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AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND FOOD PRODUCTION
Agriculture geography describes and explains the spatial variations in agricultural activities over the land surface.
Agriculture refers to the growing of crops and/or rearing of livestock.
Agriculture is important since it Produces food for the local consumption, enhancing self-
sufficiency and improving the livelihood of rural population and standards of living.
Provides employment for 2/3of world population as a source of income
Earns foreign currency when products are exported Produce raw materials for manufacturing industries Provides strong economic base and stability. In Zimbabwe
agriculture contributes more than 10% of GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT.
FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE
At any location, agricultural activities are controlled by the interaction of physical, socio- cultural, political and economic factors as they relate to the use of land at various scales from individual farms to states and regions
PHYSICAL FACTORS
Exert a major influence in determining the type of farming practiced in an area.
The ideal location for a specific type is based on the total cost of production per unit output is minimized for that crop /livestock.
As distance increases from this optimum condition become less than ideal – too wet, too dry, too steep or high, too cold/hot.
The law of diminishing returns operates when either the output decrease /the cost of maintaining high yield become prohibitive.
When physical conditions are too extreme to permit production on an economically viable scale.TEMPERATURE
The growth of different plants requires certain temperatures for germination, photosynthesis and ripping of crops
Optimum temperatures are the best for agriculture. most crops do not germinate at a temperature below 6 degrees
Celsius Very low temperatures result in slow growth hindering
photosynthesis and causes frost bite for example in winter season in Zimbabwe where low temp are experienced.
Measure such as the use smudge pots and green houses are effective in curbing the problem.
High temperatures are associated with low soil moisture which causes crops to wilt leading to total failure for example the case of Zimbabwe 2016.
PRECIPITATION
It is the prime source of water for plants to grow naturally. The annual rainfall totals determines the types of crops,
tree, grass or cereals, irrigation and animals kept for agric purposes.
Excessive rains cause floods which destroys crops, cause leaching and water borne disease which enervates the workers there by reducing productivity.
Growing of water loving crops is a solution. In areas with little rainfall drought is common leading to
disastrous crop failure. Solutions such as dam construction and growing of drought
resistant crops are a solution. The annual distribution of rainfall is important than the
totals as they determine the length of the growing season. The types of precipitation eg drizzle as light rainfall
promotes soil moisture through infiltration whereas heavy convectional rainfall with hailstorms destroys crops reducing quality and output.
In addition there is reduced soil moisture storage due to reduced infiltration by closure of pore spaces.
WIND Wind has severe impact on agriculture for moderate winds
promote pollination but very strong winds such as hurricanes , typhoons and cyclones destroys crops and cause high rates of evapotranspiration.
ALTITUDE It is linked to rainfall and temperature High altitudes are associated with low to moderate
temperatures with chances of high precipitation of orographic nature as high lands act as uplifting mechanisms of warm moist air.
Thin soils and erosion rates on steep slopes is a problem to arable farming
Low altitudes areas are associated with high temperatures and little rainfall this is because of adiabatic warming from descending air which is depleted of water vapour creating regions of high pressure.
Plants grow well in moderate altitudes for example apples and conifers in Kenyan highlands
GRADIENT Steepness of slope affects the depth of soil, its moisture
content and ph value of the soil. Steep slopes are associated with high rates of erosion, thin
soils and also lead the operation of machinery difficult. However these are used for forest production, tree plants
(coffee, tea, citrus,) in the eastern highlands.
ASPECT Has to do with south facing and north facing slopes which determine intensity of solar radiation
SOIL TYPE Farming depends on soil depth, its water holding capacity,
aeration, structure and texture, ph value. Soils with poor structure are easily leached and fast rates of
soil moisture evaporation. Sand soil lack nutrients hold moisture for a short period of
time. Clay soil are heavy to work with under very wet conditions,
are poorly drained which might cause water logging, difficult to use machinery.
sandy soils are good for tobacco growing, loam for maize and potatoes,
PEST AND DISEASES Affect on crops, human beings and animals. Examples include malaria, anthrax, and army worm. Less risk and less prone areas are good for production and
productivity.QUESTIONSMethods to overcome physical difficulties
SOCIAL FACTORS Land tenure –refers to the way the land is / can be owned.
Land tenure act of 1969 forced blacks to own marginal lands with little rains, high temperatures while whites owned fertile soil regions with favourable climate in low density.
Various types of land tenure systems include LATIFUNDA, where land is organized into large estates with landless peasants working for wages.
Cash tenancy the farmer gives part of his income to the land own.
This affect farming systems as the farmer has no time to work harder and develop the land.
Share cropping the farmer pay for using the land by giving part of his harvest to the land owner.
INHERITANCE
It leads to fragmentation of land.
Use of machinery on small portions is difficult but the farmer may benefit if the land has different types of soil which facilitates the growing of different types of crops.
Due to inheritance woman have unequal access to land and limited power decision on it but most of the time with it.How does fragmentation affect farm production?How does fragmentation affect farm productivity?
ECONOMIC FACTORS Transport determines the time taken to transport inputs
and outputs to and from the markets. Some outputs are perishables need fast and quick delivery
mode to market. E.g. flowers to UK by air, timber by road or rail, milk by refrigerated trucks.
However transporting perishable has gone under transformation due to use of refrigerated truks which move long distances.
MARKET Market demand size of population, needs, religious and
determines farming system. Low prices on a market discourage the continued practice of
farming e.g. cotton and tobacco farming in Zimbabwe, rearing of pigs is not common in the Jewish countries and apostolic sects.
Some farming systems are located close to the market e.g. market gardening, dairy farming whilst others are located far away from the market e.g. cattle ranching.
CAPITAL MEDCS have capital in their robust banking systems , from
private investments and government investment through subsidies which encourage capital intensive farming systems like poultry farming kwa gono Luna chickens, Irvine’s in WATERFALLS, piggery , horticulture, and market gardening
Low interest loans in MEDCs increases farm outputs creating ’mountains and lakes ‘of output (overproduction).
