Individuals and Families in Diverse Societies

Expanding FamiliesChapter 9: Having ChildrenChapter 10: Becoming Parents Chapter 11: Issues in Expanding Families [Pg. 357 – 389]

Chapter 11 Issues in Expanding FamiliesPages 357 – 389

Key TermsAge condensedDiminished parenting abilityJoint custodyLow income cut-off (LICO)Persistent povertyPhysical custodyShared custodySocial risk factorsStatistics

Not According to Plan (Pg. 358) - The motivation for most couples to have children is to seek fulfillment both

as individuals and as a couple- Most Canadians cohabit first, before marrying and start families later- Most couples practice birth control when they are young as part of planning

the timing and spacing of their children – this allows them to develop their dreams of parenthood, to plan how they will share their life with children, and to acquire the personal and material resources required for raising a family

- Some individuals become parents when they are teenagerso Early parenthood, at a time when teens are developing an identity

and beginning to form a life structure, adds much stress to a developing individual’s life

- Although the divorce rate in Canada is stable, it may still be an unanticipated event that dramatically changes the expanding family

o Effects of divorce on the social, emotional, intellectual, and physical development of children who experience their parents’ divorce

- When couples become parents they do not consider that they may outlive their children

o Dealing with a death of a child is a very different experience for parents

- Many Canadian children are affected by the consequences of poverty that limit the ability of their families to carry out the responsibilities, the functions of the family

- These non-normative events challenge expanding families

Teenage Parenthood

Pg. 359 – 367

More teens are choosing to have an abortion than deliver their baby.

What are the options for pregnant teenagers, and what are the pros and cons of each for teenaged woman.

ABORTIONPROS CONS

OR

KEEP THE BABYPROS CONS

Teenage Parenthood (Pg. 359 – 367) - Adolescents in Canada are entering emerging adulthood, the developmental

stage in which they explore their identity in three areas: love, work, and worldviews

- Emerging adults are preparing to become self-reliant adults, but many different life structures remain possible and few teens have decided for certain where they will be in adulthood

- Becoming teenage parents shoots the individuals into adulthood, where they are expected to be self-reliant and to accept responsibility for fulfilling the functions of an expanding family for their child

- It is not surprising that teenaged parents and their children are seen to have more negative outcomes than adult families, even lone-parent families

“Parenthood” – Amber’s pregnancy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g3WmJcC659g Fewer Teenaged Parents

- In 1997, the total number of births by teenaged women was 19,724- In 2007, that number had dropped to 16,180- The proportion of teens who become sexually active at an early age is

decreasing- The proportion of Canadian teens aged 15 to 19 years who had had sexual

intercourse at least once declined between 1996 and 2005- Aboriginal women are over twice as likely to be teenaged mothers as non-

Aboriginal mothers – 24 percent compared to 10 percent- Immigrant women in Canada have a lower likelihood of being teenaged

mothers than native Canadians who are not visible minorities

Who are Teenaged Parents?- Most teenaged parents are one-parent, female-headed families- Many parents of teenaged parents gave birth in their teens as well.

Therefore, the birth of the next generation continues the cycle of early birth in the family

- Teenage parents have a higher probability of multiple cohabitations and dissolutions, and are less likely to be married

- As they move in and out of relationships, their income fluctuates and often their poverty increases

- Teenage parents have lower education and significantly lower income than older parents, a pattern which has been repeated for the children of teenaged mothers

- In general, fewer teenaged parents come from families with higher education because individuals who are striving to further their education are more likely to practice safe sex or to terminate an unplanned pregnancy

- Teenaged parents are less likely to complete high school and post-secondary schooling

- They face difficulties finding steady employment because of their lower levels of education, conflicting time demands of childcare, and unreliable day care. As a result, they have lower incomes and are more likely to be poor and to live in less desirable neighborhoods due to the need for affordable housing

- Teenaged lone-parent mothers are more likely to be socially and economically disadvantaged throughout their lives than mothers who had children when they were older

Glee https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqajjasNXfM

Teenaged Fathers- Research on teenaged fathers is very limited because far few fathers than

mothers maintain parental relationship with their child- Tend to be unemployed or work in lower-paying jobs than older fathers- Tends to be more involved when their children are younger, in part because

of the social status of being a father, but in the long term, most teenaged

fathers provide little support to their children either financially or emotionally

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=csVO9NCVutk (until 2:24)

