WD 2003 May 4 SA and Evangelical Tradition

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The Salvation Army and the

Evangelical Tradition

Introduction

This is a time of critical scholarly reflection in the life of the Church.

Essential to that reflection is a renewed interest in British and American funda-

mentalism and evangelicalism, the Wesleyan expression of evangelicalism, and

the history and theology of The Salvation Army. As will be demonstrated in this

paper, those three movements are integrally related to each other. It has been

clearly demonstrated in many venues that this is one of the most important theo-

logical moments in the brief history of The Salvation Army. That moment will be

appreciated only as it is understood in the larger context of the Church in general,

and of evangelicalism and the Wesleyan tradition in particular.

There are many examples that could be used to illustrate the scholarly ren-

aissance that is taking place in the areas mentioned. A few will be given as part

of this introduction and, as will be readily apparent, are not intended as an

exhaustive list of works but merely as illustrative of the scholarly culture in

which we now work when discussing the topic at hand. Three of the works which

began a new and exciting historical and theological look at British and American

fundamentalism and evangelicalism are Ernest Sandeens The Roots of

Fundamentalism(1970), Bernard RammsThe Evangelical Heritage: A Study in

Historical Theology (1973), and Donald Daytons Discovering An Evangelical

Roger J. Green is the chairman of the Department of Biblical and Theological Studies

at Gordon College and is co-editor ofWord & Deed. This paper was delivered as the

Andrew S. Miller lecture at Asbury College on February 24, 2002.

Roger J. Green, Ph.D.


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Heritage(1976). Discussion about fundamentalism and evangelicalism was fur-

thered by the historical insights given by George Marsden in many of his works

including Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth

Century Evangelicalism, 18701925 (1980), Evangelicalism and Modern

America (1984), and his work titled Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller

Seminary and the New Evangelicalism (1987).

One of the most significant books written on evangelicalism is the recently

released Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism

(1997) by Joel A. Carpenter, an important account of the shaping of the funda-

mentalist and evangelical traditions and the impact of those traditions upon the

broader American culture. Recent sociological approaches on these subjects

include the works of two Gordon College graduates: James Davidson Hunters

American Evangelicalism: Conservative Religion and the Quandary of

Modernity (1983) and Evangelicalism and the Coming Generation (1987), and

Christian SmithsAmerican Evangelicalism Embattled and Thriving(1998).

What is true for fundamentalism and evangelicalism also holds for Wesleyan

studies. Compiling some of the most important essays of Albert C. Outler is thebook titled Essays of Albert C. Outler: The Wesleyan Theological Heritage

(1991). Essential for a study of the history of Methodism are Richard P.

HeitzenratersWesley and the People Called Methodists (1995), the biography of

John Wesley by Henry Rack titled Reasonable Enthusiast: John Wesley and the

Rise of Methodism (1989), and two recent works of Kenneth J. CollinsThe

Scripture Way of Salvation: The Heart of John Wesleys Theology (1997) and A

Real Christian: The Life of John Wesley(1999).Finally, the discovery of the Army complements what is going on in the

context of scholarly research on the Church. There is renewed study of the history

and theology of the Army from writers either within or without the movement.

Also, the Armys recent inauguration of its own theological journal titled Word

& Deed: A Journal of Salvation Army Theology and Ministry provides a venue

for a high level of international discourse regarding the Army while at the same

time providing research material for scholars outside the Army, especially those

in the broader evangelical world who are interested in what the Army is all about.

Four recent books written about the Army by scholars from outside of the

Army tradition are illustrative of a growing scholarly interest in the Army. The

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The Salvation Army and the Evangelical Tradition 53

first book (an expansion of her Ph.D. dissertation) is titled RedHot and

Righteous: The Urban Religion of The Salvation Army (1999) by Diane Winston,

Winston has also read papers that she has written on The Salvation Army before

many scholarly societies. Another recent work on the Army in America comple-

ments what Winston has done. It is titled Hallelujah Lads and Lasses: Remaking

The Salvation Army in America, 18801930(2001) by Lillian Taiz.

Two works on the Army in England also demonstrate outside interest in the

Army. The first is the muchreviewed recent biography of William and Catherine

Booth by Roy Hattersley titledBlood and Fire: William and Catherine Booth and

Their Salvation Army (1999). The second is Pamela J. Walkers Pulling the

Devils Kingdom Down: The Salvation Army in Victorian Britain (2001), the ini-

tial research for the book having been done for Walkers Ph.D. dissertation on

The Salvation Army. Many articles on the Army in scholarly journals increas-

ingly complement these books.