LEDCs lack financial support to their farmers as financial institutions are stagnant in terms of investment, facing liquidation, curatorship, have limited capital resources , have high interest rates on loans on farmers without title deeds .
This results in labour intensive farming systems with low productivity.
TECHNOLOGY Improved technology and scientific adjustment through
genetic engineering has enabled farmers to improve output per unit area.
Intensive mechanization of farms has resulted in efficient and fast methods of cultivation, processing and harvesting.
Cross breeding of animals and seeds with the use of irrigation machinery has lead to tremendous improvements in agricultural production.
However LEDCs are rarely able to take advantage of the improvements in technology as they could not afford the
cost of purchasing, maintenance and operation of the machinery.
STATE INTERVENTIONS AND GOVERNMENT POLICY
The state intervention and government policy have negative and positive effects on farming.
Some government in MEDCs help in making farming decisions
Government helps through subsidies for guaranteeing farmers products and production.
governments provides inputs through presidential input schemes, education through extension officers and vet officers , machinery provision mechanization in irrigation infrastructure ,
Empowering ARDA in Zimbabwe, NGOs e.g. FEED THE FUTURE ZIMBABWE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (FTFZ-LD) in Chipinge for cattle marketing, loans to buy input feeds.QUESTIONWith reference to examples from countries studied, describe and explain the role of government policy on agriculture activities.
Central governments can play a regulatory function in agricultural production as
Dumping excess products / donations to hungry countries
Setting agricultural authority boards Deciding on production quotas/providing storage
facilities Regulating through legislation –set aside soil banks
policy Announcing pre-producer prices and guarantees or
assured price e.g. on tobacco and cotton Export incentives /subsidies or withdrawing
them/grants /loans Research and development Land reform policies land consolidation- UJAAMA in
Tanzania, KIBUTZ in ISRAEL,SOVKHOZ, LATIFUNDIA IN LATIN America
Offering incentives to individual farmers
LAND ORGANIZATIONLand can be owned by foreign such as transnational estates, state, individuals, cooperatives, and community which have an effect on farming.FARM SIZE
AGRO- ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF ZIMBABWE
There are 5 main agro ecological regions which are defined according to rainfall, temperature and intensity of production.
High rainfall is experienced in east, north east and become drier towards west and south west due south e.g. in BEITBRIGDE.
Moderate rains are experienced along the central watershed.
REGION 1-SPECIALISED AND DIVERSIFIED FARMING Rainfall throughout the year high more than 1000mm. Temperatures are normally comparatively low effectively
enabling tree crops, afforestation, seed potatoes and intensive livestock production.
areas include parts of MANICALAND ,VUMBA,NYANGA, CHIMANIMANI ,CHIPINGE
REGION 2 INTENSIVE FARMING Seasonal rainfall, large scale intensive farming of maize,
wheat, and soya beans, tobacco, cotton and livestock. Rarely experience dry spells. 2b is subject to severe dry spells/ with rain season. Rainfall 750-1000mm high.
REGION 3 –SEMI-INTENSIVE FARMING Has rainfall which is moderate at 650-800mm with regular
mid-season dry spells.
Livestock production, fodder and cash crops under good farm management.
REGION 4 SEMI EXTENSIVE Experience fairly low total rainfall (450-650mm). It is subject to periodic drought and seasonal severe dry
spells. The low rainfall is uncertain for commercial cropping except
in localities where drought resistant crops survive. Mainly suitable for livestock production. most 75% of communal lands
REGION 5-EXTENSIVE FARMING Rainfall less than 450mm Cattle ranching is the best practice LOWVELD areas the Zambezi valley and Limpopo valley
REGION 6 .RANCHING AND WILDLIFE Based for wildlife conservation in areas of HWANGE, GONAREZHOU
IRRIGATION FARMING Is the artificial application of water on land /fields in order
to grow crops when prevailing climatic and weather conditions cannot sustain crop growth
It is normally used in areas which are too dry for rainfall fed forms of agriculture thus bringing marginal lands into active production
It is used during the dry period /spell to grow special crops like wheat and cotton in winter to produce crops throughout the year.
It is needed where rainfall is limited and when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation e.g. in semi –arid and arid land such as the Atacama area in Peru, Chile, the Sahel region in Africa
Used where there is seasonal shortage due to drought Used amount of rainfall is unreliable in southern Africa Used when farming is intensive e.g. rice growing in south
east Asia , creating employment , improving national economy and producing raw materials for industrial thus saving foreign currency imports
To harness and utilize water that might have been lost through runoff.
Due to irrigation areas which are naturally arid and where water is scarce e.g. in Israel , Egypt with all other factors required for agriculture such as fertile soils , undulating terrains and ideal temperatures for plant growth have been converted into thriving agric region at a successful rate.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR IRRIGATION Existence of vast expanses of gently sloping land which
enable easier laying down of irrigation pipes, construction of canals, creation of larger fields or even permitting gravity flow of water onto the fields through reducing pumping expenses
Clayey subsoil reduce water loss by percolation and canal need to be lined with concrete reducing running expenses
Hot dry environments conditions provide the heat required for plant growth.
The dryness reduces the incidence of crop diseases and pests
The area have low population densities and there is less displacement if dams are constructed
Presence of large rivers and aquifers ensure adequate supply of water with water harvesting in dams and lakes
Example are south east lowveld in Zimbabwe with RUNDE and SAVE rivers, flat terrains, fertile alluvial soils.
Mutondwe irrigation scheme in MT Darwin experiencing bumper harvest through the BRAZIL PHASE 1 FOOD FOR AFRICA PROJECT.