Consequences of Teenaged Parenthood- Unplanned parenthood means that teenaged parents have not acquired the

personal and material resources necessary to be self-reliant as they provide for the physical maintenance and care, socialization, social control, and affective nurturance of their child

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQhDhtyBu2M

Effects on the Parent- Teenaged parents have few peers who are raising children and have little in

common with the majority of parents who are 10 or more years older- Many young mothers are in poor physical health due to poor living habits

and conditions - Poor mothers have higher rates of depression, which affects all aspects of

their lives, including diminished parenting ability, inability to show warmth to their children, and lack of effective socialization and supervision of their children

- Experience stressful major life events:o Child removed from the homeo Having a child dieo Experiencing a disabling or life-threatening accident themselves or

having their child experience oneo Having an unfaithful partnero Being a victim of sexual assault or abuseo Having a family member addicted to drugs or alcohol

- It is difficult to separate the causes from the effects of the challenges facing teenaged parents, but the combination of low income, limited education, unstable relationships, and lack of social support make it very difficult for teenaged parents to fulfill their responsibilities to their child

- Aboriginal teenaged mothers face three social risk factors shared by the Aboriginal community in general

o Low social status, which stems from living in poverty Lower social status leads to a sense that Aboriginal teenaged

mothers have a reduced ability to control their life and futureo Weak social networks – namely, that they have few friends, are single,

and are less involved in the community This leads to a sense of isolation for these young mothers

o Diminishing parenting related to the legacy of neglect and abuse of children in residential schools

As a result of poor parenting role models, these teens are not prepared for the demands of parenting

o Face poverty, social isolation, addiction and lack of social support – four main pathways that lead to a child being placed on the caseload of the child welfare system

What are the stressful major life events experienced by the teenaged parent? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Aboriginal teenaged mothers face three social risk factors shared by the Aboriginal community in general, what are they? (1) (2) (3)

Effects on the Parents of the Teenaged Parent- It is estimated between 30 and 50 percent of teenaged mothers continue to

reside with their families of origin for at least two years after the birth of their child

- The dynamics of family change as a new member is added and a generational shift occurs

- The family is age condensed, meaning that several of the stages of the family life-courses are overlapping

- If the mother of the teenaged parent was a teenaged parent herself, the new grandparents may only be in their 30s

- If the teenaged parent, not yet an emerging adult, is attending school and attempting to prepare for self-reliance, there may be conflict over childcare responsibilities and parenting style

- Life course theories, such as the family life-cycle framework and Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development, explain that this can cause stress and difficulties in adjusting to the new stages of life

- Family support can help teenaged parents to achieve more positive outcomes – they provide guidance to the teen who lacks education and experience

- But many teenaged parents have little family supporto They may be estranged from their family due to conflict over the

pregnancy or over the rearing of the childo Suffering from poverty and have no resources to share

Teenaged parents who continue to live in their family homes after having their babies have the support of their families to help them adjust to parenthood. What challenges might arise for the teenaged parent’s siblings and parents because of the new addition to the family?

Children of Divorced ParentsPg. 368 – 376

- Many divorces occur in the first few years of marriage, thus most divorcing couples either have no children or very few

- Couples who divorce have fewer children in general than couples that stay together

- Predictions suggests that fewer children born in 2000 will experience divorce, as the 1980s seemed to be the peak time for divorce in Canada

Responsibility for Children- One or both parents will assume custody of the children- The focus is on the perspective of the children when it comes to how their

parents share responsibility for their financial, emotional, disciplinary, and other needs

- Many provinces require parents to go to mediation to learn to consider issues from the children’s point of view

- There is a move towards having children more involved in the decisions surrounding where they will be placed after the divorce of their parents

- In Canada, most children are in the joint custody of both parents, but their mothers have physical custody, meaning that they live with their mothers most of the time

- Only 10% of children of divorces have their primary residence with their fathers

- Joint custody means that both parents have the right to make decisions concerning the child

o Can enable divorced parents to develop a co-parenting plan where neither person feels that he or she is a “single” parent

- Shared custody, where the children reside at least 40% of the time with each parent, is increasing

Consequences for Parenting- No matter what the family structure, a child’s overall adjustment in life has

more to do with the quality of parenting the child receives than the structure of the family

- Children who have at least one positive, warm, and authoritative parent, regardless of the status of the parents’ marriage, are likely to be competent and well-adjusted during childhood and later in life

- Children adapt better in a harmonious single-parent household than in a two-parent household that is full of conflict

Divorce has an impact on many Canadian families. What are the consequences of divorce for parents and for children?

