Inquiry Based Lesson Plan For the PRISM Project

Unit Description: In What Ways Have Humans Changed the Great Plains Since the 1890’s? And How have These Changes Affected the Biodiversity of this Ecosystem?

Background: Prior to the colonization of North America, American Indians had lived within this continent’s ecosystems with limited disruptions. Upon the coming of colonists there have been extreme changes to North America. One ecosystem that has faced great changes is the grasslands we often refer to as the Great Plains. During this unit of study, the students will look at how the presence of man, the greatest predator of all, nearly destroyed the bison just a single member of the ecosystem. From this point the students will formulate their own investigations into other ways Humans have Changed the Great Plains Since the 1890’s and How have these Changes affected the biodiversity of this ecosystem?.

Possible research ideas include: Population Growth, Land Use, Conservation Efforts (National Bison Refuge, Grassland development etc.), Extinction (black footed ferret etc.), National Monuments, Reservations, Water Use, Pollution, Mining, Farming…

Objective(s) of the Lesson:

1. Students work in teams to analyze historical images and write an evidence-based interpretation of each using the three methods of visual analysis: description, reflection, and formal analysis.

2. Students will work in team to analyze historical written primary source documents and write evidence-based interpretations of each.

3. Through their review of the historical images and written primary source documents the students will explain the affect humans had on the bison of the Grassland biome, the Great Plains.

4. Students will work in teams to research other ways the Grassland biome, Great Plains, has been changed by humans since 1890. Through their research students will identify various ways humans have changed the planet, the affect humans have on biodiversity, and the changes that can occur to an ecosystem when the environment changes. (See the Research Expectations listed in Appendix A)

5. Students will work in teams to demonstrate their understanding of Objective 4 through a formal written document (individual) and multimedia presentation (group) to the class.

6. If applicable, the students’ final presentation will require a display of numerical data in plots on a number line, possible options including dot plots, histograms, or box plots.

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Common Core State Standards:

Science:

LS2C:   What happens to ecosystems when the environment changes?LS4D:   What is biodiversity?  How do Humans affect it, and how does it affect humans?ESS3C:  How do Humans Change the Planet?

English and Language Arts: *Please note that many of these language arts standards are supported through the final research project the students will conduct. Depending on how the teacher structures the final activity some standards may not be met.

Reading Anchor Standards: 6-8.1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9Reading Standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies: 6-8.1, 2, 4, 7, 8, and 9.Reading Standards for Literacy in Science: 6-8.1, 2, 4, 7, 8, and 9.Writing Standard 6-8.1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9Language Arts Standards 6.1, 2, 3, 4, 6Speaking & Listening Standards 6.1, 2, 4, 5, 6

Math:

Mathematical Practices 3: Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.Mathematical Practice 6 – Attention to PrecisionMathematics Statistics and Probability 6.SP.4: Display numerical data in plots on a number line, including dot plots, histograms, and box plots.

IEFA Essential Understandings:

Essential Understanding 3: The ideologies of Native traditional beliefs and spirituality persist into modern day life as tribal cultures, traditions, and languages are still practiced by many American Indian people and are incorporated into how tribes govern and manage their affairs. Additionally, each tribe has its own oral histories, which are as valid as written histories.   These histories pre-date the “discovery” of North America. 

Essential Understanding 5: Federal policies, put into place throughout American history, have affected Indian people and still shape who they are today.  Much of Indian history can be related through several major federal policy periods.  

Essential Understanding 6: History is a story most often related through the subjective experience of the teller.  With the inclusion of more and varied voices, histories are being rediscovered and revised. History told from an Indian perspective frequently conflicts with the stories mainstream historians tell.

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Materials and Teaching Aids:

1. Map The Extermination of the American Bison to 1889 (based on William Temple Hornaday’s Late-Nineteenth-Century Research)

2. Video Oklahoma Tallgrass Prairie Preserve 3. Five historical photographs*4. Teaching Aid: Analyzing Photographs Website (explanation of description, reflection, and formal analysis)

http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/exploring_photographs/background1.html5. Case Study on the Abundance of Bison/Extermination of Bison*6. Teaching Aid: Analyzing a written primary source

http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/written_document_analysis_worksheet.pdf7. Computer Lab and Books For research regarding the Grasslands, Great Plains.

Teaching Model: The 5 E’s

Activity 1 Descriptive Title: Analyzing Pictures and Written Primary Source Documents

Background: Photos and drawings are important in preserving history. Historians study photographs in great detail, looking for clues to the true story of the picture. Old photographs are one primary source documents that can provide information about historical events and enrich the written record. Another important source in preserving history are written primary source documents. Historians study first-hand accounts of history to learn about what life was like during that time period or event. They compare the documents for consistencies and discrepancies, which will assist with “unlocking” the “real” history of the time. The photos and case study used to engage students will paint a picture of where the grasslands were located and how the bison were hunted to near extinction by the world’s greatest predator, humans.