Gezira irrigation scheme in Sudan and Egypt Irrigation in Israel has gone astonishing technology
advancement in the desalinization of blackish and saline water from the sea and underground in areas of western Galilee , JEZREEL plain, lake Tiberius and river Jordan
There is use of automated, computer controlled and fertigation of saline water mixed with fertilizer and piped directly to the fields.
OBSTACLES IN IRRIGATION It does not guarantee any agricultural bonanza because Some desert areas are incapable of supporting irrigation
agriculture because of shortage of capital and technology. E.g. CHIRUME irrigation for horticulture in NHEMA communal areas which is failing to raise $400 to maintain the pump, affected by drought effects using wheelbarrow to ferry water.
There is mismanagement of irrigation projects due to sabotage , corruption and political instability
Inadequate drainage result in water logging and muddy conditions with a risk of water borne diseases
Salinization of soils contributes to diminishing yields and abandonment of formerly irrigated lands. High rates of evaporation create a hard pan
The climates are enervating hence discouraging development and productivity
LAND TENURE AND NATURE OF HOLDING LAND TENURE
Is the manner in which land is owned or possessed that is the title to its use
The system of land tenure embody legal contract or customary arrangement whereby individuals or groups gain access to economic and social opportunities through the ownership and use of land
examples include free hold, leasehold
The system of tenure increased problems of land pressure in communal are as due to fragmentation due to accelerated rural to urban migration and subsistence level of production.
The impact of land tenure has been worsened by droughts in communal areas of Zimbabwe with lack of inputs and infrastructure, over cropping and monoculture, land degradation and soil erosion.
Ownership by groups can lead to consolidation
QUESTION
Explain how agricultural land use and production maybe affected by the fragmentation of holdings
Fragmentation occurs when the landholding of a farmer /family is broken up usually by inheritance so that it consists of a number of a number of small scattered fields.
It affects agricultural land use and production on the following ways.
Negatively Inefficiency result the farmer wastes a lot of time as
he / other workers move from one field to another. Much effort is taken in moving inputs from one field
to another region is seed or fertilizers Mechanization is hindered as some plots are too
small Land at the margins can be lost to cultivation (the
margins boundary are not continuous) It is hard to keep an eye on all fields e g for pests and
aridity There can be problems to accessibility Conflicts are common on farm boundaries instead of
production. Positively it can result
A greater variety of crops being grown ,if soil conditions / water supply vary across the area
Risks are minimized e.g. from pests, because some parts of fields are not attacked / will survive
A farmer may gain fertile land by inheritance / on marriage
Observing what others are doing in their fields and copying them is powerful in the modernization of agriculture
Describe how agricultural land use and production have been affected by land consolidation.(6)
Commercialized agriculture activities Larger farmers have necessitated use of machinery
like tractors and combined harvesters Less labour is needed due to use of mechanization Capital intensive / higher inputs increase production Higher outputs per hectare / per worker/ per hour
increased productivity Improved water management and control on large
farmsDisadvantages
Means land into hands of fewer people, loss of jobs due to consolidation, bad publicity due to inconsistent policies Conflicts between land owners and tenants due
disagreements on decisions, preference which vary
The systems of tenure need to be integrated for the benefit of the total population but without endangering the economy of the country
Communal agriculture need to be made more efficient with desires of individual farmers for sufficient land being made while at the same time the commercial base of the country’s agricultural economy being protected.
The best solution to address issues of land tenure is land reform.
LAND REFORM Is a social, political and legislative process aimed at
redressing access to land in a country It involves agrarian revolution and rural
development. The redistribution of land with the method of
expropriation of large estates, plantations, commercial farms and distributed to individual farmers, landless laboures, communal peasant farmers, consolidation of small pieces of land and increases security of tenure.
This can be done through resettlement
RESETTLEMENT Is organization and reorganization of land among the
citizens of the nation more equally in a justified manner
Aims of resettlement To relieve pressure on communal lands Provide people with large enough plots To increase production through individual
cooperatives and state farms To reduce rural to urban migration To improve the standards of living for the poorest
population groups To provide means of employment and source of
income To make use of land productively Rectify the colonial land imbalances
Resettlement programmes
1.OLD RESETTLEMENT PROGRAMME; PHASE 1
This was done after independence around 1982 with the land being acquired on a willing buyer willing seller bases
White settler farmers were to sell their land optionally to the Zimbabwean government which will share the land to black peasant farmers
The models in the programme include Nucleated villages MUSHANDIKE in MASVINGO Registered cooperatives central estates ARDA Ngezi Drier areas development TULI ranch and ranches
Evaluation The programme was restricted by the
Lancaster house agreement until the 1990s only by the willing buyer willing seller, with those farms released where in region 4and 5 which are dry, hot and disease infested.
The government found its hands tied when the commercial farmers did not willingly release land for sale
The money to buy this land and compensate commercial farmers was not available
Deforestation, overgrazing were rampant leading to livestock loss and starvation
The programme recorded a partial success with examples of MUSHANDIKE resettlement scheme registering improved living standards and food production
2.PHASE 2 RESTTLEMENT PROGRAMME It involves commercial land seizures by landless
Zimbabweans This began in2000 by the SVOSVE people of Marondera The programme has been ratified and dubbed fast
track resettlement programme The programme comprise of A1 and A2 models A1 followed the INTENSIVE ACCELERATED
RESETTLEMENT schemes
A2 include those who were resettled in peri-urban areas with farmers expected to be self sufficient in terms of capital, agricultural machinery and inputs
Impacts of resettlement programme
POLITICAL IMPACT The objectives of the government to give land to the
people was achieved to those who applied for land However there was resistance from commercial farm
owners which resulted in conflicts and death of some people
The programme has political interference by political parties in Zimbabwe resulting in political instability during the period
There was bad publicity and imposition of sanctions to Zimbabwe affecting its economy
SOCIAL IMPACTS Raised standards of living as those who were resettled
were able to earn a living from land. there was increased crop and food production which
assures food security for resettled families However, family ties were broken as there was
increased outward migration from the communal areas
Most peasant farmers remain jobless as they were formerly employed by whites farmers
Traditional growing of crops was abandoned in favour of cash crops such as cotton ,tobacco and maize
Some of areas lack basic amenities such as schools , clinics, ablutions, electricity
Nepotism and corruption with multiple farm ownership
There is existence of temporary shelters mainly huts constructed using grass(thatch)
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Conservation and management of soil e.g. crop
rotation on large plots restores soil fertility unlike former overpopulated communal lands.
