Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 1, No. 176

Freshwater is a finite resource that is beingcontinuously exploited to meet therequirements of an increasing population.

The estimated average available water per capitaworldwide decreased from about 40,000 cubicmeter (m3) in 1800 to 17,000 m3 in 1950, 12,900m3 in 1970 and 7,000 m3 in 1997. Although thepresent availability is still relatively high, it israpidly decreasing – projected to be only 4,700m3 by 2025. Moreover, there are large spatial andtemporal variations in water availability. In someparts of Asia, water availability is less than thethreshold level of 2,000 m3, below which an areais considered water-stressed.

Agriculture is the largest consumer of water.It accounts for about 84% of the total water use inAsia, 72% worldwide, and 87% in developingcountries. The average irrigation water useefficiency is less than 40%. In predominantly rice-based cropping systems, water use efficiency ismuch less.

About 40% of the world’s food productioncomes from irrigated land, which accounts for only16% of the world’s croplands. Asia, which has thehighest population, also has the largest percentageof irrigated croplands. Expanding or even justsustaining the irrigation base is a key to foodsecurity and poverty alleviation in many developingcountries of the region.

Although still relatively small in most Asiancountries, the demand for water for industrial,municipal and environmental protection purposescontinues to increase at a rate twice that ofpopulation growth. The proportion of wateravailable for agriculture is projected to decline to62% worldwide and 73% in developing countries

Water Resources and Irrigation PolicyIssues in Asia

Wilfredo P. David

by 2020 (Barker and Associates 2000). Hence, theopportunities for expanding the irrigation base arelimited. If food security is to be maintained, waysof increasing water productivity must be found.

Moreover, water is a very fragile resource.Its quality or state is easily modified by humanactivity to such an extent that it becomes lesssuitable for purposes it serves in its natural state.Many human activities, such as land use changes,influence the hydrologic cycle and can polluteavailable water.

In most of Asia, accelerated soil erosion ispresently the most serious pollution problem. Thesediment loads of major rivers are in excess of 50tons per hectare (t/ha) per year, a rate more thanfive times the threshold level for the protection ofterrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Over 50% ofthe coral reefs of the Philippines, for example, havebeen seriously damaged by siltation.

WATER SUPPLY AND DEMANDWATER SUPPLY AND DEMANDWATER SUPPLY AND DEMANDWATER SUPPLY AND DEMANDWATER SUPPLY AND DEMANDCONSIDERATIONSCONSIDERATIONSCONSIDERATIONSCONSIDERATIONSCONSIDERATIONSBy and large, most countries in Asia (except forSingapore, Maldives and South Korea) are still notconsidered water-stressed. However, even incountries with high level of per capita wateravailability, large segments of the population arebeset with water scarcity as a result of the largevariations in the spatial and temporal distributionsof rainfall and stream flow.

1. Water Supply AvailabilityTable 1 presents the average annual precipitationand internal renewable water resources (IRWR) ofthe five sub-regions of Asia according to theInformation Systems on Water and Agriculture of

University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines

77Wilfredo P. David

the United Nations Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO) (FAO 2003). At first glance,it appears that the region is well endowed withwater resources. While accounting for only about16% of the world’s land surface, it receives 22%of total precipitation and produces 28% of theworld’s renewable water resources. However, theregion is home to 53% of the world’s populationand its IRWR is only about half of the world’saverage.

The available supply in the Islands is relativelyhigh – 21,000 m3, 12,000 m3 and 3,000 m3 forMalaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines,respectively. Singapore, which has a supply of only170 m3, has to rely on Malaysia and Indonesia foradditional water supplies. The Indian subcontinent,Eastern Asia, and the Far East are relatively arid,having much less water resources per person thanthe rest of Asia and the world. As early as 1996,South Korea’s per capita water supply of about1,500 m3 per year has already been below thethreshold level of 2,000 m3. India and China arenear this threshold. At an availability level of 114m3 per inhabitant per year, the Maldives experienceschronic water scarcity. As increasing demandscontinue to outpace the development of new sources,more and more areas will become water-stressed.

2. Water DemandTable 2 shows estimates of water withdrawal foragricultural, domestic, and industrial uses by theAsian sub-regions (FAO 2003). There are noavailable data for other uses.

On a macro level, it appears that the presentdemand for water in most Asian countries is stillwell within the available water supplies. The totalwater consumption in the Philippines in 1995, forexample, was only about 13% of the total availablesupply. However, this is projected to increase to44% by 2025. This rapid increase in demand hasalso been observed in Thailand where the total wateruse increased from about 17% of the total supplyin 1990 to 22% in 2000. In the coastal areas ofChina, over 70% of the total surface and ground-water resources are already being utilized. Evenwater-rich Malaysia is experiencing occasionalwater shortages, thus forcing Singapore (whichrelies on Malaysia for additional supply) to seekadditional water agreements with Indonesia.