Engage: Have Map of Extermination of Bison on display when Students enter the room. Give students time to review and talk in small groups about what they see. Discuss what the students see and interpret from the map. (During discussion make sure students have a clear understanding of the Key and captions. Discuss how much of the area was a grassland biome that we call the Great Plains.) Watch the videos from the Oklahoma Tallgrass Prairie Preserve (http://www.travelok.com/listings/view.profile/id.7647) (to provide students with a picture of the biodiversity that existed when settlers first came to the west. DO NOT WATCH THE THIRD VIDEO ON THE BISON IT GIVES TOO MUCH INFORMATION AWAY WITH REGARD TO THE PRIMARY RESOURCE INVESTIGATION.

Explore: Introduce the idea of written primary sources. Discuss with students that one way to really verify what we see in visual documents like the map just shown or the video just watched is to research and read primary resources. Discuss what they know about primary resources and what primary resources are. (Key concept: ensure students understand that primary resources are first hand accounts) Then model how one might review and use a written primary resources. (See Case Study Overview to provide background and focus for this unit).

1. Have the students as a class read the abundance account 1 from the case study. Model using the written primary review resource form to evaluate a piece of writing. Make sure to model for students that reading for meaning is critical in this process as is asking questions in order to clarify for understanding.

2. Students will now analyze one of the 5 written resources in small groups. Give students time to study the written resources. Emphasize the importance of reading for meaning. Have students fill out a written primary

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review resource form to evaluate their written document image. 3. Have the Students present on what they read. Students should consider: How the writing makes them feel and

the author’s purpose. What does the document tell you about this particular time and place in the Great Plains area? What details in the document support your ideas?

4. Record on a large chart tablet any questions that arise from the student’s reading and discussion.

Next, discuss with students that another way we can investigate history is to use photographs. Use Photograph 1 to introduce the concepts of description, reflection, and formal analysis, as described in Analyzing Photographs (http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/exploring_photographs/background1.html)

1. Model methods using Photograph 1. Remind students that the description should be objective, discussing what can be seen without drawing conclusion about a photograph’s meaning. The reflection section should focus on the emotions and interpretations that the image evokes for the viewer.

2. After looking carefully at the photograph and reflecting on the emotional piece, have students share their observations and inferences with the class. Share the background information with students and ask how the background information affects their interpretation of the photograph.

3. Students will now analyze one of the 4 historic photographs (Photograph 2, 3, 4, or 5) in small groups. Give students time to study the photograph. Emphasize the importance of studying every detail closely. Have students write objective descriptions of the photograph with their group. Ask students to reflect on their image. They should consider how the picture makes them feel and how the artist may have intended for the audience to react.

4. Students present on what they observe in the photograph. Share details such as: Who are the people? What are they doing? What are they wearing? Info on surroundings, equipment, etc. What is happening? Support response. Guess who might have taken the picture and for what purpose. How does the image serve as a visual document (record) of that time and place. What does the photograph tell you about this particular time and place in the Great Plains area? What details in the photograph support your ideas?

5. Use the following prompt to lead the students into the importance of looking for oral or written history. Have students think about how historians might be “fooled” by a picture and how theories about a picture could be verified.

6. Record on a large chart tablet any questions that arise or can be answered out of the observations and discussions.

Now have the students look at the case study materials on the extermination of the bison.

1. Students will now analyze one of the 5 written resources in small groups (seven are provided for differentiation, make sure to leave it at least one American Indian Perspective). Give students time to study the written resources. Emphasize the importance of reading for meaning. Have students fill out a written primary review resource form to evaluate their written document image.

2. Have the Students present on what they read. Students should consider: How the writing makes them feel and the author’s purpose. What does the document tell you about this particular time and place in the Great Plains area? What details in the document support your ideas?

3. Record on a large chart tablet any questions that arise or can be answered out of the readings and discussions.

Explain: Revisit the photos to clarify what was actually happening in the photos. The readings on extermination should clarify many of the inferences the students made and also assist them in answering some of their questions. IT IS CRITICAL THAT STUDENTS UNDERSTAND THE ROLE HUMANS PLAYED

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IN THE DESTRUCTION OF THE BISON AND THE AFFECT THAT HAD ON THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE GRASSLANDS, GREAT PLAINS, (opened up the North America for development and expansion this lead to the destruction of many plants and animals; allowed many types of plants to flourish as bison were not eating them down (trees shrubs) AND ON AMERICAN INDIANS (destroyed the key component to their survival which required them to move the reservations and assimilate). USING THE TERMINOLOGY FROM THE SCIENCE STANDARDS IS CRUCIAL DURING THE FINAL EXPLANATION PHASE OF THIS LESSON. STUDENTS MUST UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPTS OF BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM.

Extend/Elaborate: Pose this question to the students. So we know one way in which Humans affected the planet and the grasslands biome but In What Ways Have Humans Changed the grassland biome the Great Plains Since the 1890’s? And How have These Changes Affected the biodiversity of this ecosystem?

1. Allow the students time to generate ideas to answer the first part of this question within their group. Once they have developed several possible changes have them share their ideas as a whole group and post them on a large chart paper. * If students have difficulty developing questions, use the words in Appendix C to assist them with the development of research ideas.

2. Next have the groups select one of the ideas listed. Each group gets first dibs on their own ideas but can select an idea from another group if that group is not using it. After the students have selected their idea, have them begin researching their topic with these specific things in mind: What is the change and how has the change affected (overtime) the biodiversity of the grasslands.