However deforestation and overgrazing were observed leading to soil nutrient deficient and threatening wildlife due poaching, disturbance of sanctuaries/conservatives
Gold panning and environmental degradation as means of livelihood were disrupted by farm invasion
Salinization due to irrigation and eutrophication due runoff of fertilizers
Natural hazards wreck havoc on farming in form of el-nino effects, drought, cyclone ELINE, hailstorm, frost
ECONOMIC IMPACTS Foreign currency earnings from the selling of farm
products There is establishment of agro based industries
Resettled farmers provide employment seasonally or permanently
Economic growth due to growing of cash crops for export
However fragmentation of large commercial farms has resulted in low agric activities ,low yields due to shortage of inputs and infrastructure,
Transition to commercial farming was not an easy task. Some of the farmers are lazy, anti-development,
embezzlement of funds practice cell phone farming with Zimbabwe no longer a bread basket of SADC
Funds are being channeled to acquire food rather than agricultural developmentQUESTIONSA) Describe how agricultural land reform has been
carried out in any LEDCs you have studiedB) Describe the impact of agricultural land reform on society and the environmentc) Assess the impact of land reform on livestock
production in areas you have studiedANSWER
Research and development Education and training Offer letters for eviction Legislation- bill and acts 1990- LAND ACT BILL Mode of ownership of land models A1 and A2,
historical A, B, C, D, E. Input scheme –seeds and tractors
Violent land invasions chief SVOSVE MARONDERA
THE NATURE OF DEMAND AND DISTANCE FROM MARKET A commercial farmer has to worry on the cost of
producing a particular commodity on the farm plus those of transporting it to the market.
There are certain land use which are profitably located near the market and others that need to be located away from the market for them to be viable giving what is known as locational rent or economic rent
LOCATIONAL RENT is the difference between total revenue received by a farmer for a crop grown on a unit of land and the total cost of production and transport for that crop
Locational rent = total production cost +transport cost It is observed that rent decreases with distance from
the market. Transport cost for intensive farming system than those
of extensive farming systems This can be illustrated by the diagram below
The whole idea of locational rent is central to VON THUNEN model of agricultural land use
Von THUNEN was interested in how and agricultural land use varied with distance from market “ THE ISOLATED STATE”
For von THUNEN , patterns of land use around the market resulted from competition from other land use
ASSUMPTION OF VON THUNEN MODEL There was existence of an isolated state which had no
links with rest of the world There is existence of an urban market as a city as sole
market where all farmers receive the same price for a particular product
There was existence of a homogenous terrain /uniform plain over which soil fertility, climate and other physical factors do not vary(isotropic even),
transport costs is directly proportional to distance The farmers acted as “economic man” wishing to
maximize their profits and having equal knowledge on the needs of market
There was only one form of transport horse and cart which he later changed a linear navigable sea
Principles of VON THUNEN model Locational rent varies with distance from the market
for different intensities of farming Intensity of land use decrease with distance from the
market
DETAILS OF VON THUNEN MODEL
He built concentric zones with land use near the market having high inputs being perishable and having expensive transport cost
For example market gardening and indoor dairy farming
Potatoes were grown close to market because of extra weight which increase transport costs
Intensive crops were grown near to the market than extensive crops or products
The point at which one type of land use is replaced by another which is called the margin of transference
If the market price fall / cost of production increases there is a decrease in both the profits and margin of cultivation
Margin of cultivation is the area where revenue and costs are equal. Locational rent is zero at this point and production becomes less worthwhile.
Question: Briefly define margin of cultivation and locational rent.Question
Account for the variations in the intensity and type of farming shown on VON THUNEN models (modified by river)
Intensity Transport cost Market prices
Nearness to market Economic rent Demand (perishability)
Type of farming Horticulture Dairying Cereal farming Forestry Ranching and grazing
Strengths of the model It is applicable at village level where crops that need
close monitoring are located near the home The intensity of farming decreases as distance
increases from the market for example around major towns of Harare and Bulawayo
It is also observed that transport costs are proportional to distance
As distance from the village increases yields from it decreases
The village service centre act as the only market for agricultural products
At national level for example the spatial pattern of land use in Uruguay
At continental scale e.g. in Europe where zones of agriculture were arranged around industrial centers and intensity of land use decreasing from these centers
Weaknesses of the modelOversimplication
Land is not uniform, few places with featureless plains Different modes of transport are now used An isolated state does not exist in the modern world
due to existence of forward and backward linkages to other parts of the world.
OUT DATEDNESS There is significant advancement in technology with
changing uses of resources and increased pressure on land by population growth, emergence of different economic policies.
Air, road, rail ,water modes of transport have increased accessibility in all directions to the market quicker and cheap costs
Perishable are now produced from the market and could be stored for a long time with use of milk tanks and refrigerated trucks
Improved farming techniques , use of fertilizers , irrigation has improved yields and extended the margins of cultivation
Farming land near to the urban markets have been taken by urban growth far accommodation and development pushing away land uses
The model failed to recognize the role of government for it alter land use by granting /reducing subsidies , imposing quotas e.g. CHINA control the type and amount of production , manipulating market mechanism
The model failed to include the behavioral factors for farmers as some of them have no knowledge of the market, others practice for leisure rather than maximizing profit
MODIFICATIONS TO THE MODEL Later, VON Thunen added two modifications in
an attempt to make the model more realistic. This immediately distorted the land use pattern
and made it more complex. The inclusion of a navigable river allowed an
alternative, cheaper and faster form of transport than his original horse and cart.