Living Arrangements- Children adapt better when the change is gradual- Being able to maintain familiar places and people helps children adjust

better- Financial constraints often make it necessary to move out of the family

home- Often a financial strain on the lone-parent, female-headed household (due

to lower levels of education and attachment to the workforce)

Custody arrangements can be quite varied. Which do you think works best for the children? What factors would you consider in assessing what is best for the children?

Adjusting to Divorce- When couples divorce, they go through a period of mourning- Need to be mindful of their children’s needs: reassurance and stability- Be careful and plan how they tell their children, and to not put the children

in the middle of an adult dispute- The children who suffer the most as a result of divorce come from very

conflicted homes- Children should be put first – parents should remain nurturing, respectful

and positive with their children

Rhonda Freeman (1999) of The Vanier Institute of the Family summarized the results of research on factors that have an impact on

children’s development and adjustment after the divorce of their parents:1. 2. 3. 4.5.6.

The Effects of Divorce on Children- Rhonda Freeman (1999) of The Vanier Institute of the Family summarized

the results of research on factors that have an impact on children’s development and adjustment after the divorce of their parents:

o High level of parental conflict frightens children and does not show them how to solve problems in a healthy manner

o Economic resources available for parenting are often reduced after divorce

Divorced women and their children are the fastest-growing group of poor people in Canada

o Parents’ adjustment to divorce affects children’s adjustmento Parents who rely on their children for support are putting undue

pressure on them – has a negative impact on their adjustmento Parent-child relationships change with divorce and must be

renegotiated. Children need to be free to develop relationships with both parents after the divorce

o Number of parents disappear from their children’s lives Children feel abandoned and have a difficult time adjusting

ACOD Adult Children of Divorce https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9zQ9Q3WoloA

Gender and Age- Girls adapt better than boys- Children between ages four and 10 years are too young to understand what

is happening- Children may blame themselves and try to find ways to get their parents

back together- If one or both parents develop a new relationship quickly after the divorce,

this can be very difficult for these children- Adolescence is a challenging age for children and parents – risk factors

include: drugs and alcohol use, early sexual activity, pregnancy for girls, and delinquency

Voice of the Child of Divorce https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbTFZ8cvHo4

6-year-old gives her mom a wake up call after her parents get divorced https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vm0UNn7tJ5o

Conflict before, during, and after divorce leads to negative consequences for the children; what do you think some of these consequences might be?

Managing Conflict- Children who are expected to take sides in their parents’ conflict often

suffer dire consequences including many of those mentioned previously- Some children are better off after the divorce of a highly conflicted parental

relationship because they are removed from the constant conflict- Other conditions:

o Lack of parental investment in the childreno Antisocial behavior of parentso The personality of the childreno The children’s choices of peerso Children’s existing conflict with their parents

- Helping parents to work through the process of separation and divorce in a healthy, less-conflicted way is one way to improve the well-being of the children of divorce

What are other pre-existing conditions for managing conflict?1.2. 3.4.5.

Children Living in PovertyPg. 376 – 381

- Poverty affects all Canadians when about one in 10 children is living in poverty

- This number is bigger among Aboriginal families, where about one in four children is living in poverty

- Canada has no official definition of poverty, but the definition developed by Statistics Canada is widely used: living below the low income cut-off (LICO), defined as the point at which families are expected to spend 20% more than the average family on food, shelter, and clothing

- The lack of an official definition means that there are many different levels of low income being reported

Low-Income Families in Canada- In Canada the family most likely to experience persistent poverty, or

long-term poverty, is a lone-parent family, especially those headed by females

- Other factors that increased the risk of low-income were parents under age 30 years, having three or more children, and being unemployed

- In the past few years, two new family types are emerging as vulnerable:o Two-income families with low levels of education

A lot of jobs are no longer available (i.e. factory jobs are no longer available due to technological advances)

o Recent immigrants

Children Living in Low-Income Families- Family income influences many developmental outcomes for children- Children living in poverty are twice as likely to be born prematurely and with

low birth weights, have shorter life expectancies, and face twice the risk of chronic health problems

- Lack of school readiness for preschoolers, reduction in the educational achievement throughout their schooling, reduced ability to afford a post-secondary education

- Increased likelihood of living in low-income circumstances as an adult- Health issues, developmental delays, behavior disorders - Less likely to have sufficient income, time and energy to ensure that their

children live in safe neighborhoods, attain a good education, participate in sporting and cultural activities, or receive the nourishment needed to keep them healthy

- Persistent poverty is more of a problem for lone parents than two-parent families

- Living with a close, stable, and supportive family provides children with important protective factors that reduce the possible negative effects of living in a low-income environment

Children who are raised in impoverished communities do not have the same opportunities as those raised in higher-income areas. What benefits might children raised in impoverished communities be missing?