It is evident, when reading these and other works, that there are three streams

running together which are worth investigation. This paper will explore their

relationship. Primarily within the context of the American experience, this paperwill demonstrate that The Salvation Armyin its history, theology, and practice

is inextricably linked with Protestant evangelicalism in general, and with the

historic Wesleyan expression of evangelicalism specifically. In developing this

thesis it is important first to identify the evangelicalism to which The Salvation

Army is connected, including the Wesleyan expression of that evangelicalism,

and then to articulate how the Army has been, and continues to be, a part of that

tradition. A word about the direction for the future will conclude this paper.

I. The Evangelical Tradition

While acknowledging that there is debate on whether or not the term evan-

gelicalism is still useful, this paper will side with the option that the term is

helpful in clearly identifying part of the wider Christian Church. This option is

taken in many recent books and articles on this subject. For example, Mark Noll,

the prolific Wheaton College historian, has recently written a book on evangeli-

calism titledAmerican Evangelical Christianity: An Introduction. At the outset of

the book he identifies the historical roots of the word in the following way.


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The word evangelical has several legitimate senses, all related to the etymo-

logical meaning of good news. For Christians of many types throughout his-

tory the word has been used to describe Gods redemption of sinners by thework of Christ. In the Reformation of the sixteenth century it became a rough

synonym for Protestant. That history explains why many Lutherans still

employ the term (e.g., the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America). The most

common use of the word today, however, stems from the renewal movements of

the eighteenth century and from practitioners of revival in the nineteenth and

twentieth centuries, especially as personified by such noteworthy preachers as

Charles Grandison Finney, D. L. Moody and Billy Graham.1

It is clear, therefore, that a convergence of various traditions took place,

including the eighteenth century Wesleyan revival, all indispensable in shaping

and forming evangelicalism today. Understanding those traditions, especially

Wesleyanism, will lead to a better understanding of the Army and provide clearer

light for the way ahead as the Army explores its relationship to evangelicalism.

Careful attention by historians to the Wesleyan roots of present American

evangelicalism has not always been the case. Evangelicalism has often been

treated as a Reformed movement alone, and scholars like George Marsden andDavid Wells have been challenged for their onesided view of the historical and

theological roots of evangelicalism. The most prominent challenge to this has

come on two levels from the work of Donald Dayton. The first concern of

Dayton, already mentioned, is of evangelicalism being viewed predominately as

a Reformed movement. The second examines the methodology by which

Marsden and others interpret evangelicalism. The latter is beyond the scope of

this paper, but the formerthe roots of evangelicalismis important to theArmys selfunderstanding as a movement rooted in Wesleyanism.2

Supporting his argument, Donald Dayton states that I would argue that

what happens in Methodism is thus determinative for our interpretation of

American evangelicalismas a whole.3 Daytons evidence is compelling, and in

his writings he reminds his readers that some movements and people who were

influential in the shaping of evangelicalism in America had Methodist roots

rather than Reformed roots, which have been assumed in many discussions on

this subject. Two such examples are Wheaton College, originally founded by

Methodists and today a premier Christian college in America, and Harold J.

Ockenga. It is generally assumed today that Wheaton Colleges beginnings were

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in the Reformed tradition, but such is not the case. Likewise, Harold J. Ockenga,

arguably the most influential person in the shaping of neoevangelicalism begin-

ning in the 1940s, was reared in Methodism. The importance of Ockenga cannot

be emphasized enough. He was one of the founders and the first president of

Fuller Theological Seminary; he was one of the founders ofChristianity Today;

he was the president of Gordon College and the first president of the merged

GordonConwell Theological Seminary; he served as mentor for the young evan-

gelist Dr. Billy Graham; and he was one of the founders of the National

Association of Evangelicals. Some aspects of his own theology remained faith-

ful to the Methodism and Wesleyanism that he had known in earlier days. Dayton

states that Garth Rosell, director of the Ockenga Institute at GordonConwell

and working on a biography of Ockenga, has lectured to the Wesleyan Holiness

Study Project at Asbury on his own reading of Ockengas theology, which Rosell

is convinced remained basically Wesleyan in its shape until his death. . . . 4

The debate about the foundation for contemporary evangelicalism, therefore,

is an important one. Historical accuracy is at stake. The theological richness of

evangelicalism is better understood. And finally, groups such as Pentecostalism

and The Salvation Army, which have been excluded from discussions about

present evangelicalism, are now included in this dialogue. It is important for the

Army to note that one of the values of Joel Carpenters Revive Us Again: The

Reawakening of American Fundamentalismis that the author gives due recognition

to John Wesley, the Wesleyan movement, and the American holiness movement.