3. As students are conducting their research they should be looking for primary source articles as well as images that reflect the changes. (Follow the Research Expectations in Appendix A)

4. Upon completion of the research, the students will make a final presentation to the class as well as provide a written document of their findings.

Evaluate: Student discussion, collaboration and written analysis in small group- application of the three methods of

visual analysis and the written analysis. *See Analyzing Photographs Website http://www.getty.edu/education/teachers/classroom_resources/curricula/exploring_photographs/background1.html

Student discussion, collaboration and final presentation of small group research projects. Students’ written work and oral presentation based upon the research expectations provided in Appendix

A. Pre and Post Test Assessments of Science Content Standards.

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Picture 1

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Picture 2

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Picture 3

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Picture 4

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Picture 5

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Teacher info on photographs:

Photograph #1: Sixth Cavalry with buffalo heads taken from poacher Edgar Howell, Yellowstone National Park, 1894. Poaching in Yellowstone nearly exterminated the last free-roaming bison herd in the United States, until a celebrated case in 1894 prompted Congress to enact new laws. Here, soldiers at the park display the seven buffalo heads confiscated from the poacher.

Photograph #2: Mountain of bison bones waiting to be ground for fertilizer, circa 1870. As the populations of the United States pushed West in the early 1800’s, a lucrative trade for the fur, skin, and meat of the American Bison began in the great plains.

Photograph #3: Rath & Wright’s buffalo hide yard in 1878, showing 40,000 buffalo hides. Dodge City, Kansas. Frontier trader, merchant, and buffalo-hide buyer, Rath was born in 1836 in Germany. When he was 11 years old he immigrated with his family to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In the early 1870s Rath was one of the first men to take advantage of the growing buffalo hide trade and in September, 1872, he moved his family to Dodge City. He soon began hunting, freighting, and marketing the hides and formed the Rath Mercantile Company, whose yard was sometimes filled with as many as 80,000 hides at one time. By 1879, the hide business was over as the buffalo were near extinct. He then collected the many buffalo bones from the prairie and sold them for fertilizer.

Photograph #4: Slaughter of Buffalo on the Kansas Pacific Railroad; reproduced from “The Plains of the Great West”. Collisions between railway trains and vast herds of buffaloes were numerous. Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, United States Army, makes a reference to the stoppage of trains and derailment of locomotives by buffalo in a private letter: “There are at least a hundred reliable railroad men now employed on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad who were witnesses of, and sometimes sufferers from, the wild rushes of buffalo as described on page 121 of my book. I was at the time stationed at Fort Dodge, and I was personally cognizant of several of these ‘accidents.’”

Photograph #5: Bison skulls, 1890. When explorers and fur traders arrived in southern Saskatchewan around 1857, they saw piles of bison bones placed along the river by First Nations people (aboriginal people in Canada). The Cree believed bison would not leave an area that contained the bones of other bison. The settlement was named Wascana, a variation of a Cree word meaning “where the bones are piled.” Eventually, new piles of bison bones were made by white settlers, who systematically killed bison for sport or profit. Bison hides were prized for buffalo coats, and the bones were sold for fertilizer and chinaware. Early 19th century accounts estimated the bison population in the millions, with herds that numbered in the tens of thousands and stretched across the Plains as far as the eye could see. By the end of that century, only a few hundred head remained. The extermination resulted in mass starvation—and the end of a way of life for Plains First People.

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Case Study

The History of the Bison

This case study was designed to assist students with understanding the history of the Bison. Its purpose is to engage students in discovering the story of the Bison which includes the traditional homeland of the bison, its abundance on the grasslands and its near extinction. Additionally, it will serve as an example of one way in which humans changed the planet and the impact this change had on the members of the ecosystem.

This activity is divided into two clear time periods: 1500-1870 which covers the abundance of the bison. During this part of the case study, the students will engage with articles that discuss the abundance of the bison on the continent of North America. During the second part of the case study 1870-1889, the students will read passages from key players of the time discussing the annihilation of this once prominent animal.

This case study is used in conjunction with a unit lesson that includes primary source images. These documents should assist the students in answering the questions they had regarding the primary sources images. To participate in this case study, the students should be broken into groups of 3 or 4 and given time to read the information given, discuss the prompts and allowed to formulate their own questions for further research or class discussion.

Abundance

The main questions that should be front most in your mind through the first part of this case study:

1. Where was the original homeland of the Bison?2. What was the abundance of the Bison?3. What were the encounters with the Bison like?4. Who was dependent on the Bison for survival?5. What predators did the Bison face in Nature?

Extermination

When the reader moves into the second part of this case study the focus should shift to:

1. Who were the keys players in the extermination of the bison?2. What was the U. S. Governments view of the Extermination?3. What were the reasons for the killing of the bison?4. How did the military view this destruction?5. How did the American Indians view this destruction?6. How did this destruction impact the American Indians way of life?7. What changes to the grasslands did the extermination of the bison allow?

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ABUNDANCE 1

The following testimonies and accounts were taken from The Extermination of the American Bison written by William T. Hornaday as commissioned by the Smithsonian Institute United States National Museum.