At 92%, 90%, and 88%, respectively, theIndian subcontinent, the Islands, and the Southeastregion have the highest percentage of waterwithdrawal due to agriculture. However, there arewide variations among individual countries in theshare of agriculture over total water withdrawal:

Table 1. Distribution of internal renewable water resources (IRWR)a among Asian sub-regions

a IRWR is the part of water resources generated from endogenous precipitation. It is computed by summing summerwater flow and groundwater recharge and subtracting their common part.

b Indian subcontinent includes India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Maldives. Eastern Asia includesChina, Mongolia, and North Korea. Far East includes Japan and South Korea. Southeast includes Thailand, Vietnam,Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos. Islands include countries of the India and North Pacific Ocean from Malaysia,Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines.

Sub-regionb Annual precipitation Internal renewable water resourcesm m km3 km3 m3/inhabitant (1996)

Indian subcontinent 1,279 4,875 1,709 1,544Eastern Asia 597 6,709 2,914 2,307Far East 1,634 780 495 2,900Southeast 1,877 3,640 1,768 9,062Islands 2,823 8,444 4,707 15,953Asia 1,194 24,448 11,592 3,825World - 110,000 41,022 6,984Asia as % of world 22 28

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 1, No. 178

Myanmar (90%), Vietnam (78%), Thailand (90%),Philippines (60%), Indonesia (76%), North Korea(73%), Malaysia (47%), South Korea (43%), andCambodia (94%).

Irrigation accounts for the bulk of water usein agriculture. In the Philippines, for example, 72%and 27% of the total water use in agriculture arefor irrigation and fishery, respectively.

In Asia where approximately half of theirrigated area is devoted to flooded rice production,the average water withdrawal per hectare ofirrigated land is about 8,900 m3 per ha per year(0.89 m/year). China and India, which account forabout 72% of the region’s agricultural withdrawal,average 7,500 m3 and 9,200 m3 per ha, respectively.Other countries (e.g., Philippines, Malaysia, Japan,South Korea, Nepal and Sri Lanka) show muchhigher withdrawal rates ranging from 15,000 m3

to 31,500 m3 per hectare per year.Table 2 also shows the total water withdrawal

as percentage of the IRWR. A value of 25% ormore (e.g., Indian subcontinent) indicates highpressure on water resources. A better indicator ofthe pressure on water resources is total renewablewater resources (TRWR), which takes into accountincoming or out-going flows (or water sharingagreements) across national boundaries. Thecountries with relatively high percentages of totalwithdrawal to TRWR include India (34%), SouthKorea (26%), Japan (21%), Sri Lanka (20 %),China (19%) and North Korea (18%).

Irrigation places a heavy demand on waterlargely because of the very low water use efficiency

of the predominantly irrigated flooded rice oftropical Asia. This large wastage results inundesirable hydrologic side effects such as waterlogging and salinity problems (e.g., Indus Valleyof Pakistan and Red River Delta of Vietnam).

Today, other irrigation-related problems arebecoming serious in the crop growing areas ofChina, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.Water tables or piezometric water levels aredeclining due to excessive pumping for irrigation(e.g., eastern, northern and central parts of Luzonand Visayas in the Philippines, and in Thailand andPakistan). The dry season flows of major rivers(e.g., Yellow river in China, Indus river in Pakistanand Ganges river in India and Bangladesh) aredecreasing due to massive water diversion forirrigation. Certain forms of irrigation (floodrecession or inundation schemes) are adverselyaffecting wetlands and marshes, decimating the fishpopulation.

In the agrarian countries of the region, thecombined municipal and industrial use is estimatedto be 50 to 100 liters per capita per day (lcpd).With urbanization and industrialization, this couldincrease dramatically. For example, the present usein big cities is now from 200 to 600 lcpd. In someof the more developed sub-regions, (e.g., Far Eastand Eastern Asia), the combined municipal andindustrial use ranges from 23% to 36% of the totalwater use.