There are certain definable tenets that identify evangelicalism today, and The

Salvation Army shares these with the broader evangelical tradition. There aremany summaries of such tenets, often combining historical, theological, and

sociological elements, and each has its obvious limitations.5 However, one of the

most succinct recent summaries of the theological commitments of the broader

evangelical tradition is found in Alister McGraths book titled Evangelicalism &

the Future of Christianity. McGrath identifies these commitments as controlling

convictions and writes the following:

Evangelicalism is grounded on a cluster of six controlling convictions, each ofwhich is regarded as being true, of vital importance and grounded in Scripture.

These are not only purely doctrinal, if this term is understood to refer purely

to a set of objective truths; they are also existential, in that they affirm the


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manner in which the believer is caught up in a redemptive and experiential

encounter with the living Christ. These six fundamental convictions can be set

out as follows: 1. The supreme authority of Scripture as a source of knowledge

of God and a guide to Christian living. 2. The majesty of Jesus Christ both as

incarnate God and Lord and as the Savior of sinful humanity. 3. The lordship of

the Holy Spirit. 4. The need for personal conversion. 5. The priority of evangel-

ism for both individual Christians and the church as a whole. 6. The importance

of the Christian community for spiritual nourishment, fellowship and growth.6

Sustained commitment to these convictions is critical to the continuation of

evangelicalism. Such tenets continue to be supported in a number of ways in thebroader evangelical tradition, including a network of churches and denominations,

colleges, and seminaries which identify themselves as evangelical, parachurch

groups, and scholarly societies such as the Evangelical Theological Society, the

Wesleyan Theological Society, and the Evangelical group within the American

Academy of Religion. The focus of this paper, however, will be to demonstrate

precisely how The Salvation Army identifies itself within this evangelical tradition

and what contributions the Army is able to make to evangelicalism.

Before turning to the Army, it is important to note that evangelicalism does

not exist without internal as well as external criticism. It is beyond the scope of

this paper to address those criticisms in any significant way, but the mention of

four of the most salient criticisms is essential to its central thesis. Evangelicalism

is criticized first for its failure to appreciate the richness of the tradition of the

Church, including aesthetic dimensions of Church life and liturgy. Expressions

of the arts, including the visual arts, have always been central to the ongoing life

and worship of the Church.

Second, evangelicalism has been criticized for its intellectual shallowness, a

particularly searing criticism of a movement that traces its roots to such great

thinkers as Luther, Calvin, Wesley, or Edwards. However, Mark Nolls work

titledThe Scandal of the Evangelical Mindstill demands the attention of all who

identify themselves as evangelicals. In his chapter titled Why the Scandal

Matters Noll writes that Evangelicals do not, characteristically, look to the

intellectual life as an arena in which to glorify God because, at least in America,

our history has been pragmatic, populist, charismatic, and technological more

than intellectual.7 In similar fashion another evangelical, David Wells, criticizes

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contemporary evangelicalism for, among other things, its failure to bring the life

of the mind to the service of the gospel.

Third, evangelicalism has failed to remain faithful to the social commit-

ments of the evangelicals of the nineteenth century. Donald Daytons earlier

work, Discovering an Evangelical Heritage, was a reminder of the considered

cultural influence of evangelicalism in the nineteenth century in areas such as the

abolition of slavery, the equality of women and men in ministry, and the peace

movementall efforts to bring about radical social change with a thoroughly

biblical theology. Dayton gives attention in his book to the importance of

William and Catherine Booth and the founding of The Salvation Army in thatevangelical ethos.8

The fourth and final criticism of evangelicalism is that it has accommodated

to the culture. The twentieth century has witnessed evangelicalism settling into

middleclass values and lifestyles while failing to speakoften prophetically

to the culture. This is especially true in the postwar years, according to David

Wells in his book titledGod in the Wasteland: The Reality of Truth in a World of

Fading Dreams. For example, in his criticism of the church growth movement,Wells stated that As theology moved from the center to the periphery of evan-

gelical faith, technique moved from the periphery to the center. The one gained

at the cost of the other. A new and more culturally adapted evangelicalism

emerged, the central figures of which were no longer the scholars who had been

prominent in the immediate postwar years but rather a host of managers, planners,

and bureaucratsand, not far behind them, marketeers.9 Robert H. Gundry

warns that The scandal of the evangelical mind pales before the scandal of evan-

gelical acculturation.10

However, in spite of these criticisms there is a positive picture emerging for

evangelicalism. As Christian Smith reminds us, evangelicalism is not only

embattled but thriving. He observes that contemporary American evangelicalism

appears to be the strongest of the major Christian traditions in the United States

today.11 Smith elaborates by stating:

For our purposes, then, we will consider any American Christian faithtradition

to be strong when its members (1) faithfully adhere to essential Christian religious

beliefs; (2) consider their faith a highly salient aspect of their lives; (3) reflect

great confidence and assurance in their religious beliefs; (4) participate regularly


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in a variety of church activities and programs; (5) are committed in both belief

and action to accomplishing the mission of the church; and (6) sustain high

rates of membership retention by maintaining members association with the

tradition over long periods of time, effectively socializing new members into

that tradition, and winning new converts to that tradition.12

While Christian Smiths appraisal of evangelicalism is from the perspective

of a sociologist, McGrath, a theologian, is also optimistic about the future of

evangelicalism, as is evidenced by the title (previously mentioned) of his book.

McGrath suggests that evangelicalism is uniquely positioned as a movement to

reform the center of a Protestantism now disillusioned with the promises of

liberalism and seeing the need to return to biblical orthodoxy. Furthermore, he

envisions evangelicalism as the tradition best positioned for combining a clear

and reasonable approach to the Christian faith with a commitment to evangelism,

pastoral care, and the importance of religious experience. But he warns that

If evangelical rationalism represents one unwelcome potential development,

the other is an unthinking emotionalism that spurns the objective, cognitive

dimension of faith in favor of its subjective, experiential aspects. Evangelical-ism offers us a vision in which theologians are evangelists and evangelists [are]

theologians.13

II. The Salvation Army and the EvangelicalTradition

As with evangelicalism, there is also a renaissance in the study of the Army.The Army is being discovered by the larger scholarly world, both within and

without evangelicalism. Owen Chadwick in The Victorian Church referred to

William Booth as the most remarkable revivalist of the age.14 In his recent book

titledTurning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, Mark Noll

devoted twelve chapters to events in the Christian Churchfrom the fall of

Jerusalem in 70 A.D. to the Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910which

have shaped and formed Christianity in decisive ways. In the introduction to hisbook he confesses the difficulty in choosing those particular decisive moments,

admitting that a good case could have been made for including many other

events. In his consideration of other events he included the emergence of

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significant protest and humanitarian movements that decisively influenced the

shape of later history and there he includes William and Catherine Booth and

the founding of The Salvation Army in 1878.15

Noll reminds his readers of the importance of the Booths and the Army to

the life of the broader Church and, indeed, the life of Western culture. This is a

timely reminder for Salvationists who fail to appreciate what others outside of

the tradition find compelling about them and their religious tradition. The Armys

failure at such appreciation, however, has had the effect of not understanding

where we fit into the larger picture of the history of the Church. The contention

of this paper is that, in both theology and practice, our home is within the broad-

er evangelical tradition, and clarity about that relationship will serve to strength-

en both the Army and evangelicalism.

However, the thesis of this paper is that while we align with evangelicalism

in general, both our theological roots and our historical roots are in the classical

Wesleyan expression of evangelicalism. An inability to appreciate and sustain

that distinction permits our connection with the broader evangelical tradition to

be nebulous and illdefined. If The Salvation Army is to be faithful to its ownheritage, and, indeed, if the Army is to contribute in any significant way to evan-

gelicalism, this is the time for clarity of thought about issues of identity and

about the Armys relationship to evangelicalism and to the broader Christian

Church by way of our Wesleyan heritage.

Some have contended that the Army was not rooted in genuine Wesleyan

theology and tradition, but in the American expression of Wesleyanism, which

they claim is farremoved from eighteenth century Wesleyanism. The argumentstates that the Wesleyan tradition was filtered through the American experience

because of the impact on the Booths of people such as James Caughey, Phoebe

Palmer, and Charles Grandison Finneyall American preachers, teachers, or

revivalists who had an impact upon British Methodism and revivalism.

Granted, what has been labeled transatlantic revivalism played a part in

the lives of the Booths. (Catherine Booth was forever telling people to read

FinneysLectures on Revivals of Religion.) However, a case has yet to be estab-

lished in which any significant theological influence of these people upon the

Booths would have redirected the shape of their Wesleyan theology. There can be

no doubt, though, that the practices of these Americans influenced the Booths. It


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is fair to claim that the Booths were the products of revival ideas carried to

England by Americans and that The Salvation Army is the fruit of that influ-

ence.16 The theological expression of the Booths and others around them, by

contrast, is wrapped within the context of their own Wesleyan rearing and com-

mitment.17 Their contact with, and attention to, American revivalists did not

change that, and any attempt to connect The Salvation Army today with the

broader evangelical tradition will fail without a concerted effort to make that con-

nection by way of classical, historical Wesleyanism.