Between the Rocky Mountains and the States lying along the Mississippi River on the west, from Minnesota to Louisiana, the whole country was one vast buffalo range, inhabited by millions of buffaloes. One could fill a volume with the records of plainsmen and pioneers who penetrated or crossed that vast region between 1800 and 1870, and were in turn surprised, astounded, and frequently dismayed by the tens of thousands of buffaloes they observed, avoided, or escaped from. They lived and moved as no other quadrupeds ever have, in great multitudes, like grand armies in review, covering scores of square miles at once. They were so numerous they frequently stopped boats in the rivers, threatened to overwhelm travelers on the plains, and in later years derailed locomotives and cars, until railway engineers learned by experience the wisdom of stopping their trains whenever there were buffaloes crossing the track. (pg 388-389)

ABUNDANCE 2

Account from George Caitlin"In one instance, near the mouth of White River, we met the most immense herd crossing the Missouri River [in Dakota], and from an imprudence got our boat into imminent danger amongst them, from which we were highly delighted to make our escape. It was in the midst of the 'running season,' and we had heard the 'roaring' (as it is called) of the herd when we were several miles from them. When we came in sight, we were actually terrified at the immense numbers that were streaming down the green hills on one side of the river, and galloping up and over the bluffs on the other. The river was filled, and in parts blackened with their heads and horns, as they were swimming about, following up their objects, and making desperate battle whilst they were swimming. I deemed it imprudent for our canoe to be dodging amongst them, and ran it ashore for a few hours, where we laid, waiting for the opportunity of seeing the river clear, but we waited in vain. Their numbers, however, got somewhat diminished at last, and we pushed off, and successfully made our way amongst them. From the immense numbers that had passed the river at that place, they had torn down the prairie bank of 15 feet in height, so as to form a sort of road or landing-place, where they all in succession clambered up. Many in their turmoil had been wafted below this landing, and unable to regain it against the swiftness of the current, had fastened themselves along in crowds, hugging close to the high bank under which they were standing. As we were drifting by these, and supposing ourselves out of danger, I drew up my rifle and shot one of them in the head, which tumbled into the water, and brought with him a hundred others, which plunged in, and in a moment were swimming about our canoe, and placing it in great danger. No attack was made upon us, and in the confusion the poor beast knew not, perhaps, the enemy that was amongst them; but we were liable to be sunk by them, as they were furiously hooking and climbing on to each other. I rose in my canoe, and by my gestures and hallooing kept them from coming in contact with us until we were out of their reach." *

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ABUNDANCE 3

Lewis and Clark AccountNear the mouth of the White River, in southwestern Dakota, Lewis and Clark saw (in 1806) a herd of

buffalo which caused them to make the following record in their journal:"These last animals [buffaloes] are now so numerous that from an eminence we discovered more than we had ever seen before at one time; and if it be not impossible to calculate the moving multitude, which darkened the whole plains, we are convinced that twenty thousand would be no exaggerated number."When near the mouth of the Yellowstone, on their way down the Missouri, a previous record had been made of a meeting with other herds:"The buffalo now appear in vast numbers. A herd happened to be on their way across the river [the Missouri]. Such was the multitude of these animals that although the river, including an island over which they passed, was a mile in length, the herd stretched as thick as they could swim completely from one side to the other, and the party was obliged to stop for an hour. They consoled themselves for the delay by killing four of the herd, and then proceeded till at the distance of 45 miles they halted on an island, below which two other herds of buffalo, as numerous as the first, soon after crossed the river." [Note : * Lewis and Clark's Exped., II, p. 395.]

ABUNDANCE 4

Testimony Colonel Dodge"The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad was then [in 1871-'72] in process of construction, and

nowhere could the peculiarity of the buffalo of which I am speaking be better studied than from its trains. If a herd was on the north side of the track, it would stand stupidly gazing, and without a symptom of alarm, although the locomotive passed within a hundred yards. If on the south side of track, even though at a distance of 1 or 2 miles from it, the passage of a train set the whole herd in the wildest commotion. At full speed, and utterly regardless of the consequences, it would make for the track on its line of retreat. If the train happened not to be in its path, it crossed the track and stopped satisfied. If the train was in its way, each individual buffalo went at it with the desperation of despair, plunging against or between locomotive and cars, just as its blind madness chanced to direct it. Numbers were killed, but numbers still pressed on, to stop and stare as soon as the obstacle had passed. After having trains thrown off the track twice in one week, conductors learned to have a very decided respect for the idiosyncrasies of the buffalo, and when there was a possibility of striking a herd 'on the rampage' for the north side of the track, the train was slowed up and sometimes stopped entirely." (Testimony from Colonel Dodge “Plains of the Great West,” p.121)

