1filedownload.com · Web view2021. 6. 11. · Memory . Perception . Development . Research methods . 1. What is encoding, storage and retrieval? Define sensation. What does early

A. Memory B. Perception C. Development D. Research methods

1 What is encoding, storage and retrieval?

Define sensation. What does early brain development mean in this topic?

What is a hypothesis?

Encoding: Taking information into memory and changing it into a form that can be stored.Storage: Holding information in the memory system.Retrieval: Recovering information from memory storage.

The information we receive through our senses e.g. what we see, hear, smell, touch and taste.

Brain development when the embryo/foetus is in the uterus.

A testable statement that makes it clear what the investigator is studying. It should include IV (all conditions) and DV.


2 What is visual, acoustic and semantic encoding?

Define perception. List what happens at week 3, 4, 6 and 15 for brain development.

What are the different types of hypothesis?

Visual: encoding based on what something looks likeAcoustic: encoding based on what something sounds likeSemantic: encoding based on meaning

Interpret or make sense of the information that we receive through our senses: visual perception, auditory perception, olfactory perception, tactile perception and gustatory perception.

Wk 3: neural plate develops and forms a neural tube.Wk 4: Neural tube divides into spinal cord, forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.Wk 6: Forebrain divides to form cortex and thalamus. Neurons and synapses begin to develop in spinal cord.Wk 15: Hindbrain has formed cerebellumThe brain is fully developed by 6 months.

A null hypothesis is that there is no effect of one thing on another or no relationship between variables, e.g. ‘watching scary films before you go to bed has no effect on how quickly you fall asleep’.An alternative hypothesis is when there is an effect of one thing on another or there is a relationship between the variables e.g. ‘watching scary films before you go to bed affects how quickly you fall asleep’.


3 Define episodic, semantic and procedural memory and give an example of each.

Why is perception important? What is the brain stem responsible for?

Distinguish between and IV and a DV

Episodic memory: memories of personal experience e.g. 12th birthday party or 1st day at Swanshurst schoolSemantic memory: memory of general knowledge and facts e.g. London is the capital city of EnglandProcedural memory: memories for carrying out skills/motor actions e.g. riding a bike, using a video game controller.

We need to organise information so that we don’t get overwhelmed by the sensory input and that what we do take notice of makes sense to us.

Connects the spinal cord to the brain and controls autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and sleeping.

By wk 6 the baby’s heart beats regularly and pumps blood through blood vessels.

IV: the factor that is varied or changed in an experiment to look for an effect on another variable.DV: The factor that will be measured in an experiment to see if changing the IV had an effect.


4 What evidence is there that episodic, semantic and procedural are different?

What is a depth cue and why is it important?

What is the thalamus and where is it?

Experimental method: Compare a laboratory experiment with a field experiment and a natural experiment

Brain scans have shown that each type is in a different part of the brain: Episodic: right prefrontal, Semantic: left prefrontal and Procedural: motor area controlling motor skills.Patient HM – could remember how to do tasks but could not remember events. Clive Wearing – could play piano but could not remember all of his past in terms of events.

A feature of an image which indicates distance. This is important as we live in a 3D world and we need to avoid bumping into things or getting run over by judging distance. It is therefore something we do without thinking.

Found in the centre of the brain. It receives messages from senses and turns them into behavioural or motor responses. All sensory info passes through here on the way to the cortex.

Laboratory: highly controlled Field: Where behaviour would normally occur but variables still controlled by researcherNatural: IV not controlled by researcher – they already exist (e.g. age/gender)


1 Compare the different types of long term memory: episodic, semantic and procedural memory.

What is the difference between a monocular and a binocular depth cue.

Where is the cerebellum and what is it responsible for?

What does operationalised mean?

Semantic and episodic memory are ‘knowing that’ – you can talk about them as they are easy to verbalise.Procedural memory is ‘knowing how’ – they are not easy to describe/verbalise – it is easier to show someone the actions (a motor code).

Monocular – perceptual cues that can be detected when using one eye.Binocular – cues only detected when using both eyes.

The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, behind the brain stem (looks like a small ball of wool!). It coordinates movement and balance. It receives information from the cortex and fine tunes any motor activity.Sensory information is also coorodinated here and there is some input into language and emotions.

When the IV/DV is clear and precise so that the investigation answers the question set by the researcher.


2 Draw a sketch of the Multi-store model of memory

List the 4 monocular depth cues

If the cerebellum is damaged, what will a person have difficulty with?

Using an example, explain what is meant by ‘extraneous variable’.

Height in plane Relative sizeOcclusionLinear perspective

They won’t be able to coordinate muscles, keep their balance or have fine motor skills. They may struggle to walk, ride a bicycle or type on a laptop.

Any variable apart from the IV, that could impact the DV if it is not controlled therefore reducing the validity of the work.For example, in a memory experiment, distractions could affect recall and so these need to be controlled – e.g. no noise. EVs need to be controlled.