It is important to the thesis of this paper to note that our own theological

heritage is being more clearly articulated, an invaluable contribution not only for

Salvationists but for scholars who desire to do further research into the Armys

theological roots. The most recent official expression of the Armys theological

convictions titled Salvation Story: Salvationist Handbook of Doctrine has well

demonstrated our relationship to the broader evangelical tradition through

Wesleyanism. The introduction to that work states the following:

Doctrine is the teaching of the Church. It is an expanded explanation of faith,

founded on Scripture and developed from a basic creed. The eleven Articles ofFaith are an expression both of personal faith and of a common vision. They are

consistent with the classical Christian creeds and identify Salvationists as mem-

bers of the universal Church. They also express the fundamental evangelical

convictions of Wesleyanism, the branch of the Church out of which The

Salvation Army grew. Salvationists emphasise in their doctrine and in their mis-

sion the universal call to personal salvation, the challenge to holiness and the

need for evangelical zeal.18

Salvation Story also correctly asserts that the roots of our doctrine are clearly

in the Wesleyan tradition and therefore moves beyond identifying our doctrinal

roots as simply in a holiness tradition.

The articles bear a striking similarity in words and content to Methodist New

Connexion doctrines, which can be traced back to at least 1838. William

Booth was an ordained minister of the New Connexion, whose founders

claimed their doctrines to be those of Methodism, as taught by Mr. Wesley.

With the Movements birth in 1865, William Booth adopted seven articles of

belief. Three more were added in 1870 and the last . . . in 1876. Each addi-

tional point can be traced back to the New Connexion document. . . . Our doc-

trine statement, then, derives from the teaching of John Wesley and the evan-

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gelical awakening of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. While there was

significant correspondence between evangelicals in the midnineteenth century

. . . the distinctives of Salvation Army doctrine came from Methodism. Ourstrong emphasis on regeneration and sanctification, our conviction that the

gospel is for the whosoever and our concern for humanitys free will all find

their roots there.19

While our theological tenets are clearly from a Wesleyan perspective, we

believe, as did John Wesley, that such a perspective is nevertheless biblically

based. Therefore our first and primary connection with the broader evangelical

tradition is in the undisputed authority of the Word of God revealed in Scripture.We continue to hold with fervor some of our cherished theological convictions,

such as the equality of women and men in ministry, not in spite of the Bible but

because of the Bible. The broader evangelical tradition recognizes that this equal

partnership in ministry is still very much a minority view,20 but evangelicals

increasingly appreciate our contribution in the area of women in ministry largely

because we demonstrate the viability of this position from a biblical base as well

as an historical one.We concur with certain theological affirmations of evangelicalism, while

stressing others such as holiness of heart and life, women in ministry, centrality

of the sacramental life, and the practical ministries (i.e., feeding the hungry and

comforting the homeless). Just as the broader evangelical tradition supports the

tenets of evangelicalism through a large network of agencies, The Salvation

Armys theological life finds support through such events as the inauguration of

our theological journal, the founding of the William and Catherine Booth

College, summer Bible conferences, and several continuing education programs

throughout the world. The recent international theological conference held by

The Salvation Army in Winnipeg, Canada, bears witness to the importance of our

ongoing theological life. These are still tenuous efforts for a denomination yet in

its primacy. The Army is only now coming into an understanding of what it

means to have a corporate theological life. We realize that such a life is critical

for the future viability of an organization that must be an integral part of the rich

evangelical tradition from which we were born and to which we must return.

The question remaining is this: Are the criticisms that have been leveled

against evangelicalism also criticisms with which we must deal if we are to be


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connected to our evangelical heritage? These criticisms will be taken in order as

we attempt to answer this question.

First, there has been a failure in evangelicalism to appreciate the richness of

other traditions of the Church. This criticism is also true of the Army largely

because of our Methodist heritage that emphasized plainness in worship, as well

as the religious proclivities of our Founders to disregard art, architecture, and the

importance of the liturgical life of the Church. There was, nevertheless, genuine

religious drama in the early Army in its marching to the street meetings, in the

use of brass music, and in the military imagery that formed and shaped the

Armys ethos. By connecting to the Church universal through evangelicalism, the

Army has the opportunity to demonstrate a respect for other traditions within the

Church from which we can learn and grow. This is especially important in this

theological day when people from many Church traditions, including Anglican

and Orthodox, are identifying themselves as evangelicals.