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ABUNDANCE 5

Testimony of Colonel Dodge"In May, 1871, I drove in a light wagon from Old Fort Zara to Fort Larned, on the Arkansas, 34 miles. At least 25 miles of this distance was through one immense herd, composed of countless smaller herds of buffalo then on their journey north. The road ran along the broad level 'bottom,' or valley, of the river. "The whole country appeared one great mass of buffalo, moving slowly to the northward; and it was only when actually among them that it could be ascertained that the apparently solid mass was an agglomeration of innumerable small herds, of from fifty to two hundred animals, separated from the surrounding herds by greater or less space, but still separated. The herds in the valley sullenly got out of my way, and, turning, stared stupidly at me, sometimes at only a few yards' distance. When I had reached a point where the hills were no longer more than a mile from the road, the buffalo on the hills, seeing an unusual object in their rear, turned, stared an instant, then started at full speed directly towards me, stampeding and bringing with them the numberless herds through which they passed, and pouring down upon me all the herds, no longer separated, but one immense compact mass of plunging animals, mad with fright, and as irresistible as an avalanche."The situation was by no means pleasant. Reining up my horse (which was fortunately a quiet old beast that had been in at the death of many a buffalo, so that their wildest, maddest rush only caused him to cock his ears in wonder at their unnecessary excitement), I waited until the front of the mass was within 50 yards, when a few well-directed shots from my rifle split the herd, and sent it pouring off in two streams to my right and left. When all had passed me they stopped, apparently perfectly satisfied, though thousands were yet within reach of my rifle and many within less than 100 yards. Disdaining to fire again, I sent my servant to cut out the tongues of the fallen. This occurred so frequently within the next 10 miles, that when I arrived at Fort Larned I had twenty-six tongues in my wagon, representing the greatest number of buffalo that my conscience can reproach me for having murdered on any single day. I was not hunting, wanted to meat, and would not voluntarily have fired at these herds. I killed only in self-preservation and fired almost every shot from the wagon."

ABUNDANCE 6

Testimony of Rev. Mr. Belcourt[Note : * On the plains of Dakota, the Rev. Mr. Belcourt (Schoolcraft's N. A. Indians, IV, p. 108) once counted two hundred and twenty-eight buffaloes, a part of a great herd, feeding on a single acre of ground. This of course was an unusual occurrence with buffaloes not stampeding, but practically at rest. It is quite possible also that the extent of the ground may have been underestimated.If the advancing multitude had been at all points 50 miles in length (as it was known to have been in some places at least) by 25 miles in width, and still averaged fifteen head to the acre of ground, it would have contained the enormous number of 12,000,000 head. But, judging from the general principles governing such migrations, it is almost certain that the moving mass advanced in the shape of a wedge, which would make it necessary to deduct about two-thirds from the grand total, which would leave 4,000,000 as our estimate of the actual number of buffaloes in this great herd, which I believe is more likely to be below the truth than above it.No wonder that the men of the West of those days, both white and red, thought it would be impossible to exterminate such a mighty multitude. The Indians of some tribes believed that the buffaloes issued from the earth continually, and that the supply was necessarily inexhaustible. And yet, in four short years the southern herd was almost totally annihilated.With such a lesson before our eyes, confirmed in every detail by living testimony, who will dare to say that there will be an elk, moose, caribou, mountain sheep, mountain goat, antelope, or black-tail deer left alive in the United States in a wild state fifty years from this date, ay, or even twenty-five.

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EXTERMINATION 1

Military RoleSome scholars suggest that in order to make migration to the west easier, the US government, through the Army, adopted a policy to exterminate the buffalo. Extermination of the buffalo would inevitably mean the demise of the Indians who so relied on them for almost every aspect of their existence."Although the army was plagued by strategic failures, the near extermination of the American bison during the 1870s helped to mask the military's poor performance. By stripping many Indians of their available resources, the slaughter of the buffalo severely reduced the Indians' capacity to continue an armed struggle against the United States. The military's role in this matter is difficult to assess. Sheridan and Sherman recognized that eliminating the buffalo severely reduced the Indians' capacity to continue an armed struggle against the United States. The editors of the Army and Navy Journal supported the proposition, comparing such an effort with Civil War campaigns against Confederate supplies and food sources. Forts provided de facto support for hunters, who used the civilian services often found near army bases. Officers and enlisted personnel also killed buffalo for food and sport, though the impact of their hunts was minute when compared to the organized efforts of the professionals." (The Military and United States Indian Policy, p. 171) "In 1874, Secretary of the Interior Delano testified before Congress, "The buffalo are disappearing rapidly, but not faster than I desire. I regard the destruction of such game as Indians subsist upon as facilitating the policy of the Government, of destroying their hunting habits, coercing them on reservations, and compelling them to begin to adopt the habits of civilization." (The Military and United States Indian Policy, p. 171) Two years later, reporter John F. Finerty wrote that the government's Indian allies "killed the animals in sheer wantonness, and when reproached by the officers said: ‘better kill buffalo than have him feed the Sioux.'" Although Sheridan added that "if I could learn that every buffalo in the the northern herd were killed I would be glad," some indications point to a groundswell of military opposition to the killing. (The Military and United States Indian Policy, p. 172) In 1873, the Secretary of War was forwarded a letter from Major R.J. Dodge, endorsed by [General] Pope and Sheridan, that addressed the problem. The Secretary of War also approved Sheridan's request which seemed to indicate the general's own ambivalence on the subject, to authorize Col. De L. Floyd Jones "to put a stop to their wholesale destruction." Several officers protested the wanton destruction to Henry Bergh, president of the America Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. The army, while anxious to strike against the Indians' ability to continue their resistance, did not make the virtual extermination of the American bison part of its official policy; in some cases, individual officers took it upon themselves to try and end the slaughter. (The Military and United States Indian Policy, p. 171)