3 Describe the coding, capacity and duration for each part of MSM

Describe how height in plane shows depth in vision.

What is the cortex? What is a standardised procedure and why is it important?

SS: senses (visual, acoustic), unlimited capacity, less than a second durationSTS: mainly acoustic, 7+/-2 capacity, 18-30 second durationLTS: mainly semantic, unlimited capacity and duration

Height in plane: objects higher appear further away.

It is the outer layer of the brain and starts to function around the time a baby is born. It is divided into four lobes (sections).

This is when the exact same method and instructions is used for all PPs in a research study. This controls all extraneous variables and so it is only the IV that is affecting the DV and nothing else.


4 What experiment did Baddeley do to check encoding in STS and LTS?

Describe how relative size shows depth in vision.

List the different parts of the cortex and what each is responsible for.

Evaluate laboratory experiments

Similar sounding words and similar meaning words were recalled straight away and after 20 mins. Those that recalled immediately could not recall the ones that sounded the same and those that recalled after 20 mins could not recall the similar meaning words. Concluded that STS had acoustic coding and LTS had semantic coding.

Relative size: Similar objects, when one is smaller than the other, it appears further away.

Occipital – visual Temporal – hearing Parietal – touch (heat, cold, pain)Frontal – cognitive activities – thinking, planning and problem solving.

Strengths: EV are controlled and standardised procedures used. Ensure conclusion valid and the research can be repeated to see if results are the same – increases validity.Limitations: Lack validity due to low ecological validity and bias from PP


1 What is the digit span experiment and what does it provide evidence for?

Describe how occlusion shows depth in vision.

Does experience in the womb count as nature or nurture? Give examples.

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative methods

A series of numbers or letters are recalled one at a timeThe length of sequence is increased by one number or letter each timeThe participant must recall sequence in the order it was presentedIt measures capacity: STS was shown to be able to hold a sequence of 7 letters/numbers (plus or minus 2): Jacobs found 9.3 for digits and 7.3 for letters.

Occlusion: Objects behind other objects are further away.

Nurture – all the following in the uterus can affect development: Smoking Infection Recognising voices

Quantitative – collecting data that is numbers based

Qualitative – collecting data that is description based


2 Describe a study that tested the duration of the LTS. Can you think of an evaluation point?

Describe how linear perspective shows depth in vision.

Explain how experiences in the uterus can affect development

What is validity?

Bahrick tested the duration of LTS. Participants had to recall using a cue, such as photo-recognition from yearbook photos. They showed 90% accuracy after 15 years and 70% accuracy after 48 years. Free-recall accuracy dropped dramatically to 30% after 48 years.The validity could be questioned as PPs may have regularly looked through the yearbook or contacted school friends so would regularly rehearse their memories.

Linear perspective: When parallel lines appear to come closer together and to a point – shows depth in a 2D picture.

Smoking: Mothers who smoke give birth to smaller babiesInfection: Infections like German Measles can cause brain damage and hearing loss etc.Voices: Mothers voice is recognised by babies on birth showing a nurture effect

The extent to which a study or measuring device actually does what it claims to be doing.

In other words, whether the result is ‘true’ – the researcher has collected a realistic answer to the question posed.


3 Henry M & Clive Wearing could not transfer information from STS to LTS. What does this mean about memory?

What is a binocular cue? Identify one part of the brain that has been shown to affect the development of movement.

Evaluate field experiments

Supports STS and LTS as separate stores as it uses the idea that the brain uses different mechanisms for holding information for a short time and for holding it more permanently

A way of detecting depth or distance using both eyes.

CerebellumMotor cortex

Strengths: more realistic and natural behaviour so good validity. Some EV controlled as standardised procedures used.Limitations: May lose control of EV so difficult to establish cause and effect. Ethical issues – PPs may not know they are PP in research


4 Evaluate the MSM of memory Define the binocular cue: convergence

Why are twin studies important in the nature/ nurture debate?

Evaluate natural experiments

MSM is too simpleNot all info has to be rehearsed to go into LTSJust because you repeat something does not make it easier to rememberSupportive evidence from Clive Wearing, Patient HM, Bahrick et al, digit span task – although artificial

Convergence: Eyes come closer together as something comes closer. Muscles have to move and so their movement tells the brain if something is further or closer.

Identical twins share the exact same DNA – if they both have the same behaviour/ characteristic, then that feature can be attributed to nature. Features that are different are therefore attributable to nurture.

Strengths: high validity as in natural setting and if DV measured in a lab, EV can be controlled.Limitations: situation studied may be rare so less opportunity for research. Cannot randomly allocate PP so PP variables could affect outcome as EV.


1 Define the ‘primacy effect’. Define the binocular cue: Retinal disparity

What do you have to take into account when using twin studies?