The result was a linear, rather than a Circular, pattern and an extension of the margin of cultivation.
The addition of a secondary urban market involved the creation of a small trading area which would compete, in a minor way, with the main city.Later still, VON Thunen relaxed other assumptions.
He accepted that climate and soils affected production costs and yields (though he never moved from his concept of the featureless plain) and that, as farmers do not always make rational decisions, it was necessary to introduce individual behavioural elements.
Questiona) Briefly outline the main principle and assumptions of VON THUNEN’S LANDUSE THEORY.b) With reference to any one area you have studied , examine the applicability of VON THUNEN’S agricultural landuse model . c) Assess the extend to which natural hazards can reduce agricultural productivity.
Distance is no longer a crucial factor in agricultural production due
Low prices of land on the outskirts as competition close to CBD increases which increases cost of production than in the fringes
Improvements in transport (high speed/ bulky carriers) Guaranteed markets –mobile, seasonal Food preservation technologies- refrigeration/
canning/drying/vacuum packing New strains of animals /crops that can withstand stress
–through research and development Demand and supply Cooperative buying and selling inputs and outputs Capitalization
DIMINISHING RETURNS
Is an economic law which states that at a certain point of production , additional units v of inputs will yield proportionately smaller units of output, and additional cost incurred will be greater than the additional revenue received
Initially, as inputs are applied to soil, outputs will continue to increase from O TO Z until a certain point where increase in inputs will not increase outputs from Z TO X.
It is observed that beyond Z the law of diminishing returns occurs despite more inputs leading to a net revenue decline
It can be a negative value
AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION is the process of changing inputs into outputs.
This refers to ability to increase /decrease total output irrespective of the size of the land.
It acts as a function of the interplay of land, labour, capital and market to produce outputs.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY is a measure of output per input referred to the rate of production per unit area for example per hectare, per worker or man power.
Question: distinguish agricultural production and agricultural productivity.
Briefly define the law of diminishing returns.
INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING
Intensive farming is the production of crops/livestock on a small piece of land with maximum utilization of capital and labour inputs.
The relationship between labour , capital and land at small scale with high outputs per unit area.
If the amount of labour is high and capital is low ,it is on intensive type of farming but at subsistence level e.g.…Places 67 The Ganges valley: intensive subsistence agriculture
High output per capita it is called capital intensive e.g. If amount of capital is high but labour low, it is commercial type of
intensive farming.
Ways to intensify farming
Replacing slash and burn Green revolution Small scale self schemes
EXTENSIVE FARMING is carried on a large scale
Small outputs per unit area If amount of labour and capital are small in relation to area being
farmed it is an extensive type of farming at subsistence level If the amount of labour is still limited but input of capital is high, it
is extensive farming at a commercial scale
Attempts to extent cultivation
Irrigation oases Draining of swamps eg draining of old polders in western
netherlands , with flat area drained by canals, excess pumped by diesel and electric pumps into the canals. Cost of reclamation is high so that intensive demends are made on land.
AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND FOOD PRODUCTION
Briefly explain the interrelationship between commercial and subsistence farming.
With reference to any country you have studied ,outline the distribution and nature of either crop or pastoral farming
With reference to any country you have studied ,assess the extend to which farming has led to the establishment of processing industries.
QUESTION show how and why seasonal variations in climate affect farming more in tropical than in temperate regions.
How tropical climate summers are hot and wet unlike
in temperate summers are cool and wet/ to warm and wet
In tropical climate winters are cool and dry while in temperate it is cool and wet
Hot and dry in deserts –whilst in temperate there are snowing and thawing
Why land fallow in winter whilst there is perennial
farming in temperate due to moisture abundance all year.
Irrigation is practiced on commercial basis whilst in temperate physical limitations are challenged by synthentic homones, greenhouses, irrigation,hydrogen bombs
Tropical farmers grow small grains which withstand hot and dry conditions
The aim of agricultural systems is to produce the basic outputs and profits.
the nature and efficient of the processes is determined by the range , scale and quality of outputs
In areas where farming is developed physical factors are usually less important but human factors increases they become less effective
Agricultural systems are dynamic as they change with farmers attempt to react to a range of human and physical factors.
Classification of agricultural systems1. Arable, pastoral and mixed2. Subsistence and commercial farming3. Extensive and intensive4. Shifting and sedentary5. Organic and non –organic farming
Arable farming is the growing of crops, usually on flatter land where soils are of higher quality. It was the development of new strains which led to first permanent settlement in the Nile and Indus valley. It led to the construction of railway in the farming regions.Pastoral farming is the rearing of animals usually on land which is less favourable to arable farming in colder, drier, steeper and higher lands. If grazing area has been exceeded its carrying capacity the soil and grass will lead to overgrazing, soil erosion and desertification.
FARMING SYSTEMS IN DETAIL
NOMADIC HERDING is practiced in areas where the climate is too extreme to support permanent settled farmers resulting to nomadic pastoralists
The areas are inhospitable , with sparse vegetation and cold/arid climates
The movement of present day nomads is determined by seasonal nature of rainfall and the need to find new sources of grass /water for animals e.g. Masaai in Kenya, Fulani in Sudan
The indigenous Sami of Scandinavia have to move when pastures become snow covered in winter , while Fulani migrate to avoid tsetse fly
Two types of NOMADISM -total and semi-nomads
Some may own land and travel across national frontiers in search of pastures
Might not have clear migratory patterns but migration routes increase in size under adverse conditions e.g. during droughts in Sahel.
Animals provide source for livelihood ,milk, meat, blood ,wool, skins, dung, transport, exchange
Pastoralists do not part with their animals; retain them if conditions improve for regeneration.