EXTERMINATION 2

An Army Doctor:"'In the fall of 1885, when I, as a young acting assistant surgeon, United States Army, was stationed with A Troop, Fifth Cavalry for a short time at Cantonment, Indian Territory, we had several bands of Cheyennes under our care. Among the chiefs we had Stone Calf, Little Robe, Spotted Horse and White Horse. Having learned the sign language, I had many talks with these Indians:""'Stone Calf and Little Robe were greatly troubled over the disappearance of the buffalo. They told me that the great spirit created the buffalo in a large cave in the Panhandle of Texas; that the evil spirits had closed up the mouth of the cave and the buffalo could not get out. They begged me to get permission from the great father at Washington for them to go and open the cave, and let the buffalo out. They claimed to know the exact location of the cave. They even wanted me to accompany them.'" --Surgeon O. C. McNary (Buffalo Days, p. 349)

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EXTERMINATION 3

Account from Colonel WheelerAccording to Colonel Homer W. Wheeler, an officer who fought with the United States' Fifth and Eleventh Cavalry for 35 years and who lived to write about his expeditions out West, "Millions of Buffalo were slaughtered for the hides and meat, principally for the hide. Some of the expert hunters made considerable money at that occupation. (Buffalo Days, p. 80)"Buffalo hunting was dangerous sport. Although at times it looked like murder, if you took a buffalo in his native element he had plenty of courage and would fight tenaciously for His life if given an opportunity. Like all other animals, the buffalo scented danger at a distance and tried to escape by running away, but if he did not escape he would make a stand and fight to the last, for which everyone must respect him. (Buffalo Days, p. 82.)Some of the habits of the Buffalo herds are clearly fixed in my memory. The bulls were always found on the outer edge, supposedly acting as protectors to the cows and calves. For ten to twenty miles one would often see solid herds of the animals. Until the hunters commenced to kill them off, their only enemies were the wolves and coyotes. A medium-sized herd, at that time, dotted the prairie for hundreds of miles, and to guess at the number in a herd was like trying to compute the grains of wheat in a granary. (Buffalo Days, p. 81)

EXTERMINATION 4

In 1873 over 750,000 hides were shipped on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad alone, and it is estimated that over 7.5 million buffalo were killed from 1872 to 1874. (General Pope and U.S. Indian Policy, p. 179)***** Provide the document to support this the value of buffalo robes***** Benning and Barsalou Auctioneers Records 1876-1877

EXTERMINATION 5

The following is an excerpt from Plenty Coups Chief of the Crows by Frank Linderman. It details the importance of the buffalo to Native people and the devastation they felt when the buffalo was destroyed.Plenty Coups refused to speak of his life after the passing of the buffalo, … “I can think back and tell you much more of the war and horse stealing. But when the buffalo went away the hearts of my people fell to the ground, and they could not lift them up again. After this nothing happened. There was little singing anywhere.” Linderman further wrote, I do know that part of Plenty Coups life’s story, and that part of the lives of the Indians of the Northwestern plains; and I did see what happened to these sturdy, warlike people when the last of the buffalo was finally slaughtered and left to decay on the plain by the skin-hunting white men. The Indians food supply was now gone; so too were the materials for his clothes and sheltering home. Pitched so suddenly from plenty into poverty, the Indian lost his poise and could not believe the truth. He was dazed, and yet so deep was his faith in the unfailing bounty of his native land that even when its strange emptiness began to mock him, he believed in the return of the buffalo to the plains, until the white men began to settle there, their wire fences shutting off his ancestral watering holes.

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EXTERMINATION 6

Written Narrative from The Extermination of the American Bison by William Hornaday

However, after the Civil War that would change as more and more people moved westward. As a result, new army posts were established and to supply those many soldiers, the army contracted with local men to supply buffalo meat to feed the troops. At about the same time, the iron horse also began to blaze a trail into the west, and these construction men also had to be fed. Adding to the need for food, people back east were demanding buffalo robes that they used as coats and lap robes when riding in sleighs and carriages. These events put many a man to work as buffalo hunters.

Leavenworth, Kansas, became a trading center for the buffalo hides and tanneries found even more uses for the material, such as making drive belts for industrial machines and grinding buffalo bones into fertilizer. In some places, buffalo tongues became a delicacy in fine restaurants. Soon, the demand for buffalo had increased to such a degree that year-round work was available for buffalo hunters.

This, all occurring in a time that the economy was depressed after the Civil War, led many a tough man to earn his living as a buffalo hunter. Armed with powerful, long-range rifles, individual hunters could kill as many as 250 buffalo a day. Tanneries paid as much as $3.00 per hide and 25¢ for each tongue, which made a nice living for hundreds of men, including the likes of Wyatt Earp, Bat Masterson, Pat Garrett, Wild Bill Hickok, and William F. Cody, just to name a few. Unfortunately, once these hides and tongues were taken from the carcasses, the edible buffalo meat was often left to rot on the Plains. By the 1880s, over 5,000 hunters and skinners were involved in the trade.