Why do natural experiments have more validity than laboratory experiments?

Information that is received first is recalled more than information that is received later.

Retinal disparity: Each eye gets a slightly different view. The difference gives us information on how far something is. Bigger difference = closer, smaller difference = further away.

That they have been raised in the same environment so they could have similarities in behaviour/features due to this instead and not the DNA.

Natural experiment is where variables are not controlled by the researcher and so is more realistic and therefore have higher validity.


2 Define the ‘recency effect’ What is a visual illusion? What is cognitive development?

What are the three types of experimental design?

Information that is received later is recalled more than earlier information.

A visual perception which is wrong or misinterprets what is actually there in reality. These are unconscious ‘mistakes’ of perception.

The way in which a person’s knowledge, thinking and intelligence changes as they get older.

Independent groupsRepeated measuresMatched pairs


3 What is the serial position effect List the different explanations for visual illusions:

Define ‘schema’ How are the three types of experimental design different from each other?

The position of a word influences the likelihood of recall – those in first and last positions are more likely to be recalled from a list of words

Size constancyMisinterpreted depth cuesAmbiguous figureFiction

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that develop as we experience more in the world - people, objects and situations. We then use this information to perceive, organise and understand new information.

Independent groups: Two or more groups of different PP take part – one group per conditionRepeated measures – same groups of PP for all conditionsMatched pairs – two or more groups where PP are matched for a key variable and each group has a matched person in another group.


4 Describe Murdock’s study (1962) method (key study)

What visual illusion explanation does this indicate: when there are two possible interpretations of the same image and the brain cannot decide which one to choose.

What does Piaget say about cognitive development in children?

Describe how a matched pairs design is carried out.

Laboratory study20 words presented to PPs (students on psychology course)Asked to recall words in any order (free-recall) – given 90 secondsRepeated 80 times with same PPs with different word lists used each time

Ambiguous figure Schemas are developed in response to experiences as a child grows up through assimilation and accommodation. This happens in 4 stages.

All the people available for the experiment are tested for a variable beforehand (e.g. IQ). The test is used to match people into pairs. One member of each pair takes part in condition A and the other takes part in condition B.


1 What were the results of Murdock’s experiment?

Give an example of a visual illusion that causes the brain to see something that is not there

Define assimilation and give an example.

How are PPs randomly allocated in independent groups?

Words at the end of the list were recalled first (recency effect).Words at the start of the list were recalled quite well (primacy effect).Words in the middle not recalled very well.

Kanizsa Triangle – illusion of one triangle overlapping another – but it is not really there.

Adding new information to existing schemas, e.g. when a pen is held in the same way as a pencil.

In a study where there are 20 PP and 10 needed in each group, all 20 names are placed in a hat/computer.A name is pulled out of hat/random name generator and is placed in the 1st condition. The next name picked goes to the 2nd condition. This is repeated until there are 10 in each condition.


2 Sketch a graph to show Murdock’s results. Explain what it is called and what it shows.

Describe what size constancy is Define accommodation and give an example.

Define order effects and why is this a weakness of repeated measures?

This is a serial position curve and it shows the primacy and recency effect.

The brain perceives familiar objects as a constant size despite the size of the image they produce on our retina changing with distance.

Changing/developing a new schema to support a new situation e.g. A child used to holding a pen/pencil has to change grip to hold a paintbrush for the first time.

In repeated measures, when a PP performance in the 2nd condition is affected because they have already done the 1st condition. This may be because they now have ‘practiced’ or are tired or may have worked out the aim of the study.


3 How does Murdock’s serial position curve work support the MSM?

Draw and explain the ponzo illusion

State/describe the different stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Evaluate independent groups experimental design.

Words at the end of the list were recalled first because they were in the STS and so were recalled readily. Evidence for STS.Words at the start of the list were recalled quite well because they were in the LTS (rehearsed) and so were available for recall. Evidence for LTS.Words in the middle not recalled very well – not in STS or LTS.

Converging lines give illusion of distance – brain uses size constancy and mentally scales up the line in distance can mentally scales down closer line

Sensorimotor 0-2yrsSense and do things; Develop object permanence.Pre-operational 2-7yrsEgocentric. Concrete operational 7-11yrsAble to conserve.Formal operational 11+yrsAbility to problem solve systematically and appreciate abstract ideas.

Strengths: No order effectsCan use the same materialsPP cannot work out the aim of the studyLimitations: PP variables Need more PP for the study


4 Identify one strength and one limitation of Murdock’s work

Draw and explain the Muller-Lyer illusion

How is object permanence tested?

How can you deal with the issue of PP variables?