Evangelicalism is a mosaic of denominations, and the Armys connection to

the broader evangelical tradition begins with a respect for what God has estab-

lished in other denominational life. Likewise, this connection also providesopportunities to contribute to the richness of Church life, not by giving up those

aspects of Army life and ministry that are unique, but by accentuating them. This

is a time not to become less Army, but to become more Army. Otherwise, by

default, we become generically evangelical, and no one gains from this.21

Second, evangelicalism has been accused of an intellectual shallowness.

While the evidence from the early Army is that the Founders and others around

them were good thinkers (their writings often giving evidence to clarity of

thought), they failed to follow John Wesley in his appreciation for the life of the

mind. The Wesleyan quadrilateral enjoins us to study the Scriptures with all the

resources of reason, tradition, and experience.22

While the Booths and the Army have been accomplished at seeing truth

through the lenses of the Bible and of experience, the Army at times has neg-

lected the tradition of the Church and also has neglectedsometimes

despisedthe use of reason. If The Salvation Army is to be part of the broader

evangelical community it must reassert the place of reason in the movement. In

this way people in the Army will be faithful to the words of John Wesley, who

advised his followers in A Plain Account of Christian Perfection:

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I advise you, never to use the words wisdom, reason, or knowledge by way of

reproach. On the contrary, pray that you yourself may abound in them more and

more. If you mean worldly wisdom, useless knowledge, false reasoning, say so;and throw away the chaff, but not the wheat.23

As the Army identifies with evangelicalism, the road ahead is by way of a

reasonable and thoughtful approachone that matches, and indeed strengthens,

the rich experiential side of Army life and worship. In this approach, the doctrines

will be wellgrounded in both experience and reason, and the future life of the

Army will be sustained in such a way as to have genuine and lasting contributions

to make to the broader Church.

Third, what of The Salvation Armys contributions to the culture? It is beyond

doubt that in America it was the social ministries that brought the Army to a place

of prominence in the broader culture. Recent works on the Army have made that

fact readily apparent. It is equally important to note, however, that the social min-

istries of the nineteenth century, such as the Purity Crusade of 1885, were indeed

culturally transforming. The law of the land was changed largely because of the

Armys involvement in that crusade. By contrast, the twentieth century recordhas been more ambiguous. While the social ministry is strong, its political, legal,

or economic impact upon broader culture is in question.

While the broader culture still recognizes the Army for its good works, the

cultural identity does not have a central role that it once did in the American

experience. Diane Winston witnesses to this in her book titled RedHot and

Righteous: The Urban Religion of The Salvation Army,especially in her analysis

of the importance of Evangeline Booth in the wider cultural American experience

and in her remarkable chapter demonstrating the portrayal of the Army in the

American film industry. Between 1919 and 1950 the Army evolved from an

urban religion to one of the nations most respected charities. In a period when

political and social upheavals, notably the Great Depression and World War II,

provided favorable settings for the Armys band of active religiosity,

Salvationists work was represented in theater, film, and the popular press.24

The fourth criticism of evangelicalism is inextricably linked with the third

and may be framed with this question:Has evangelicalism accommodated to the

broader culture in such a way that it has lost its impact upon the culture? The

relationship of Christianity to the culture will always be debatable. However, as


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provide identity, solidarity, meaning, order, and purposevery fundamental

human requisites.28

The Armys contribution to the broader evangelical community will be

valuable only if the Army identifies itself clearly as an intentional community

framed by the military metaphor and all that implies. Clarity of identity, mission,

and purpose came for the Wesleyan revival largely through the use of the class

meetings, small groups of believers meeting during the week, thereby reinforcing

the Christian message heard in the Sunday meetings. The Army can easily rein-

troduce the use of the class meeting into Army life, as was suggested by the

report of the International Spiritual Life Commission of The Salvation Army.29

Reshaping the Army as another in a myriad of community churches will not

strengthen but will eviscerate it to the point where the Army will have nothing

distinctive to bring to the table. The Army will be appreciated by the broader

evangelical community and by the Church only as it is able to contribute by way

of its strengths.