EXTERMINATION 7

The following is an excerpt from Pretty-shield Medicine Woman of the Crows by Frank B. Linderman. It describes the feelings associated with the abundance and extermination of the bison… “The happiest days of my life were spent following the buffalo herds over our beautiful country. My mother and father and Goesahead, my man, were all kind, and we were so happy. Then, when my children came I believed I had everything that was good on this world. There were always so many, many buffalo, plenty of good fat meat for everybody…. Ahh, my heart fell down when I began to see dead buffalo scattered all over our beautiful country, killed and skinned, and left to rot by white men, many, many hundreds of buffalo. The first I saw of this was in the Judith Basin. The whole country there smelled of rotting meat. Even the flowers could not put down the bad smell. Our hearts were like stones. And yet nobody believed, even then, that the white man could kill all the buffalo. Since the beginning of things there had always been so many? Even the Lacota, bas as their hearts were for us, would not do such a thing as this: nor the Cheyenne, nor the Arapahoe, nor the Pecunnie; and yet the white man did this, even when he did not want the meat. We believed for a long time that the buffalo would again come to us; but they did not. We grew hungry and sick and afraid, all in one. Not believing their own eyes our hunters rode very far looking for buffalo, so far away that even if they had found a herd we could not have reached it in a half a moon. ‘Nothing, we found nothing,’ they told us; and then, hungry, they stared at the empty plains, as though dreaming. After this their hearts were no good any more. If the Great White Chief in Washington had not given us food we should have been wiped out without even a chance to fight for ourselves.

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Name:___________________________________________

Human Influences on the Great Plains

1. Describe two negative and two positive ways that humans have impacted planet Earth.

2. Infer what would happen to the plants (flora) and animals (fauna) of Montana if the climate shifted to that of a desert. Elaborate why this outcome might occur.

3. On the map, circle the area of the original grasslands of North America.

4. Relating to the area circle in number 3, explain one way the land and its resources might have aided native peoples and/or settlers moving west.

5. CASE STUDY: There is a small pond near a schoolyard. On the banks of the pond there are rocks that “Pinishi”, a unique fish found only in this pond, need for shelter. The Pinishi seek shelter to hide from the “Wibblers,” large birds that live in the aspen trees near the pond. Each day the students leaving school walk by the pond and enjoy pulling the rocks from the shore and tossing them into the deep water where the Pinishi cannot compete for food with the larger “Yerger” fish or hide from the Wibblers, who prey on the Pinishi. Hypothesize what may happen to the Pinishi, Yerger, and Wibblers if the students continue to pull the rocks from the bank.

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Appendix AResearch Expectations

Students will be required to work in small groups to research and take notes on the topic area of their choosing. Upon completion of the notes, the students will work in small groups to write summaries of each resource and begin developing their group multimedia project. On an individual basis, each student will type a two page formal research paper.

1. Students will be required to research a topic of their choosing that is spawned from this original question: In what ways have humans changed the great plains since the 1890’s. As part of their research and final presentation the students must address how the change they choose has impacted the ecosystem and the biodiversity within it. Additionally, students must make conclusions about how the information they learn should or could be applied in the future to minimize the impact on our planet’s ecosystems and biodiversity. LS.2.c; LS4.d; ESS.3.c

2. Students will cite a minimum of four specific resources used for their research. Sources must meet research quality standards as set forth by the instructor. (example: no Wikipedia sources, only one online encyclopedia etc.)Students should include at least one primary photograph and/or a visual graphic (flow chart, graph, diagram, table etc.) as a resource. If applicable one of the students’ resources maybe a multimedia resource. RST.6-8.1; RST.6-8.7; RST.6-8.9; WHST.6-8.7; WHST.6-8.8; WHST.6-8.9

3. Students will use a note taking structure, as defined by their instructor, however the note taking structure will require the students to provide a summary of the central idea or conclusions for each source in a written paragraph form. RST.6-8.2

4. Students will provide a minimum of 6 words they do not believe their peers will know and provide the definition for these terms in the context the words were used. RST.6-8.4

5. Students will be required to type a 2 page double spaced formal argument or informational paper. As part of this paper they will need to include a proper header, and clearly organize their ideas in a style that is appropriate to the task, purpose and audience. When applicable students will include in their paper a visual graphic to support the findings of their research. WHST.6-8.1; WHST. 6-8.2; WHST.6-8.4; WHST. 6-8.6

6. In order to develop and strengthen each student’s writing and the quality of their final publish work, students will be required to have two peer reviews of their paper at each of the following stages of the writing process: planning, revising, editing, and rewriting. Additionally, students will meet with the instructor a minimum of once during this writing process. WHST.6-8.5

7. Final published papers will include the correct use of conventions including spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage, varied sentence patterns and use of appositives to assist the reader with comprehension. L.6.1; L.6.2; L.6.3; L.6.4; L.6.6.

8. In addition to their formal paper, each group will be required to prepare a 5 minute presentation on their topic for the class. As part of their presentation, they will need to be prepared for a two minute question and answer session with their peers and instructor. In their presentation they should present their group findings logically with facts and details that support the central concept. Students will need to engage in proper eye contact, adequate volume and clear pronunciation. Additionally, students should have the division of their presentation clearly developed prior their presenting to the entire class. As part of their presentation the students will need to include a multimedia component of their chosing. Use of formal English will be required through this presentation. SL.6.1; SL.6.2; SL.6.4; SL.6.5; SL.6.6.