+ Provided evidence for separate stores in MSM+ Conducted in controlled conditions + Work with amnesiacs supports conclusion – show recency effect but not primacy effect. Links primacy to LTS– minimum impact on DV so cause and effect can be established. - Lacks ecological validity as recalling lists of words is not an everyday task (artificial). We also do so much more with our memory – learn procedural tasks and events- PPs were all a similar age & all students studying psychology – not generalizable to general population. Might also have figured out the aim. Some psychologists now disagree with idea of separate STS and LTS with the STS being an active part of LTS.

Line with outgoing fins appears longer than the ones with ingoing fins. We mentally scale up the ones wth outgoing fins so it appears longer.

A child plays with a toy. The experimenter hides the toy under a blanket.If under 8 months, child does not look for the toy. If 8 months+, they continue to search for it as they know it is still there so they have object permanence.

Unbiased method of allocation to each condition – random allocation etc.


1 Define reconstructive memory Which of the visual cue explanations are suitable for the ponzo illusion?

Describe Piaget’s and Hughes’ study to test for egocentricism.

How is using matched pairs better than independent groups and repeated measures?

Altering our recollection of events or a story so that they make more sense to us based on our culture and beliefs.

Misinterpreted depth cuesSize constancy

Piaget: 3 mountains modelDoll placed in model and PP asked to choose the view the doll could see. Children under 7 struggle to do this – they chose their own view. Hughes Policeman doll experiment (key study) – a model with 2 intersecting walls and a policeman doll placed in the model and asked to hide a boy doll. 90% fo 3-5 ½ yr olds could hide the boy doll – egocentricism achieved before age of 7 yrs.

PP variables are reduced and there are no order effects as PP only take place in one condition. You can also use the same material for the task in both conditions.


2 Why is ‘Chinese whispers’ an example of reconstructive memory?

What is a Necker cube? Describe how conservation can be tested in children

How is using matched pairs worse than independent groups and repeated measures?

People think they are passing on messages accurately but without realising it, they change it so that it makes sense to them. The message at the start becomes something completely different at the end.

An example of the ambiguous figure explanation for illusions. The same image can be perceived as pointing up & right and down & left

Piaget: Two identical rows of counters. Asked child if they have the same amount in each row. Spread out one row of counters and asked again – children under 7 said no, there were now more in that row. Children over 7 said there were the same number of counters in both rows.Key study: McGarrigle & Donaldson’s naughty teddy study (1974) – children younger than the age of 7 can conserve if ‘naughty teddy’ accidently moved the counters. 62% answered correctly here compared to Piaget’s 16%.

Matching is difficult, time consuming and not always successful as some PP variables are still present.


3 Why is memory an active process? Apart from Necker’s cube, give another example of an ambiguous illusion.

Define egocentricism. How can order effects be reduced in repeated measures design?

Because we don’t learn everything like machines – we actively reconstruct memories.

Rubin’s vase: Not being able to see something from someone else’s viewpoint.

Counterbalancing – half of the PP complete the condition in one order e.g. AB and the other half of the PP complete the condition in the other order e.g. BA


4 When can reconstructive memory be problematic?

Briefly describe two visual illusions and explain how each of them works.

Define conservation What is a control group and why is it important?

Stereotypes can affect recall – when PPS were shown a picture of a black man and a white man having an argument, PPs recalled the black man was holding the weapon when in fact it was the white man.

Any of the above using following explanations: fictional, ambiguous, size constancy and misinterpreted depth cues.

Knowing the amount of something stays the same even though its appearance may change.

A group of PP that receive no ‘treatment’ – their behaviour acts as a baseline against which the effect of the IV is measured.


1 Describe how Bartlett carried out his ‘War of the Ghosts’ study (1932) – a key study

What is the Ames room an what does it use to produce a visual illusion?

Evaluate Piaget’s stages theory What is an extraneous variable and why should it be controlled?

PPs were people at Bartlett’s university in the UK (students, friends and colleagues)Method called ‘serial reproductions’War of the ghost story read twice by each PP at normal pace (native American folk tale) 15 mins later, asked to retell the story to another personThat person then had to retell the story to another person … and so on.Recorded the story that each person told and showed the new version to the new PPs

Size constancy used to produce visual illusion – the room looks square but it is not and so one person who is smaller is actually further away.

Basic idea of stages is accurate. Underestimated younger children’s abilities – they developed in stages but much earlier than Piaget suggested. Overestimated what older children are capable of – even adults struggle with systematically solving things. RM is weak in Piaget’s experiment – may have persuaded children to give different responses.

Variables other than the IV that night affect the DV if not controlled, e.g. time allowed to carry out a test, temperature of a room, amount of light, easier questions etc.


2 Describe the results of Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study (1932)

What is Gibsons’s direct theory of perception?

Briefly explain the difference between pre-operational and concrete operational child’s thinking.

How are experiments standardised?

