sort of Greek Chorus for the story, repeats, “Yet old men are jealous” as a
condemnation of all the destruction caused by his actions. This commentary on the
dangers of absolute power resonate throughout Ireland’s history of tragedy and
resistance, as the country has had many invaders and foreign powers attempt to
place rules and restrictions on the country with no thought to the Irish people.
While Yeats, Synge, and Lady Gregory are the most renowned Irish authors
who have portrayed Deirdre’s story, there are various other versions of the story
which contain slight or major differences. Whether the author is writing a play or
short story like Yeats and Synge, translating like Lady Gregory, or simply providing
the version he or she knows on the internet for general knowledge, many
discrepancies exist. One major difference comes in the form of Deirdre’s mode of
death. In addition to the various means of suicide Lady Gregory, Yeats, and Synge
propose, another account of Deirdre’s actual death frequently exists. One website
centered on Celtic mythology notes, “In the simplest Deirdre is so moved at Naoise’s
death that she falls on his grave and dies. A variant says that…Conchobar presents
Deirdre to Eógan, but as he takes her in his chariot she contrives to leap out and
crushes her head against a stone. A third variant of Deirdre's ending has her
stabbing herself with a knife” (“Derdri”). The version of the story with Deirdre
dashing her head on the rocks does not appear in the versions by Yeats, Synge, or
Lady Gregory, but does seem to pop up online as an uncontested version of the
story. The desperation Deirdre must feel to drive her to such an act contributes to
the overall message of the damage that can be inflicted by unchecked power and
tyranny, and the graphic goriness of her method of death continues the theme of
violence in the Ulster Cycle.
Celtic mythology, which makes up a significant part of Irish culture, has been
rewritten and interpreted in various different ways; Yeats, Synge, and Lady
Gregory’s versions of the Deirdre myth exemplify the ways in which a myth can be
portrayed in literature in order to portray the author’s intended messages.
Advancing Irish nationalism, advocating for and against strong females, and
providing an ideal model for how to live are all reasons authors make choices to cut,
add, and draw attention to certain parts of Deirdre’s story, in addition to the many
known versions of the original myth. Deirdre’s story can be portrayed as both a war
epic and a war critique, spun as a romance or a tragedy, with specific levels of
emphasis placed on the characters or the events. The choices an author makes can
stem from various factors, but ultimately their decisions affect the meaning the
reader will take away from each version of the legend. The ways in which the myths
have been molded and retold through time reflect the values and attitudes of the
time. Ancient Celtic legends do still have an influence on modern Irish society, as it
serves as a way for the Irish people to remember their roots and the beliefs of their
ancestors. While the Irish people may not remember the specifics of Deirdre’s story,
the general themes and messages resonate and stick in the memory, in the same
way teachers and poets will tell two versions of the same story without knowing
why, except that it is how they have always known the myth.
Works Cited
"Derdri." CeltNet. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Aug. 2014. <http://www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_d/
derdri.html>.
Golightly, Karen B. "Lady Gregory's Deirdre: Self-Censorship or Skilled Editing?"
Project Muse. New Hibernia Journal. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Aug.
2014.<http://muse.jhu.edu.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/journals/new_hiberni
a_review/v011/11.1golightly.html>.
Gregory, Lady Augusta. Cuchulain of Muirthemne. N.p.: Charles River Editors, 1902.
Print.
Synge, J. M. Deirdre of the Sorrows. Boston: J.W. Luce, 1911. Print.
"Ulster Cycle." Encyclopedia Britannica. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web.
12 Aug. 2014.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613340/Ulster-cycle>.
Yeats, W. B. "Deirdre (1907)." The Yeats Reader: A Portable Compendium of Poetry,
Drama, and Prose, Revised Edition. S.l.: Scribner, 2002. N. pag. Print.