Increasing demand for urban and industrialuse is forcing water authorities to over-pump criticalaquifers. Many cities in Indonesia, China, Thailand

Table 2. Regional distribution of water withdrawal

Annual water withdrawal by sector Sub-region Agricultural Domestic Industrial Total withdrawal

km3 % of km3 % of km3 % of km3 % of m3/ % oftotal total total total inhab IRWR

Indian subcontinent 510.7 92 27.2 5 15.5 3 553.4 38 500 32Eastern Asia 418.3 77 26.8 5 95.0 18 540.1 37 428 19Far East 73.5 64 23.2 20 18.4 16 115.1 8 674 23Southeast 82.1 88 3.9 4 7.0 8 93.0 6 476 5Islands 127.9 90 10.4 7 4.3 3 142.6 10 483 3Asia 1,212.5 84 91.5 6 140.2 10 1,444.2 100 476 12World 2,310.5 71 290.6 9 652.2 20 3,253.3 100 564 8Asia as % of world 52.5 31.5 21.5 44.4

SOURCE: FAO’s Information System of Water and Agriculture (FAO 2003).

79Wilfredo P. David

and the Philippines are now experiencing saltwaterintrusion into their freshwater aquifers and landsubsidence. As competition for water intensifies,urban and industrial demands take precedence overagricultural or rural uses, hence dispossessingfarmers of their traditional sources of irrigationwater. As a result of the El Niño episode of 1997,for example, the water traditionally used forirrigating large tracts of rice lands in BulacanProvince in the Philippines was diverted to meetthe growing needs of the Metro Manila area, thusraising the issue of water rights and social equityin the allocation of basic resources.

3. Water Quality ConsiderationsIt has been estimated that more than a billion peopletoday do not have access to safe water for drinking.In Cambodia and Laos, for example, only about25% of the rural population have access to safedrinking water. For many areas of Vietnam andThailand, the percentage is still less than 50%.

To a large extent, the lack of access to safedrinking water is due to contamination of watersources by point and non-point pollutants thatinclude sediments, wastewater from agriculture,industry and domestic uses, and solid wastes fromindustrial, urban and rural areas. Many of thedeveloping countries of Asia lack financial resourcesto provide for adequate sanitation facilities, andthe political will to implement laws or regulationsgoverning illegal squatting in protected forest areasand in big cities. Many local government units areunwilling and unable to properly dispose of theirgarbage. It is estimated that because of pollution,less than half of the potential fresh water resourceis suitable to meet human needs at present.

ISSUES IN WATER SUPPLY,ISSUES IN WATER SUPPLY,ISSUES IN WATER SUPPLY,ISSUES IN WATER SUPPLY,ISSUES IN WATER SUPPLY,QUALITY, AND DEMANDQUALITY, AND DEMANDQUALITY, AND DEMANDQUALITY, AND DEMANDQUALITY, AND DEMANDThere is a host of interrelated issues that must beaddressed in the short and medium terms if a watercrisis in the region is to be averted. Among others,these include: changing demand patterns; impactof climate change and watershed modifications onthe water supply; low water productivity inagriculture; inadequate investments in water supplysystems; moves toward decentralized and privatizedwater service and market mechanisms; the need toreduce non-revenue water; a sustained andexpanded irrigation base; recycling of wastewater

for agriculture; access to water of the rural andurban poor; groundwater mining; internationalcollaboration for managing shared water resources;protection of freshwater ecosystem, and theunfavorable environment for a comprehensive waterresources policy and program framework.

1. Shifting Demand/AllocationAmong Competing UsesThe shifting demand for water and the increasingconflicts among competing users are the result ofpopulation growth, urbanization, industrial-ization,and economic development. A vision for a desirablewater world and a framework for action areimperative to meet the pressing needs for socialand economic welfare and the development of theregion.

A good example of a vision, including astrategy and framework for action, for a desirablewater world is that prepared for Southeast Asia bythe Southeast Asia Technical Advisory Committee(SEATAC) of the Global Water Partnership (WorldWater Council 2000). The countries involved areBrunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, LaoPDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore,Thailand and Vietnam.

The vision of SEATAC is to ensure access ofall inhabitants of Southeast Asia to safe, adequateand affordable water; provide sufficient water toensure food security, and to spur and sustain theeconomies of the region; protect the waterenvironment to preserve flow regimes, biodiversityand cultural heritage; and eliminate water-relatedhealth hazards.

The framework or strategy for action includesmanaging water resources efficiently andeffectively; moving towards integrated river basinmanagement; translating awareness to political willand capacities; and moving towards adequate andaffordable water services. Managing waterresources efficiently and effectively might entail acomprehensive review of policy and legislation soas to remove policy distortions and foster a policyenvironment in support of the vision; integratingand coordinating fragmented activities andresponsibilities for water resources management;the treatment of water as an economic good; thedevelopment and adoption of appropriatetechnologies; and the enhancement of institutionalcapacity.

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 1, No. 180

The irrigation base should be protected byemploying water conservation technologies, suchas farm level water management, soil moistureconservation measures, and cropping managementtechniques. Intra-country and regional cooperationin shared river basins should be strengthened for amore equitable and efficient management of watersupply.