There is a paradox here, which is immediately recognizable. The greatest

challenge to the culture came when the Army was clearest about its identity andmission, which was largely sectarian and countercultural. Salvationists sang

with fervor, Im bound for the land of the pure and the holy. Accommodation

to the broader culture signaled a decrease in impact upon the culturenot

because people liked quaint sectarian groups with bonnets and tambourines but

because, ultimately, people respect intentional communities who are faithful to

their own traditions, heritage, and way of life. So it is with the Church. The point

of greatest influence will come not as the Army becomes more like the localcommunity church, but as the Army identifies and embraces what most marks it

as an intentional communitythe military metaphor by which Salvationists live

and die, the emphasis upon social and personal holiness, the commitment to

women and men in ministry, a vision of the sacramental life, and a unique form

of worship which includes the use of brass bands.

The second observation follows that the Armys impact upon the culture will

be most effective by first influencing the evangelical community. A strategic shift

is needed from thinking that we are able to impact the fallen culture directly to

understanding our impact upon that culture in concert with other evangelicals.

Part of the reason for the strength of the Wesleyan revival was that it made a sig-


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nificant contribution among other evangelicals. The American evidence of this is

seen in the rise and influence of Methodism at the end of the eighteenth century.

And so the Army today seeks points of common commitment with the broader

evangelical tradition. For example, Salvationists rejoice that the evangelical

community has once again embraced the need to serve a suffering and needy

world as a primary witness to the gospel. The Salvation Armys association with

the broader evangelical tradition will strengthen that evangelical intent because of

the Armys experience in this practical ministry, to which the Church is turning.

Third, the Army must seek ways to associate formally with the broader evan-

gelical tradition, beginning at the local level where officers and soldiers should

engage other evangelicals in meaningful dialogue and useful service. This is also

the case in various national holiness and evangelical groups. Likewise,

Salvationists are witnessing a renewed effort on the part of the Army to reach out

to the broader evangelical world internationally. The membership of the Army in

the World Evangelical Alliance, the Armys commitment to the Lausanne

Covenant and support of the Lausanne Movement, and finally the Armys

involvement in the Global Consultation for World Evangelization all bear witness

to such involvement. In addition, the Army continues an evangelical witness,

along with other evangelicals, to the broader Church through the Conference of

Secretaries of Christian World Communions and with an advisor status in the

World Council of Churches.30

Conclusion

This paper has attempted to relate The Salvation Army to the evangelicaltradition, recognizing the Armys particular location within the Wesleyan expres-

sion of evangelicalism. It was important, therefore, to identify evangelicalism

and then to identify Wesleyanism within evangelicalism. Following that, it was

necessary to identify The Salvation Army and then to see its connections with the

broader evangelical tradition. In attempting to relate the Army to that tradition,

an effort was made to strengthen both the Army and evangelicalism. This paper

marks the beginning in this exploration, not the final conclusion. The history ofthe Church, as well as its future course, compels the Army to relate to the Church

universal, and the Army does so best by association with the Church as evangel-

icals, as Wesleyans, and as a particular and intentional expression of that evan-

66 WOR D & DEE D


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gelical and Wesleyan tradition.

Notes

1. Mark A. Noll, American Evangelical Christianity: An Introduction (Oxford:

Blackwell Publishers, Ltd., 2001), p. 13.

2. See especially Donald W. Dayton, The Search for the Historical

Evangelicalism: George Marsdens History of Fuller Seminary as a Case Study,

Christian Scholars Review XXIII:1 (September 1993), pp. 1233; George Marsden,

Response to Don Dayton, Christian Scholars Review XXIII:1 (September 1993),

pp. 3440; Comments by Daniel P. Fuller, Clark H. Pinnock, Douglas A. Sweeney, and

Joel A. Carpenter in Christian Scholars Review XXIII:1 (September 1993), pp. 4161;

Donald W. Dayton, Rejoinder to Historiography Discussion,Christian Scholars Review

XXIII:1 (September 1993), pp. 6271. Michael S. Horton, Reflection: Is Evangelicalism

Reformed or Wesleyan? Reopening the MarsdenDayton Debate, Christian Scholars

ReviewXXXI:2 (Winter 2001), pp. 131155; Roger E. Olson, Response: The Reality of

Evangelicalism: A Response to Michael A. Horton, Christian Scholars Review XXXI:2

(Winter 2001), pp. 157162; Michael S. Horton, Response to Roger Olsons Reply,

Christian Scholars ReviewXXXI:2 (Winter 2001), pp. 163168.

3. Dayton, The Search for the Historical Evangelicalism; George Marsdens

History of Fuller Seminary as a Case Study, p. 14.