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Appendix B Research Sites

List will be provided at the conference

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Appendix CWords to Assist with Research Idea Development

PopulationsSpecies

DiversityFarmingRiversThreatsDams

ConservationWater supplyExploitation

FireDust bowlEcology

Animals (fauna)Plants (flora)BiodiversityEcosystem

HumanDevelopment

RailroadFencing

OilNatural Gas

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Appendix D

Additional Lesson Plans to Support this Unit of Study

Graphing Bison Populations: http://opi.mt.gov/pdf/IndianEd/Search/Science/G6-8_Where_Have_Bison_Gone.pdf

What Do Bison Eat: http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/learning/resources/activities/bison/index.phtml

Bison Grazing: http://agr.mt.gov/AgClassroom/LessonPlans/MontanaRangelands.asp

Let’s Grow Montana Native Grasses: http://agr.mt.gov/AgClassroom/LessonPlans/MontanaRangelands.asp

Bison Timeline Cards: These cards could be used in a variety of ways in the classroom to support this unit and also the federal policies that affected American Indians.

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Timeline Cards

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1700’s to 1800’sAs Euro-Americans settled in this country, moving westward from the east coast, they brought changes to the native habitat by plowing and farming.Treaty Period Began 1789.

1820American Indian tribes were forced off land in the East and brought additional guns and horses to the plains which increased pressure on the bison.1818 the U.S. Canadian Border established at the 49th parallel.

1830’sMass destruction of the once great herds of bison began.

Indian Removal Act of 1830.1838 Cherokee Trail of Tears.

1500’sAn estimated 30 to 60 million bison lived in North America.

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1870An estimated two million bison were killed this year on the southern plains. Germany had developed a process to tan bison hides into leather.Bakker Massacre occurred winter of 1870.Six Buffalo Calves saved by the Salish Tribe make it to Flathead Reservation.

1860’s Railroads built across the plains divided the bison into two main herds – the Southern and Northern. Many bison were killed to feed the railroad crews and Army posts.Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 Signed.

1840’sWest of the Rocky Mountains, bison disappeared. American Indian market hunters concentrated on cow bison, because of their prime hides for trading.Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 Signed. Lame Bull Treaty of 1855 Signed.

1871 This year marked the beginning of the end of the southern herd. The greatest slaughter took place along the railroads. Pennsylvania began to commercially tan bison hides. Bison were now hunted year round.Treaty Period Ends

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1872During this year and the next two, an average of 5,000 bison were killed each year, as ten thousand hunters poured into the plains.Yellowstone becomes a National Park.Second Crow Agency established at Rosebud River near present day Absarokee.

1874This year marked the seeming end of the great Southern herd. Auctions in Fort Worth, Texas were moving 200,000 hides every day or two.

1876The estimated three to four million bison of the southern plains were now dead. The Northern Pacific Railroad, anxious to advance, ignored tribal treaties and sent in survey parties.

1873On the Southern plains, slaughter reached its peak. One Railroad shipped over three million pounds of bones. Hides sold for $1.25 each, most of the bison were left to rot.President Grant diminished tribal lands reserved in the Fort Laramie Treaties of 1851 and 1868.

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1877A few remaining free roaming bison were discovered in Texas and were killed.

1882Over 10,000 bison were taken during one hunt of a few days length in the Dakota Territory in September.

1881This year’s winter marked the largest slaughter of the northern herd. One county in Montana shipped 180,000 buffalo skins

1878Bison in Canada were disappearing rapidly.

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1882The fate of the Northern herd had been determined. Hunters thought that the bison had moved north to Canada, but they had not. The bison had simply been eliminated.

1884There were around 325 wild bison left in the United States including 25 in Yellowstone.

1886The Smithsonian Institute sent an expedition out to obtain bison specimens for the National Museum. After a lengthy search, some were found near the LU Bar ranch in Montana.

1883 By mid-year nearly all the bison in the United States were gone.Blackfeet Starvation Winter 1833-1834.

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1887 The American Museum of Natural History (New York), wishing to obtain their own bison specimens for an exhibit, mounted an exhibition for Montana. The researchers found no bison.Allotment Period Began through the Dawes Act.

1889William Hornaday estimated the total bison population to be just over 1,000 animals- 85 free ranging, 200 in a federal herd (Yellowstone National Park), 500 at Great Slave Lake (Canada) and 256 in zoos and in private herds.Montana became a state.

1905Government bison herds held about 100 animals in Yellowstone National Park and the National Zoological Park in Washington DC.

1902 There are 700 bison in private herds. The Yellowstone herd is estimated at 23 animals.

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1910The American Bison Society Census estimated 2, 108 Bison in North America (1,076 in Canada and 1,032 in the U.S.) Bison in public herds in the U.S. totaled 151.

1919Estimated population of North American Bison at 12,251.

2000’sOnly in the last 10 -15 years can it be said that North American Bison have returned from near extinction in the 1890’s. Today it is estimated that the total herd size is 500,000 range, about 250,000 which is based in Canada.

1990’sAn estimated 20,000 -25,000 bison were in public herds in North America.