From the viewpoint of water resources, a riverbasin is an ideal planning and management unit.The concept of river basin management should berevisited when looking for solutions to water-related problems. The river basin is also the idealunit to promote equitable sharing among conflictingwater users.

At present, the more pressing water problemof the region is the efficient and timely delivery ofwater rather than limited supply. Unfavorablepolicies, such as high government subsidies, lackof infrastructure, and inadequate institutionalcapacity to deliver have impacted negatively onthe water sector in some countries in the region.As a result, many existing water distributionsystems for domestic use and irrigation areinefficient and fast deteriorating.

Political will goes a long way towardsimplementing reforms aimed at improving waterdelivery services and equitable water allocation.There is a need to instill awareness of the economic,social, and environmental values of water amongdifferent stakeholders.

Good governance requires an institutionwhere committed leadership and empoweredconstituency exist. Government, the private sector,and the community should work together so thatall water-related concerns and interests areaddressed. Effective and efficient water resourcesmanagement requires the development andstrengthening of decentralized water-relatedinstitutions, supported by well-informedstakeholders.

2. Low Water Use Efficiencyand Water Productivity in Agriculture

The bulk of available information in tropicalAsia would indicate irrigation water use efficienciesin the order of 30% to 40% as against designassumption of 50% to 65% overall efficiency. Theend result is low cropping intensity (less than 130%for Philippines, Pakistan and Cambodia) and very

low unit area productivity. In the Philippines, thelow unit area productivity is partly due to the biastowards national irrigation systems (NIS) andcommunal irrigation systems (CIS), which are verydifficult to manage, and have long waterconveyance and distribution canals. The actualbenefits from such irrigation systems are, on theaverage, less than half of those projected duringdesign stage. David and delos Reyes (2003)estimated that only about a third of the potentialgravity irrigation development is actually beingrealized (Figure 1).

There is now an increasing clamor torationalize the use of public funds for large, gravityirrigation systems. As a result, there has been asearch for more cost-effective and efficientirrigation technologies. The trend in much of Asiais now towards small-scale, privatized, farmer-controlled irrigation systems such as shallowtubewells, low-lift pumps and pressurized (drip,overhead, etc.) irrigation systems. Such systemsare more efficient (50-90% water use efficiency),cost-effective, and allow farmers greater flexibilityin their choice of crop-mix or farming systems.Much of the growth in irrigated areas since 1980has come from tubewells.

From the viewpoint of equity in access toirrigation water and food security, there is still aneed to maintain and build large gravity irrigationsystems. To rehabilitate or develop such systems,greater emphasis should now be given to irrigationsoftware (e.g., improved on-farm watermanagement) and hardware (lined canals and morewater control facilities) that minimize water losses.

It is imperative that agriculture should notonly use irrigation water more efficiently but alsoreclaim, re-use or recycle wastewater for irrigationif the irrigation base for grain production is to beexpanded on a sustainable basis. These issues onthe efficient use and re-use of water, and a host ofrelated issues must be addressed in the short andmedium terms to avert an irrigation crisis in theregion.

3. Inadequate Investmentsin Water Supply Systems to Meet Future DemandsThe cost of developing water supply systems hassteadily increased during the past two decades. Thecost of gravity irrigation development, for example,nearly doubled during this period. In the

81Wilfredo P. David

Philippines, the average investment cost per hectare(ha) for gravity irrigation is now more thanUS$4,000 per ha. The developing countries of theregion are investing less for the development ofwater supply systems.

From 1951 to 1980, the annual growth ratein irrigated areas in Asia averaged 2.1%. From 1980to 1995, this slowed down to 1.3%. Table 3 showsthe growth in irrigated areas of selected Asiancountries.

4. Recycling Wastewater for AgricultureWastewater is normally filtered, disinfected, andmixed with freshwater, if necessary (to dilute theconcentration of salts) to make it suitable foragricultural use. There are well-documented successstories in using wastewater for irrigation. Thevitality of the crop agriculture sector of Californiais, in fact, mainly due to the sustainable use ofwastewater for irrigation. However, most of theavailable technologies for wastewater treatmentmay still be prohibitive to the poor countries ofthe region. Nevertheless, with adaptive researchand modifications, appropriate technologies arebound to evolve.

Countries in the region are now beginning tocapture tail water runoff from irrigation to expandirrigation service areas. Irrigated rice-fish-livestock

farming systems based on multiple water use orre-use principles are beginning to materialize.Elevated poultry houses are built over fishponds;the poultry droppings fertilize the pond water. Thepond water is regularly replaced with thewastewater being used for rice irrigation. On asomewhat smaller scale, the solid parts ofwastewater from municipal landfills and feedlotsare removed and sold as organic fertilizers or gardensoils while the treated wastewater is used to producehigh-value crops. Some countries (e.g., Pakistan)have embarked on long-term land drainage andreclamation projects designed partly to reclaim orre-use wastewater from irrigation.