Implications for Society- Canadians should be concerned about child poverty from a human

perspective, but also an economic perspective- Reflects how well the Canadian economy is doing and how well it will do in

the future- Social programs, including government transfers such as Employment

Insurance, Social Assistance, and the Child Tax Benefit, can improve the income of low-income families

- Social policies promote education and retraining can improve the ability of parents to earn a better income for their families

- Housing policies that encourage the development of lower-cost housing can enable low-income families to provide better homes for their children

- Sociologists Susan Prentice suggests that providing quality childcare and early-learning experiences for children can make a significant impact on both the children’s and women’s poverty levels in Canada

- When mothers have access to adequate, affordable childcare, their employment increases

- When mothers are more able to participate in the labor force, their income levels improve and they are more able to move out of poverty

- Also improves children’s linguistic, cognitive, and social competencies

- Long-term consequences on the school success of children, which allows them to participate in post-secondary education and improve their overall chances for long-term success

How can governments change social policy to better support families?

Good quality early-learning experiences are important for later school success. Why would providing quality childcare experiences for all Canadian children help children from low-income families?

Death of a ChildPg. 381 – 387

- Parents do not consider the fact that their child can die before them- A child’s death upsets the “natural order” of life- Dealing with it is a challenge parents fear and hope they never have to face- Death is not anticipated, because it is out of place in the life cycle- Functionalism suggests that because a child has few responsibilities in a

family and in society, a child’s death would leave fewer gaps to be filled by others than an adult’s death would

- In the 21st century, the death of a child is rare, systems theory and exchange theory recognize that children are an important emotional focus in a family, and are the extension of their parents’ hopes and dreams for the future

The Effects of the Loss of a Child- Death from all external causes has declined so that child mortality is rare in

Canada- The impact of the child’s death on the family depends on the child’s age

and the degree to which the family perceives the death to have been preventable

- After a child’s death, parents, siblings, and the extended family have to let go of the child and cope with their sadness in individual ways

- The ritual of a funeral or memorial allows individuals to say goodbye to the child and enables others to provide much-needed support to the family

- Siblings may experience difficulties at school, behavioral problems, or depression as they deal with their feelings of sadness, fear that they could die too, and perhaps a need to fill the place of the dead child in their parents’ lives

Impact on Parents- Parents must redefine themselves to include the loss of their child- Support of caring professionals before and after the child’s death can help

couples avoid the high divorce rate associated with this tragedy- Many parents change their view of the world after the loss of a child- Having a sense of purpose in their lives after the loss of their child – it gives

parents the ability to move on

- Parents like those who speak for non-profit organizations such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) find ways to turn their grief into something that can help others avoid the tragedy they faced

- For many parents, their spirituality is a great source of support and comfort after the loss of a child

- Parents of children who die from long-term illness such as cancer exhibit different patterns than those whose children die suddenly – knowing that their child is dying has a profound effect on parents, because they have to deal with their own sorrow at the same time as they provide support for the dying child and their other children

o Parents are deeply saddened at the loss and comforted that their child is no longer suffering

o Sometimes they spent so much time caring for the sick child that they have lost their social contacts and have to reintegrate themselves into the world

- When the death is sudden parents may feel guilty for having to inform others of the sad news

o Does not allow for time to prepare for the abrupt ending of their lives as they have known them

Effects on Siblings- Because the sibling relationship is one that usually lasts a lifetime, the loss

of a sibling affects personality development as well as the child’s sense of social order

- The child’s developmental stage determines how a child will understand the significance of death

- In a society where few people experience death at a young age, the family’s cultural and spiritual beliefs will influence how the death is explained and the meaning the child will make of it

- They may feel isolated because of their unique situation, and the inability of their peers to comprehend their loss

- Difficulties at school, behavioral problems, or depression as they deal with their sadness, fear, that they could die too, and perhaps a need to fill the place of the dead child in their parents’ lives

- Disruption in their routines that a death causes

When children die from a long-term illness, parents may feel empty because of the loss, as well as comforted that the child is no longer suffering from illness. How does watching a child die form a long-term illness differ from losing a child suddenly?

Have you experienced the death of a family member or friend? How did it change the way you looked at life?