Why nomads have changed in recent times Increasing population size and density has
reduced the area available for grazing with a limited amount of land e.g. Rendille in north Kenya
Land is becoming overpopulated and resource overstretched as the number of animals and people is exponentially increasing.
Due to frequency droughts, effects of climate change , water and vegetation is becoming scarce
Governments have encouraged permanent settlements, organized into cooperative ranches, rotational grazing , dipping services, irrigating pastures, use of supplementary feeds, mixed farming
SHIFTING CULTIVATION(EXTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE)
A farmer moves from one area to another, with field rotation and practiced where population density is low , for family consumption and barter tradingAREAS OF DISTRIBUTION
Moimbo woodlands of Tanzania Northeast of Zambia by Bemba and Ushi tribes Ladang of south east Asia Milpa of Latin America
Changes in shifting cultivation The rapid rise in population densities limit the
size of land to roam about and for fallow Farmers are now able to maintain soil fertility
using manure ,fertilizer sand crop rotation thereby raising productivity , education and training for more settled methods of farming
Urbanization has created markets for agric products and turning farmers into semi-commercial producers
Question :outline the difference between shifting cultivation and rotational bush –fallow.
TROPICAL COMMERCIAL Plantations are large scale productions, usually of one crop, on a large piece of land for extended period of time. Nature
grow cash crops Large estates Others have out growers Local labour used Scientific management Specialized skills, machinery High yields High quality produce Mostly for export /market driven Heavy capital outlay
Take long gestation period Presence of factories /agro complexes
DISTRIBUTION In drier parts On flat terrains, low lying areas in the southeast
LOWVELD- MKWASINE, HIPPO VALLEY, MIDDLE SABI AND CHISUMBANJE.
In rich loam soils and clays Sloppy highland places Sparsely populated areas Hot areas 23 C, dry about 500mm rainfall Areas where major rivers flow e.g. SAVE, RUNDE,
BUBI, MAZOWE, PUNGWE river Areas where rainfall is sufficient for tree growing
NB: Read advantages and disadvantagesQuestion with reference to countries you have studied describe the nature and distribution of plantations.
LIVESTOCK FARMINGDairy farmingIs rearing of cows in order to produce milk and milk products e.g. CHIPINGE jersey, GUSHUNGO dairy in MAZOWE, KENYA HIGHLANDS,RUSITU DAIRY UNITED COOPERATIVE IN CHIPINGE
North Amsterdam and south west of Friesland with computerized animal feeding
Located around major cities where there are markets, perishability of products, get inputs ,medicines, feeds, factories
Locate along major roads to quickly deliver the milk to the consumers
Can be practiced on small scale indoors Beasts feed on non grown fodder crops It is capital intensive for example one beast cost
$1400 each in south Africa/$2000 local High level of technology and computerized High output per unit area intensive
CATTLE RANCHING rearing of livestock for meat and its productsExamples
Areas commercial sheep farming in central Australia
Canterbury plain in new Zealand Patagonia in Argentina and upland
Britain ,ORANGE FREE STATE in south Africa Beef cattle are more tolerant to a wide variety of
environmental conditions, in hot drier semi arid environments
Occur in marginal areas where human population densities are low for ranches e.g. in the PAMPAS in south America
Extensive low level of technology with low output per area e.g. Liebig ranches in west Nicholson, MWENEZI ranch
Practiced in more remote areas where other forms of land use are limited and where there are extensive cheaper land with sufficient grass to support large number of animals
Hot dry areas with sweetveld runner grass, thorn bushes and Mopane trees whose leaves are very nutritious Question: outline the difference between dairying and cattle ranching.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN LIVESTOCK FARMING Prevalence of diseases such as anthrax and foot
and mouth Stock theft Droughts which affect pasture quality and
sources of quality water Soil erosion due to overgrazing and overstocking Shortage of capital to buy chemicals and building
dip tanks Poor quality animals Fluctuations of market prices
EFFORTS TO REDUCE THE PROBLEMS/ INCREASE NATIONAL HERD
Scientifically managing ranches Capitalization National heifer projects
Growing stock feed and irrigating pasture Animals dipped regularly and vaccinated Cross breeding, research and development Artificial insemination Destocking Underground water supplementing Police restrictions and clearance of animal
movementQuestion: for any ledc you have studied ,evaluate efforts being made to improve the national herd.
FOOD SECURITY
Is ensuring that all people at all times have both physical and economic access to the basic food they need.
It ensures that people have the ability to have access, supply of the basic food stuffs at all times to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset all food production costs and fluctuations.
FOOD SHORTAGES
these are explained by Malthus with fears that population of the world will at a certain period overshoot food supply despite assurance from world organization such as FAO that there is sufficient food for everyone
It is estimated that ¾ of world’s population are inadequately fed with largest proportions in LEDCS such as Zimbabwe , Niger, Somalia,
Inadequate food causes malnutrition, under nutrition and reduces capacity to work, people being less resistant to diseases.
In sub Saharan Africa food output per person has declined due to global and regional rainfall shortages with many countries being unable to afford to buy sufficient food to offset their shortages
Shortages are also as a result of less productive and fragile soils in relation to high quality land being used for urban sprawl, urbanization, and sub-urbanization and counter urbanization.
Human mismanagement, localized war results in famine which contributes to a decline in the access to food.
The vulnerable groups of society which include the poor, physically challenged, children, least skilled and rural population are affected as food prices goes beyond their reach e.g. in Niger
Uneven distribution of wealth, lack of technology in farming, shortage of land and water shortage accelerate food insecurity
The road infrastructure is poor ,making it difficult to distribute food internally in times of shortages and areas with shortages, linking with the outside world
LEDCS have a deficit trade relationship and poor banking system Food shortages in sub Sahara region Causes of shortage are frequent droughts, civil strife , economic
crisis ,locust and pests, floods, HIV and aids This has disrupted food production and displaced large
populations Green revolution is at minimum due limited capital investments in
agriculture activities and reforms The soils have fertility constrains, lower water holding capacity,
limited nutrients making the soils vulnerable to erosion Increased population growth has reduced fallow periods for
shifting cultivation ,bush fallowing and nomadic pastoral farming
Overgrazing has contributed to desertification Sub-Saharan countries rely on overseas aid which is channeled to
unintended projects some of which promote monoculture e.g. growing of cash crops instead of food production and sustainable farming systems
Food shortages are increasing with wars and, HIV and aids reducing time, ability and agricultural productivity.