Story was shortened by omissions (330 words to 150 words)All mention of ghosts disappeared Changes to detail - Phrases were changed to match those that were in the PPs culture (boat instead of canoe)Order of events alteredRecalled version became fixed with small variations – clear story of a fight and death

Perception happens directly using the clues in the environment around us and so this is an active process. Everything we see at any one time (optical array)gives us all the info we need to judge depth, distance and movement. This includes optic flow patterns, colour/texture gradients and motion parallex. We do not need to make inferences.

Pre-operational children are egocentric and cannot conserve.Concrete operational children are not egocentric and can conserve.

Controlling EV.Same instructions – verbal or written. Randomisation – no biases in procedure.


3 What conclusion did Bartlett come to?

Define motion parallex How has Piaget’s theory influenced education?

Define ecological validity.

Memory is not an exact copy of what we hear – it is distorted by what we already know so our memory is influenced by beliefs and stereotypes - This makes it easier to remember. We don’t remember details – we remember fragments and use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory

When visual fields change with movement – closer objects seem to move more than those further away (imagine looking through a car window and things closer look like they are moving past quickly but the scenery in the background appears to stay almost the same)

Readiness approach – activities should be age appropriate for a child – taking biology into account.Learning by discovery/child-centred approach – teacher provides the materials and let the child discover learning instead of rote learning.Individual learning – ensure that classroom activities are suited for groups rather than the same thing for the whole class.Appropriate teaching materials to manipulate for maths and science.

The results of the investigation can be said to apply to real-life behaviour. They are an accurate account of behaviour in the real world so increases validity.


4 What does ‘effort after meaning’ mean?

Define colour and texture gradients

State a limitation of McGarrigle and Donaldson’s findings

What is a target population?

Making sense of something unfamiliar after it has happened. We focus on the meaning of eventsAfterwards we make an effort to interpret the meaning into something more familiar

Things closer have more colour and texture compared to those further away. In this way, the brain interprets how close/far something is.

Over 30% of children still failed to conserve when ‘naughty teddy’ made the change and others found lower % when repeating the study.All children from same primary school & may not have noticed any change?

The large group of people the researcher wants to study


1 Identify one strength and one weakness of Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study.

Is Gibson’s theory a top down or bottom up approach? Explain your answer.

Outline the difference in the way a person with a growth mindset approaches learning compared to someone with a fixed mindset.

Why is it important to have a sample of a target population?

Pos: Bartlett tested memory in a meaningful way – not just a simple list of words. In the real world, we often tell each other stories of events or the real world – ecological validityNeg: War of the Ghost story is confusing and NOT similar to everyday experiences. Bartlett recorded story at each retelling but scoring written data is difficult. Lacks ecological validityNeg: PPs were students who studied English at Cambridge University – much better at reading and verbalising so not generalizable to the public at different ages and not studyingNeg: Lack of control and so standard about where and how people recalled the information. If given more information (told about importance of accuracy), then accuracy improved.Neg: Bartlett was biased – his own beliefs could affect interpretation of data. He had to decide what was accurate recall and judged on cultural expectations when this may not have been the case.

Gibson’s theory is a bottom up theory – it takes basic information received by the eyes and produces a higher mental process of perception.

The growth mindset person will continue to try and become better, enjoy the process and focus on learning goals. They will see failure as an opportunity to learn and overcome obstacles. Fixed mindset person will believe intelligence is fro their genes and they don’t have to work hard and focussed on performance goals (results). They will not try if they fail as they don’t see the point.

It is very difficult to test evey person in a target population so instead research is carried out on small groups of people that represent the target population and needs to be representative of the target population.


2 What does culture mean and why is it important in psychology?

What does Gibson say about sensation and perception?

What is meant by the term ‘fixed mindset’?

List the different sampling methods

The belief and expectations that surround us. This may therefore influence how we behave.

Sensation and perception are the same process.

That ability is genetic and unchanging.

RandomOpportunitySystematicStratified


3 What factors can affect the accuracy of memory? (i.e. forgetting)

Which is nature and which is nurture when comparing Gibson and Gregory’s theory?

What does Dweck mean by a continuum in terms of mindset?

How is random sampling carried out? Evaluate.

Interference and context Gibson = natureGregory = nurture

That people are not simply one or the other but a mixture of both – on a spectrum. And it will also depend on the situation as to how they behave.

Identify all members of a population and number them and draw out (hat/computer) the required number of people. Limits bias but can be time consuming and may not be representative


4 Define interference in relation to affecting accuracy of memory.

Make at least one evaluation point Gibson’s theory of perception.

Describe the two forms of praise and why they are important.

What is generalisation in psychological research?

Interference is when things take place between learning and recall that can affect accuracy of memory. So forgetting takes place because two memories interfere with each other.

+ Developed using research with pilots (ecologically valid) and infants (cliff expt)-Struggles to explain illusions – brain can make errors and shows sensation & perception are separate processes-past experiences and info about the world can affect perception.