5. Access to Water of the Rural and Urban PoorMany societies consider access to water as a basichuman right. Thus, most countries in the regionhave adopted a policy of enhancing the provisionof water supply and sanitation at local levels. Somecountries have established independent waterdistricts with enabling acts and guidelines forcommunity participation in the planning andimplementation of community-based waterresources development projects. Access to waterby the poor, however, should not be at the expenseof efficient and sustainable water service.

Fig. 1. Unit Area Productivity for Areas Served by Different Irrigation Systems

2.5

4.0

7.0

12.0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

t/ha/yr

5

8

1.5 4.5

9.5

Potential level

STW/LLP-irrigated

NIS/CIS-irrigated

Rainfed

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 1, No. 182

6. Towards Decentralizationand Market MechanismsThere is a need to rationalize the currentarrangements for development financing in thewater resources sector. This should aim to makeresource allocation more demand-led and ensurethat local government units (LGUs) and waterdistricts wishing to improve and extend the supplyand distribution of water and/or provide sanitationservices within their areas of jurisdiction have accessto adequate finance. The provision of long- andshort-term finance for capital investment shouldmatch the demand for services within the contextof decentralization of powers to the LGUs and theadoption of market-based instruments.

7. The Need to ReduceNon-Revenue Water (NRW)There are high levels of non-revenue water in mostdeveloping countries. In the Philippines, forexample, a great number of piped water systemsof the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage

System (MWSS) is suffering from more than 55%level of NRW. Moreover, only about 50% of theoperation and maintenance costs of government-run irrigation facilities are recovered throughirrigation service fees. The subsidy on the operationof government-financed irrigation systemsdiscourages the efficient use of water. Hence, oneeffective policy measure in enhancing sustainableuse of water is to reduce NRW.

8. Privatizing the Provisionand Pricing of Water ServiceIn general, the government is a poor businessmanager. Studies in the Philippines and Pakistanreveal that one of the serious causes of inefficiencyin water resources management is the directinvolvement in the operation, financing, andownership of the water supply of the public sector.

A better option is to encourage private sectorparticipation to tap its potentials for commercialviability, operational efficiency, increasedcompetition, and improved cost recovery.

Table 3. Growth in irrigated area in Asian countries, 1980-1995

Increase in Average annual Share of Total total irrigated growth growth in irrigated

Country 1980-1995 (%) Asia area, 1980(‘000 ha) (‘000 ha)

India 11,622 1.8 0.48 38,478China 4,390 0.6 0.18 45,467Pakistan 2,520 1.1 0.10 14,680Thailand 1,989 3.4 0.08 3,015Bangladesh 1,631 4.9 0.07 1,569Myanmar 556 3.0 0.02 999Vietnam 458 1.7 0.02 1,542Nepal 365 3.6 0.01 520Philippines 361 1.7 0.01 1,219North Korea 340 1.8 0.01 1,120Indonesia 279 0.4 0.01 4,301Cambodia 73 3.7 0.00 100Laos 62 2.9 0.00 115South Korea 28 0.1 0.00 1,307Sri Lanka 25 0.3 0.00 525Malaysia 20 0.4 0.00 320Bhutan 13 2.7 0.00 26Japan -355 -0.8 -0.01 3,055

Asia 24,377 1.3 1.00 118,358

83Wilfredo P. David

9. Ensuring Institutional Capacity to DeliverCapacity-building is an indispensable element inimproving water services and in the sustainabledevelopment of water resources. There are fourgenerally recognized basic elements of capacity-building: 1) fostering a favorable environment withappropriate policy, legal and macroeconomicframework; 2) institutional development includingcommunity participation; 3) human resourcesdevelopment and; 4) strengthening of managementsystems.

The problems associated with water supplyand demand-population relationships are highlylocalized in nature. Hence, community parti-cipation is crucial to understanding local conditions.It is also vital to strengthening institutionalarrangements and creating among localcommunities a sense of identification with orownership of water resources development projects.

Many local waterworks and sewerageauthorities, and LGUs in many areas of the regionare capable of designing and constructing domesticwater supply systems. However, they are not asadept at designing and maintaining seweragefacilities and in protecting water sources (e.g.,watersheds and aquifers). Hence, there is a needfor continuing human resources development.There is also a need to improve the managementof water supply systems to minimize losses andpilferage.