However MEDCS are at risk from over eating and diseases such as heart diseases ,cancer, obesity
Food output has increased tremendously at a rapid rate due to green revolution with W.H.O reporting that new farming techniques are increasing output ,nutrition, increasing life expectancy
There are problems of overproduction in MEDCS
MEASURES TO CURB FOOD SHORTAGES
With minimum success W.H.O has tried to encourage E.U to reduce tariffs and quotas, subsidies to help LEDCS to have access to food supply
LEDCS can offset food by lobbying for food aid through international organizations like plan international, world food programme ,I.M.O., RED CROSS,
The success of this measure is determined by political stability, international relations and nature of transport network integration
LAND REFORM is a social, political and legislative process aimed at redressing access to land in a country. It involves
agrarian revolution and rural development, redistribution, security of tenure
Is done to overcome inefficient to the use of land and labour It is done through expropriation of large lands, consolidating of
small farms, increasing the security of tenure
E.gs done in CHINA, ZIMBABWE, BRAZIL
It has positive and negative impacts on the economic, social-cultural, political and environmental impacts
This affect food production and livestock productionGREEN REVOLUTION is the breakthrough in plant and
animal breeding that produced high yielding varieties, a package of fertilizers, insecticides ,herbicides, fungicides, machinery for harvesting and planting, water control equipment, loans and grants, training schemes ,marketing and distribution systems, agrarian reform.
The changes brought in by green revolution are observed in biochemical, mechanical and social innovations
Success of green revolution
India, Mexico, Thailand, Kenya, Malaysia, Taiwan ,Pakistan and Philippines benefited from the green revolution packages by using high yielding variety seeds
They produced high yielding varieties which were drought resistant, with shorter growing season
Yields are twice to 4 times greater than traditional varieties e.g. in rice, wheat and maize production
Shorter growing season leading to production of extra crop as they withstand extreme conditions of drought,heavy rains and winds
Farming income increased, allowing purchase of inputs machinery better seeds, fertilisers and pesticides
Diet varied in rural areas and better living standards Local infrastructure upgraded to accommodate strong
market Employment creation in industries supplying farming with
inputs Higher reforms justified significant increase in irrigation
and use of modern machinery
Disadvantages /failures of green revolution
High cost of inputs e.g. fertilizers and pesticides High weed control is needed and susceptibility to pests
and diseases High income farmers benefited most than low income
farmers widening the income gap which increase rural to urban migration
Machanisation has increased rural unemployment Salinisation and eutrophication pollutes water sources Farming becomes capital intensive which is beyond the capacity
of LEDC farmers
Farmers do not have access to loans because of insecure land tenure systems, with high interest loans
H.Y.V foodstuffs are unpalatable as they have strange tastes , early maturing causes healthy diseases such as obesity , cancer , heart diseases which affect life expectancy in LEDCS
Appropriate technology is needed to replace those activities that import capital and technology from the developed countries
With some as community based and NGO funded for example the British based practical action that seeks to develop small sustainable projects which are appropriate to the local climate , environment, wealth, skills and needs of local people
Using more wells Drip irrigation
Stone lining in Burkina Faso
Check dams in the LOESS PLATEAU IN NORTH CHINA
Use of organic fertiliser from animals Mixed farming and crop rotation , intercropping
Impact on populations
Improved standard of living
Low death rates High life expectancy Low dependence load (Waugh page 468)
FARMING AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Pressure groups are claiming /advocating for environmental protection
Environment is being changed due to sheep and growing of cereals at a faster rate
Agriculture intensification is being pointed as the culprit together with urbanization
FARMING AS A THREAT TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Use of chemicals –fertilisers, slurry and pesticides contribute to environmental pollution
Fertilizers and organic manure contaminate underground water supplies and rivers
Eutrophication in north west Europe and united kingdom
Farmyard effluent is a major pollutant and killer of life in rivers in Britain
Pesticides are dangerous to bee and butterfly populations and has caused a decline in fauna in Paris basin
The loss of natural habitants- clearance of hedges, ponds and wet lands resulted in a loss of habitants for wildlife and destruction of ecosystems
In Britain 25% of hedge rows were cleared in Norfolk Farming increase erosion and removes natural land
cover Wind erosion common in parts of east Anglia where
soils are light/peaty Deforestation in tropical rainforests accelerates soil
erosion and desertification In Sahel region Irrigation cause salinization and water logging
in Pakistan, Egypt and 30% of California
Question:Assess the impact of agricultural activities on the environment in areas you have studied.
Set aside woodlands boost ecosystem Designation of environmentally sensitive areas
E.S.A and incentives to plant hedges as well as restoring ponds
Country stewardship schemes (CSS)incentives for improving natural country heritage
Restoring wildlife to arable areas Eutrophication through use of agrochemicals Slurry animal waste pollution
Pesticides kill bees ,butterflies, birds Estates destroy natural landscape and beauty Salinization (irrigation schemes) Leaching through irrigation
ATTEMPTS BY FARMING TO IMPROVE ENVIRONMENTa) Environmental improvement schemes
The E.U and the British government introduced several schemes in which financial incentives were offered to farmers who tried to improve their environment e.g. set-aside, woodland management and environmentally sensitive areas
Many parts of Britain benefited from set aside , soils were left under permanent /rotational fallow with protective vegetation cover and increased humus content
The woodland management schemes increased the number of trees
The countryside commission and the nature conservancy council looked at areas where it was considered landscape under threat for changing farming practices
b) The stewardship scheme is a joint farming environmental initiative that builds on the success of former E.S.A.S
Objectives were to Conserve wildlife(biodiversity) Maintain and enhance landscape quality and
character Protect the natural heritage and natural resources
c) Organic farming –which minimize the damage to the environment and wildlife
d) Genetic modified crops- deliberate attempts of using biotechnology to alter the genetic makeup of a plant with the intention of increasing yields by making them resistant to either diseases, pests or climatic conditions that are extreme.