Person praise – praised for intelligence. Success or faiulre is therefore beyond control.Process praise – praised for effort and processes used. Success or failure is due to amount of effort.Praise can affect learning. – it must be honest, sincere and deserved.

When you attribute the results from the sample in your study to the target population.


1 Give the two ways interference can reduce memory accuracy – give an example for each.

Describe Gibson’s visual cliff experiment and explain what it provides evidence for.

Define self-efficacy and how this can impact learning.

Compare systematic and stratified sampling methods.

Things that we already know can cause problems when we try learning new information, e.g. you know your old mobile number but cannot learn your new mobile phone number

Things that we learn can cause problems trying to recall older information, e.g. you can remember your new mobile number but cannot remember your old mobile number

Eleanor Gibson & Richard Walk (1960)Created a visual cliff by adding a sheet of clear perspex next to a table to create a visual ‘cliff’. Babies were encouraged to crawl to the side or over the edge of the cliff by mothers. Most would go to the side (not over the cliff) but most would NOT go over the edge/cliff. Suggests baby’s have innate depth perception –perception is direct and not learned.

A person’s understanding of their own capabilities. High/strong self-efficacy means they will put more effort in, persist for longer to achieve goals and more resilience.

Systematic involves selecting every nth member of a target population whereas stratified involves identifying the subgroups in a target population and work out what proportion is needed form each one, e.g. If a school consists of 10% teachers ten the sample must have 10% teachers. These are then selected randomly from the target population.


2 Define ‘context’ in relation to accuracy of memory.

Why may Gibsons’ direct theory of perception be beneficial for animals?

How can self-efficacy be increased?

Evaluate systematic and stratified sampling.

The environment where learning and recall takes place.

Developed colour vision to find appropriate foodDeveloped depth perception for chasing/running/jumping from prey/predators.Allows us to perceive all the possibilities an object has so it can utilised to its fullest (its ‘affordances’).

Being successful at something

Observing other people succeed due to their effort

Persuaded by a teacher/role model

Guided through a task

Systematic avoids researcher bias and increases representativeness of the sample. However, you may still end up with all males/females or of a particular age – bias. Stratified is the most representative sampling method but selection of groups may be biased and it is time consuming.


3 How does context affect accuracy of memory?

Describe Gregory’s theory of direct perception

What did Lepper find out about praise?

Describe and evaluate opportunity sampling

Accuracy of memory s greater if the environment where the information is learned is the same as when the information is recalled. IF the environment changes when learning/recalling, then the accuracy of memory falls.

Past knowledge and experiences is most important in making sense of what is around us. We make reasonable guesses (inferences) about what we see – perceptual hypothesis (most probable explanations). We do not need to look for any other information from the environment.

Children were less interested in doing a task if they had previously been rewarded for it, so praise can be demotivating.

Choosing people who are members if the target population that are available and suitable to take part. This is easy and therefore cheaper and quicker. However, it is unlikely to be representative of the target population.


4 Describe a study that tested the effect of context on memory

What does Gregory say about sensation and perception?

Describe the different learning styles.

List the ethical issues in psychological research.

Godden & Baddeley – Divers experiment. 18 divers learned 36 words on land (dry D)/under water (wet W): Learned on land – recalled on land DDLearned on land – recalled in water DWLearned in water – recalled in water WWLearned in water – recalled on land WD

Result: WW/DD – better recall than DW/WD

Sensation and perception are not the same – they are separate processes.

Visual – learn best by reading or seeing picturesAuditory – learn best by listeningKinaesthetic – learn best by doing something

Informed consentDeceptionProtection from harmPrivacyConfidentiality


1 Why would exam results be better if the exams took place in the class?

Is Gregory’s theory a top down or bottom up approach? Explain your answer.

What is the difference between a visualiser and a verbaliser?

What does BPS stand for? What is the importance of BPS?

Context is the same – where information is learned and recall – so memory accuracy would be greater so exam results should be better.

Gregory’s theory is a top down theory – it takes higher mental processes and shows how they shape the way we interpret the information the eyes receive.

Verbalisers process information verbally preferring written info and they like to write things down. They think using words.Visualisers process onfo visually preferring to learn from pictures and diagrams.

British psychological societyEnsure ethics are managed for each research experiment.


2 Identify a weakness of Godden and Baddeley’s divers experiment

Identify a strength of Gregory’s constructivist theory of perception

Weakness of learning styles? How can ethical issues be dealt with?

Artificial task

Recall was immediate/short term – would it be the same for long term?

There are cultural differences in perception – different people in different parts of the world may interpret visual cues differently so their experience has affected their perception. For e.g. children may draw animals differently depending on where they grow up (elephant drawing).Visual illusions provide evidence for this theory.

No supporting evidence and too many different learning styles so is impossible to put into practice.