10. Comprehensive Framework and CoherentNational Strategy for Water Supply and SanitationMany countries lack a comprehensive waterresources policy framework and a coherent strategyfor water supply and sanitation. This partly stemsfrom the fragmentation of water resourcesdevelopment activities and the lack of baselineinformation on water resources supply and demand.In Cambodia, for example, the mandate forirrigation development is claimed by threeMinistries (Agriculture and Forestry, WaterResources, and Rural Development). In thePhilippines, irrigation development is entrusted tothe National Irrigation Administration (NIA),Bureau of Soils and Water Management (BSWM)and LGUs. This is because both countries still donot have a comprehensive water resources policyframework to guide the allocation, planning, and

development of water resources developmentprojects.

11. Effect of Changing Climateand Man-Made Modifications on Water SupplyWatersheds are subject to continuing manipulations.Some are for land and water resources developmentsuch as irrigation, flood control, and powergeneration. Others are for purposes not directlyrelated to water resources utilization but withundesirable hydrologic side- effects. Theconversion of forest cover into urban areas orgrasslands, for example, resulted in shiftinghydrographs (increasing flood peaks, decreasingdependable stream flows) and water qualitydegradation. Land use transformations may alsohave adverse effects on the recharge and safe yieldsof shallow aquifers.

The traditional methods of protecting criticalwatersheds and aquifer recharge areas by reforest-ation and agro-forestation have to be augmentedwith mechanical methods in order to conserve aswell as enhance vital land and water resources.

With its very large population dependent onagriculture, the Asian region is vulnerable to thenegative impact on water resources and extremehydrologic events of any significant climate change.It is therefore important to study the vulnerabilityof the different sub-regions or countries to theimpact of climate change so that adaptive strategiesto minimize such impact could be developed.

12. Inadequate Water Resources DatabaseThere are pressing needs to fully harness shallowaquifer utilization. However, the dearth of hydro-geologic information constrains such moves. Forinstance, the inadequate database on aquiferlithologic (i.e., depth, thickness and composition),hydraulic (i.e., hydraulic conductivity, trans-missibility, storage coefficient and specific yield)and hydrologic properties (i.e., safe yield) is theprimary reason for the under-utilization ofgroundwater resources in many Asian countries(e.g., Philippines, Cambodia and Indonesia).Equally important is the continuing assessment ofsurface water potentials for irrigation and other usesto properly identify and zone potentially irrigableareas by various modes of irrigation. Further, in-depth characterization of the water balance

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 1, No. 184

parameters (i.e., rainfall, evapo-transpiration andincident solar radiation) of major crop-growingareas is badly needed.

Most countries of the region do not havedatabases of water resources with the requiredspatial and temporal resolutions for accuratelyassessing water resources, projecting future watersupply and demand scenarios, identifyingalternative development options, and evaluating theimpacts of policies, plans and programs related towater resources. For example, information onstreamflows and stream-flow quality (e.g.,suspended sediment load, biological oxygendemand [BOD] and concentrations of heavy metals)is spotty in most countries of the region. There arealso no reliable data on the impact of changingland use or human influence on stream-flowproperties. The available information on importantaquifer properties is inadequate for planning.

13. Groundwater MiningMany Asian countries have good aquifers in theform of alluvial deposits. These are beingrecharged continuously from percolation fromrainfall, and seepage from surface water bodies.As a result, groundwater irrigation has been theengine of growth of agriculture during the past threedecades in the more arid Indian subcontinent andthe Eastern sub-region. India, Nepal, Bangladesh,Pakistan and China use over 300 km3 ofgroundwater annually, nearly half of the world’sannual use (Shah et al. 2003). In India, about 60%of the irrigated area was served by about 19 millionwells in 2000. In Bangladesh, more than 80% ofthe irrigated areas is served by shallow tubewells.On the arid North China plains, groundwater wasextracted from some 3.3 million tubewells toirrigate 14 million ha in 1997. In Pakistan,groundwater provides over 40% of the crop waterrequirement in the province of Punjab, whichproduces 90% of the country’s food.

In Asian sub-regions which have abundantsurface water, groundwater is still basically usedfor domestic and industrial water supply, except inthe Philippines where shallow tubewell irrigationhas become popular among farmers.

The rapid growth of groundwater irrigationresulted in a boom, propelling rural and regionaleconomic growth, and ensured livelihood and food

security for the poor. It has been estimated that thecontribution of groundwater to the Asian economyis about US $25 billion - 30 billion annually. Overhalf of the population of South Asia is now directlyor indirectly dependent on groundwater irrigationfor livelihood. Hence, it is critical to sustain thegroundwater boom experienced by these countries.