These are essential to feed the world’s growing food prices and effects of climate change
AGRICULTURE POLICIESWith reference to examples from medcs ,dsrcibe and explain the role of government policy on agriculture activities
Central governments can play a regulatory function in agricultural production as-support/discourage farming
Dumping excess products/donations to hungry countries
Setting up of agricultural authority boards/storage facilities
Deciding on production quotas Regulating through legislation- set aside-soil bank Announcing pre-producer prices-guarantees
/assured prices Export incentives /subsidies Research and development Turning farmland into recreation /urban
settlements Land reform policies-land consoloditation
/collectivization Offering incentives to individual farmers-
loans ,grants
Providing /reducing market for farmer productsTHE E.U SUPRA NATIONAL POLICY
Members of E.U countries are meant to implent the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY (C.A.P)
Decisions are made in Brussels AIMS
To increase agriculture productivity and self sufficiency
Maintain jobs on land preferably on family farms Improve standard of living (income) of farmers and
farm workers Stabilize markets Keep consumer food prices stable and reasonable
EFFECTS OF C.A.P Draining of E.U financial budget due to diminishing
returns with 70% of E.U ‘S budget spent for supporting farming when agriculture only provided 5% of total revenue
Large surpluses were created as farmers were encouraged and helped with technology to produce as much as possible
Handicapping of LEDCS as imports were subjected to duties to make them less competitive with the E.U prices
As E.U farms become larger and more efficient ,the prosperous farmers benefited at the expense of those farming in uplands areas and periphery especially in southern Europe
There was insufficient regard for the environment E.U farmers were granted generous subsidies to
maintain prices this helped restrict imports from non-economically
LEDCS
MEASURES TAKEN TO REDUCE THE PROBLEMS AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESSSUBSIDIES
guaranteed farmers a minimum price and an assured market for their produce
farmers overproduced and the payment of subsidies became a drain on E.U finances
steps to reduce surplus were taken through reducing subsidies and imposing penalties
In early 1990s, the E.U began the progressive reduction of subsidies on cereal, beef, with success in limiting the ‘mountains and lakes surpluses’.
In 2006 the C.A.P accounted for 45% of the E.U s total budget
QUOTAS were introduced in 1984 to reduce milk output-on
dairy farms ,the E.U has proposed five annual quota increase between 2008 and 2013
SET ASIDE was initially introduced on a voluntary basis ,but
later enforced to try to reduce overproduction of arable crops
Farmers who took 20% of their cultivated land out of production were given £ 20 a hectare provided that land was either fallow , turned into woodland /diversified into non –agricultural land use such as golf course ,nature trails, wildlife habitats and caravan parks
By 2000 there was little surplus production and so when 2007-08 saw a rapid global increase in food prices
The E.U fixed the set aside rate at zero
ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY FARMING is new E.U approach by which instead of
paying farmers to produce more food ,they are given payments if they meet
environmental and animal standards and keep their land in condition
The so called HEALTH CHECK is an attempt to streamline and modernize the C.A.P and to encourage farmers to be guardians of the country side
THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATIONS With minimum success it encouraged E.U and
other well off trade blocks to reduce tariffs ,quotas and subsidies so as to help LEDCS
The C.A.P. reform of early 2000s did not anticipate the increased global needs to fight climate change ,to improve water management ,supply to supply the growing demand for bio crops as a source for renewable energy /rise in food prices
In 2008 claims showed that even within E.U itself 43 million people were at risk of food shortages.
Brifley outline the agricultural characteristics of the urban fringe
Small plots/small scale Growing of vegetables for market Intensive farming.capital /labour Commercial cash cropping /high productivity Crop rotation
Scientific management Modern farming methods Mechanization Use of hybrids, fertilizers ,pesticides Irrigation, mixed farming
a)Briefly explain the interrelationship between commercial and subsistence farming.
b)With reference to any country you have studied ,outline the distribution and nature of either crop or pastoral farming
c)With reference to any country you have studied ,assess the extend to which farming has led to the establishment of processing industries.
There is a symbiotic relationship with out growers(cotton, coffee ,sugar cane, tobacco, plantations)
Labour-seasonal/contract/permanent/for subsistence farmers
Employment/commercial ranchers-ideas Inputs(manure, stock feeds, commercial can
buy on behalf of subsistence-cooperative buying inputs
Sharing of infrastructure e.g. access to road ,deports, tobacco floors
Diffusion of ideas and innovation /sharing both ways
Deliberate transfer of education , knowledge, skills, indigenous knowledge
ARDA CHISUMBANJEb) Map drawing/paragraph
In Zimbabwe –it is based on ecological regions, rainfall patterns ,soil, temperature, relief pests and diseases
Both commercial and subsistence Nature-title deeds Seasonal/perennial ,crops tobacco, wheat, maize,
tomatoes Diversification Intensity scale-intensive/extensive Sale /consumption finance/capital investment Rain grown/irrigation
c) Flow of material from farmland to milling plant Type and nature of crops will determine nature of
establishment raw material/ market oriented Tea/coffee -KATIYO, TANGANDA Sugar-Zimbabwe sugar refinery Cotton KADOMA David whitehead textiles
Beef-abattoirs Citrus –CASHEL valley Perishability GUSHUNGO dairy farm in
MAZOWE