Have to present plans to BPS ethics committee. Get informed consent with letter explaining study which is signed by PP. Only some studies do not have to have this until the end perhaps.Dealing with deception/protection form harm, PP are given full debrief at the end and may be offered counselling if necessary.Dealing with privacy and confidentiality – anonymity & reminded of confidentiality.


3 What is false memory? Identify weaknesses of Gregory’s constructivist theory of perception.

Describe Willingham’s learning theory.

List the different types of interview

When someone remembers something as if it has really happened but it never did.

Visual illusions are artificial 2D images deliberately designed to fool people and are unusual examples of perception. So these may not tell us much about how perception works in the real world. Theory does not explain how perception begins – babies prefer images that are more face like and this is innate. If environment is responsible for perception, there should be many more differences in perception than there actually are.

Learning styles do not exist in the VAK way as no evidence to support existence or success when the styles are used. It is better to improve a student’s ability to store information than how they learned information. Students should instead be taught using the best method for the content to be taught. Praise, memory learning (cues), self-regulation and neuroscience can be used to improve learning.

Structured – prepared questions/follow up qs that are worked through with PPUnstructured – few questions may be prepared in advance and a general aim but new qs developed based on answers to previous answers.Semi-structured – Most qs decided in advance but researcher may ask particular follow up ones that are not pre-prepared.


4 What was Elizabeth Loftus interested in?

List the factors that affect perception.

How can knowledge of neuroscience help with learning?

Compare open and closed questions. Write one example of each.

How memory works in relation to eye witness testimony.

CultureEmotionMotivation Expectation

Identifying dysfunctional parts of the brain such as in dyslexia can then help children receive help sooner and so improve their progress.

A closed question has a fixed range of possible answers and produces quantitative data whereas open question allows PP to provide their own answer and produce qualitative data.


1 Describe the ‘Lost in the mall study’.

Define ‘perceptual set’? What is the marshmallow task and what information does it give to us?

Evaluate interviews and questionnaires

21 females + 3 malesRelatives contacted to obtain some true stories.Each PP told 4 stories about childhood – 3 true (from relatives)4th story – they were lost in the mall6 PPs recalled the lost in the mall study – they wrote about it as if it actually happened.Loftus had shown how false memories can be implanted

Tendency of our brain to notice certain aspects of a sensory environment whilst ignoring others.

Child seated at a table and is offered a marshmallow but before they take it, the researcher says they will be back in 15 mins and they can have two if they don’t have the one whilst they are gone. 67% of children succumb to eating the first marshmallow before the 15 mins are up. This shows who have/have not got self-regulation = better/worse at school.

Interviews produce a lot of quality information and can provide a lot of insight, however, this infprmation can be difficult to analyse and not everyone reveals their true feelings/thoughts.Qs can gather lots of information from lots of PP quickly so generalisations easier to make and data is quantitative, but people don’t always answer truthfully.


2 Evaluate the Lost in the mall study. What did Hudson do to show how culture impacts perception?

According to Willingham’s theory, what is an important factor associated with increased academic achievement?

List the different types of observation studies

Weak: Recalling ‘lost in the mall’ is not normally a traumatic event unveiled by a therapist – i.e. artificial taskWeak: Ethical issues – even when debriefed, the false memory may remain in their mindStrength: shows how EWT can be affected by suggestion.Weak: Study not standardised – everyone did not get the same intor/stories

Looked at depth cues in people from different cultures (Black South Africas vs white Europeans) using an image:

Asked qs – what do you see? What is the man doing? Which is nearer the man, elephant or antelope?Schooled PPs and white schooled PPs were more likely to perceive depth prob due to having more access to 2D images.

Self-regulation Naturalistic vs controlled

Covert vs overt (not aware vs aware)

PP vs non-PP (taking part or not)


3 What method did Bartlett use? What can you write about perceptual set and emotion? Hint: Christmas

Who were the PPs in Hughes study?

Define interobserver reliability and explain why it is important

Serial reproductions Emotions affect perception – children excited about Xmas tend to draw Santa Claus as a larger individual and more presents. Our brain is more likely to notice things we find exciting, interesting or unusual. Sometimes it may take longer to perceive something that we find unpleasant.

30 children3 ½ to 5 yrsFrom Edinburgh

When you have 2 or more observers and the extent to which they agree in their observations. If the data is similar, then the observation is reliable and if not, then the categories may need to be altered.


4 What concept are false memories based on?

What does Gilchrist & Nesberg’s study provide support for?

At which stage are children capable of abstract reasoning?

Evaluate observational studies

Reconstructive memory Perception affected by motivation

Formal operational Observation may provide more valid data as people are not telling you, you are watching them. However there are ethical issues and you can have researcher bias.


1 What showed that Baddeley’s experiment was well controlled?

Summarise Gilchrist and Nesberg’s study (key study)

What would a child aged4 yrs & 8 yrs say if you transferred fluid from a short fat glass to a tall thin glass?