Groundwater mining or overdraft, which hasbeen observed in countries relying on deepwellirrigation, poses as a threat. The solution to thisproblem lies in groundwater basin-widemanagement for long-term sustainable use. Thereare also observed water-logging and salinityproblems in arid areas served by both shallow anddeep wells. These must be addressed by regulatedgroundwater use, and conjunctive surface andgroundwater use.

There are misconceptions even amongtechnical people on the potential environmentalimpact of shallow tubewells (STW). One concernis that too many STWs will result in declininggroundwater levels and cause groundwater miningand possibly land subsidence. Groundwater leveldecline should be differentiated from (1)temporary overdraft or (2) groundwater mining(sustained withdrawal beyond the aquifer’s safeyield). Under temporary overdraft conditions, themean annual groundwater abstractions are withinthe safe yields or recharge rates of the aquifers.Thus, the groundwater levels return to their normallevels at the end of the wet season. Under conditionsof groundwater mining, the groundwater levelscontinue to subside as groundwater withdrawals arein excess of aquifer recharge rates.

The truth of the matter is that STWs operateby suction lifting and cannot extract water beyondthe suction lifting range of about 7.5 m (below theground surface). Hence, STWs can not possiblymine groundwater. The groundwater extracted bySTWs is usually replenished during the wet season.This is more so in the wetter regions of SoutheastAsia. Restriction over the number or siting oftubewells, however, may be necessary to keep thewater level within the suction lifting rangethroughout the dry season and thus prevent partialcrop failure due to water shortage as a result oftemporary groundwater overdraft. The thresholdlevel whereby STWs become inoperable should bedefined for all major shallow aquifer systems. This

85Wilfredo P. David

limit should not be allowed to be reached orexceeded, as the only alternative to sustaininggroundwater irrigation is to shift to deep tubewells.

Deep wells can extract water beyond thesuction lifting range and their unrestricteddevelopment may lead to groundwater mining andother adverse environmental side effects. Sitingdeep tubewells for irrigation in STW areas shouldonly be allowed if their operation will not adverselyaffect the operation of STWs.

14. International Collaborationfor Managing Shared Water ResourcesThe region is characterized, on the one hand, by aseries of island countries with no shared waterresources among them and, on the other hand, byshared river basins. Examples of shared rivers arethe Mekong, Indus and Ganges.

The importance of river basin managementin the equitable allocation of water has already beenmentioned. The merit of international collaborationin pooling resources, expertise and information formanaging shared water resources cannot beoveremphasized. The lack of clear-cut agreementson the sharing and management of the waters ofthe Ganges river resulted in the costly and sub-optimal water resources infrastructures in Nepaland Bangladesh.

15. Fostering a Favorable Policy EnvironmentOne of the requisites to ensuring an adequate watersupply to meet future needs is the fostering of afavorable policy environment for the efficient use,optimum allocation, conservation and managementof water resources. Many countries (e.g.,Bangladesh, Philippines and Indonesia) fullysubsidize the investment costs and, to a certainextent, the operation and maintenance cost of largegravity irrigation systems while privatizing orremoving the subsidies for other irrigation schemes.Naturally, farmers will prefer the inefficient andcostly but subsidized gravity systems. This is acase where an inappropriate policy precluded thejudicious choice by farmers for more suitable modeof irrigation.

In some countries, the pricing and subsidypolicies for agricultural products also preclude thejudicious choice of crops by farmers. In Pakistan,for example, subsidy on imported wheat and

protection for sugarcane led to the irrigatedcultivation of aromatic rice and sugarcane – twocrops that consume more water per unit area perunit crop. This is in spite of the scarcity of irrigationwater in the country.

The design of most gravity irrigation inSoutheast Asia is tailor-made for rice monoculture,with inadequate attention to drainage. As a result,farmers cannot diversify their farming systems totake advantage of favorable conditions for thecultivation of other crops. Some countries put uptariff and non-tariff barriers to the entry ofirrigation technologies (e.g., pump sets). In manycountries, the incentives to irrigated crop productionare not market-driven. Water lords or powerfulinterests control the allocation and use of irrigationand municipal water, to the detriment of the smallpeople and fisherfolk. Most of the traditionalcommunity fishing grounds of the TonLe Sap, ahuge lake in Cambodia, have been leased to bigfishermen.

Generally, the existing policy environmentdoes not reward the good water users, nor penalizeits misuse. Some countries, however, are beginningto use legislative and budgetary allocation measurestogether with policy initiatives to support sustainablewater resources development. Such measuresinclude improved financing for the water resourcessector, enabling act (the Clean Water Act in thecase of the Philippines), deregulation,decentralization to LGUs, and privatization of waterservices.