4. Ibid.pp. 2324.

5. See, for example, the present discussion among evangelicals over the recently

publishedThe Gospel of Jesus Christ: An Evangelical Celebration.See Robert H. Gundry,

Why I Didnt Endorse The Gospel of Jesus Christ: An Evangelical CelebrationBooks

& Culture 7:1 (January/February 2001), pp. 69; Thomas C. Oden, A Calm Answer

Books & Culture7:2 (March/April, 2001), pp. 1213, 39; Robert H. Gundry, On Odens

Answer Books & Culture 7:2 (March/April, 2001), pp. 1415, 39; Thomas C. Oden,

Answering Critics of An Evangelical Celebration, Books & Culture 7:3 (May/June

2001), pp. 67. See also Harriet A. Harris, How Should Evangelicals Do Theology?

Books & Culture7:3 (May/June 2001), pp. 2021; David Martin, Whatever Happened to

Methodism?Books & Culture 7:3 (May/June 2001), pp. 1417, 4043.

6. Alister McGrath, Evangelicalism & the Future of Christianity (Downers Grove,

Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 1995), pp. 5556.

7. Mark A. Noll, The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind (Grand Rapids, Michigan:

William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994), p. 55. See also Alan Wolfes compre-

hensive analysis of evangelicalism in his article titled The Opening of the Evangelical

Mind, inThe Atlantic Monthly,Vol. 286, No. 4 (October 2000), pp. 5576.

8. See especially chapter 8, The Evangelical Roots of Feminism and chapter 9,

Anointed to Preach the Gospel to the Poor in Dayton, Discovering an Evangelical

Heritage.

9. David F. Wells,God in the Wasteland: The Reality of Truth in the World of Fading


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68 WOR D & DEE D

Dreams (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995),

p. 71. See also John B. Carpenter, The Fourth Great Awakening or Apostasy: Is AmericanEvangelicalism Cycling Upwards or Spiraling Downwards? Journal of the Evangelical

Theological Society,Volume 44, No. 4 (December 2001), pp. 647670.

10. Robert H. Gundry, Jesus the Word According to John the Sectarian: A

Paleofundamentalist Manifesto for Contemporary Evangelicalism, Especially Its Elites in

North America (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company,

2002), p. 89.

11. Christian Smith, American Evangelicalism Embattled and Thriving (Chicago:

The University of Chicago Press, 1998), p. 20.

12. Ibid.,pp. 2122.13. McGrath,Evangelicalism & the Future of Christianity, p. 189.

14. Owen Chadwick,The Victorian Church,2 Vols. (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1987)

2:287.

15. Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity

(Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1997), p. 13.

16. Norman Murdoch, Origins of The Salvation Army (Knoxville: the University of

Tennessee Press, 1994), pp. 1718.

17. Recent works on the Army continue correctly to connect the Booths to

Methodism and holiness and revivalism, but fail to make the careful link in the theologyof the Booths back to the teachings of John Wesley himself. See for example Pamela J.

Walkers Pulling the Devils Kingdom Down: The Salvation Army in Victorian Britain

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).

18. Salvation Story: Salvationist Handbook of Doctrine (London, England: The

Salvation Army International Headquarters, 1998), pp. xiiixiv.

19. Ibid.,pp. 130131.

20. Martin, Whatever Happened to Methodism, p. 40.

21. See Daytons analysis of his own tradition in moving into a generic evangeli-

calism in Dayton, Rejoinder to Historiography Discussion, p. 64.22. For an excellent analysis of the Wesleyan quadrilateral see Donald A. D. Thorsen,

The Wesleyan Quadrilateral: Scripture, Tradition, Reason & Experience as a Model for

Evangelical Theology (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1990).

23. John Wesley, A Plain Account of Christian Perfection (Kansas City, Missouri:

Beacon Hill Press, 1966), p. 97.

24. Diane Winston, RedHot and Righteous: The Urban Religion of The Salvation

Army(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999), p. 192.

25. Ibid.,p. 189.

26. Smith,American Evangelicalism, p. 219.27. Ibid.

28. Ibid.,p. 177.

29. See the International Spiritual Life Commission Report in Salvation Story


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Study Guide(London, England: The Salvation Army International Headquarters, 1999),

pp. 113119, especially The Disciplines of Our Life Together, p. 118.

30. I am indebted to Colonel Earl Robinson, the present chair of the InternationalDoctrine Council and the Armys representative to many of these groups mentioned, for

sharing this information with me. Colonel Robinsons present appointment is at The

Salvation Army International Headquarters Office for Spiritual Life Development and

International External Relations.


Documents

WD 2003 May 4 SA and Evangelical Tradition