What are correlations in psychology and what is meant by the term ‘positive correlation’? Draw all correlation types.

Giving PPs a hearing test beforehand 26 undergrad volunteers go without food for 20 hours vs a control group not deprived of food. Shown 4 slides of meals for 15 sec. each. PPS told this was a matching exercise. Projector turned off and back on – picture is dimmer and they were asked to adjust brightness so it was the same as before. Those that had been hungrier adjusted the pics to brighter than before – motivated by their hunger. Control group did not do this.

4 yr old: That the volume has increased – cannot conserve

8 yr old: That the volume has not changed even though it would look like more – can conserve

A technique used by researchers to establish the strength of a relationship between two variables. These are plotted on a scattergram.

Positive correlations are where one variable value increases, so does the other.


2 Which part of patient HMs brain was removed?

Evaluate Gilchrist & Nesberg’s study

How might nature and nurture affect the development of the brain?

Describe and evaluate case studies.

Hippocampus. This & similar studies provide support for motivation & perception.Unethical to depreive people of food & deception involved re matching activity.Has some ecological validity as PPs were hungry.Lacks ecological validity when judging pictures of food.Not many PPs and lacks population validity as similar ages.PPS were volunteers – may not be representative and may have figured out the aim.

Nature – brain structure (brain stem, cerebellum, thalamus and cortex)

Nurture – smoking, infection, voice recognition

Case studies are an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, institution or event. They provide detailed information and can provide information over time, esp. for rare cases. It allows researchers to make changes to theories.Data collected can be subjective, may not be remembered accurately so introduces unreliability & also unique to the individual and may not be generalisable.


3 Give an example of sensory memory How does expectation affect perception?

In Hughes’ study, what proportion of children could place a doll where the two policemen could not ‘see him’?

Compare primary and secondary data

Check what students have written – visual or sound etc.

This is when we hear or see what we expect to hear or see.

60% Primary data is info obtained first hand and secondary data has been gathered by someone other than the researcher.


4 In Loftus & Palmer’s study of false memory, what were the children told?

Which key study provides support for effect of expectation on perception?

Learning ‘Weetabix’ is another type of cereal is an example of what?

Define mean, median, mode and range.

That they had become lost in a shopping mall.

Bruner & Minturn’s study (1955)Independent groups where PPS shown letter or number sequence with a broken B/13 in the middle. Letters – interpreted ambiguous figure as a BNumbers – interpreted ambiguous figure as 13.

Assimilation Mean is calculated by adding all values and dividing by the number of values.Median is the middle value in a set of scores organised from high to low.Mode is the most frequently occurring value.Range is the numerical difference between the highest and lowest values.


1 List the 3 stages of memory in the correct order.

Identify one strength and one weakness of Bruner & Minturn’s study.

Which part of the brain does thinking occur?

Evaluate the ways that data is represented.

EncodingStorageRetrieval

Controlled expt. so can be replicated and increases.Provides support for Gregory’s theory as expectation influences perception. reliability. Real-life application as it explains errors that people make.Independent groups – PP variables could affect outcomeArtificial task – lacks ecological validity.Volunteer PPs so may not be representative.Lacks ecological validity as we don’t really face much ambiguity in real life.

Cortex The mean includes all values and represents whole data set but can be distorted by extremes.Median is not affected by extremes bit is less sensitive as not all values are included.Mode is easy to calculate but can be unrepresentative of data set.Range can be calculated easily but distorted if there are extreme scores.


2 Baddeley’s study found that STM encodes information ______ and LTM encodes _______.

Jane is really hungry and does her shopping. When she gets home, she realises she has bought more than she needs. Can you explain this?

Name the different parts of the brain.

Define normal distribution.

AuditorySemantically

Motivation (hunger) affected her perception and so she bought more food.

ThalamusCerebellumCortexBrainstem

A bell-shaped curve formed from data where the mean, median and mode are all the same point at the highest peak.


3 What was Murdock’s aim? What is the optic array? What was wrong with Piaget’s sample?

What is a frequency table?

To see if the position of a word in a list affected if it was recalled.

Everything we can see at any one time.

All the children were from European academic families in Switzerland so his results may not be generalisable to other cultures/children.

This records how often an event occurred as a tally.


4 What is a real world application of Bartlett’s theory/work?

What study design was used by Bruner and Minturn?

Why would trainers only show the bets parts of a gymnasts performance to train them?

Express 0.025913 in standard form.Express 4,570,000 to 2 s.fConvert ¼ into %.

It can explain problems with eye witness testimony.

Independent groups It increases their self-efficacy and increases their performance.

2.59 x 10-2

4,600,00025%


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1filedownload.com · Web view2021. 6. 11. · Memory . Perception . Development . Research methods . 1. What is encoding, storage and retrieval? Define sensation. What does early