16. Promoting Economies of ScaleIn some developing countries, there are too manysmall water districts or local water authorities. Inthe Philippines, there are over 500 water districts(WDs) and 1,500 LGUs all mandated by law toprovide water supply and sanitation services in thecountry. A big portion of these WDs and LGUssuffer from the lack of one or more of thefollowing: water resources, physical facilities,human resources, or financial resources. Onepossible solution is to create economies of scale bygrouping this unwieldy number of WDs and LGUs.Such cooperation or grouping may be able toenhance the technical feasibility, financial viabilityand operational efficiency of a country’s watersupply and sanitation systems.

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SPECIFIC ISSUES IN IRRIGATIONSPECIFIC ISSUES IN IRRIGATIONSPECIFIC ISSUES IN IRRIGATIONSPECIFIC ISSUES IN IRRIGATIONSPECIFIC ISSUES IN IRRIGATIONAND RECOMMENDATIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Poor Performance of Gravity Irrigation Systemsand Irrigated AgricultureRecent information points towards the poorperformance of gravity irrigation systems. A reviewof the World Bank-supported large-scale irrigationprojects by Plusquellec (2002) showed that thelower-than-expected performance was related toover-optimistic assumptions regarding efficiency.The impact of poor physical performance in termsof water distribution and concurrent poorconstruction standards on agricultural productivity,is often overlooked. This finding was confirmedby a formal evaluation of 21 irrigation projects bythe Bank’s Operations Evaluation Department(OED) up to 1990. For the 21 projects, theestimated average economic rates of return were17.7% at appraisal, 14.8% at project completion,and only 9.3% at impact evaluation.

Another OED study in 1996 on the impactof investments in six gravity irrigation systems inThailand, Myanmar and Vietnam showed that theeconomic rates of return not only fell short ofappraisal projections by a substantial margin, butwere all below 7%. These findings challenged the

common precepts about water management in thehumid tropics – that the major threats tosustainability of irrigation investments arise frommismanagement by official agencies and distributiveanarchy due to the opportunistic behavior offarmers. The gap between appraisal expectationsand actual results cannot be attributed to decayinginfrastructure or distributive wastages. Rather, it isdue to falling paddy prices, excessively optimisticestimates of crop areas served, irrigation projectdesign faults, and construction inadequacy.

Available information in the Philippinespoints to the same conclusion. Table 4 shows thecropping intensities in irrigated areas and yield levelsin both irrigated and rainfed areas in 1990 and1994. The cropping intensities were very low,averaging 129% and 122%, respectively. Further,the yields were also very low, accounting for onlyabout two thirds of their potential levels. In 1998,average cropping intensity was 118% and the yieldwas relatively higher at 3.7 t/ha.

The results of a study on the actual maximumareas served over design areas of representativesamples of national irrigation systems (NIS) andcommunal irrigation systems (CIS) show that, onthe average, the maximum area irrigated is only75% of the design area (Table 5). This means that

Year Region Irrigation intensity Irrigated area yield Rainfed area yield(%) (t/ha) (t/ha)

1990 CAR 99 2.75 1.761 92 2.84 2.522 105 3.46 1.863 123 2.95 2.124 134 3.00 2.055 217 2.60 1.596 151 3.16 2.147 203 2.19 1.068 151 2.73 1.519 166 3.54 1.66

10 133 3.51 2.2111 132 3.75 2.5712 156 3.61 2.19

1990 Average 129 3.10 1.99 1994 Average 122 3.38 2.11

Table 4. Average yields in irrigated and rainfed farms and average irrigation intensities, in irrigatedareas, 1990 and 1994

SOURCE: Department of Agriculture.

87Wilfredo P. David

if irrigation facilities are designed and developedfor 100 ha, only about 75 ha, on the average, willactually be irrigated. Larger systems seem to beless efficient than smaller systems. What is strikingis the 20% decline in the ratio with vintage. Newerirrigation projects only served 56% of their designed

service areas in contrast with the high 94% servedbefore 1965.

Table 6 shows the economic performanceindicators for selected large gravity irrigationprojects assisted by the International Bank forReconstruction and Development (IBRD) and theAsian Development Bank (ADB). Time and costoverruns averaged 63% and 42%, respectively. Notethat none of the sample irrigation projects wascompleted on time. This would imply a tendencyto underestimate the duration of projectconstruction and/or inefficiency in projectimplementation. As these projects have longconstruction periods, a time overrun of 60% wouldmean years of delay in project completion andrealization of the streams of project benefits.

The reasons for the poor performance ofgravity irrigation systems include an inadequatedatabase for planning; inadequate institutionalcapacity and mechanisms for the development oflarge irrigation projects; design mistakes; poorquality of construction; inadequate and fragmentedirrigated-agriculture support services; and theintractability of many of the interrelated socio-economic, institutional and technical aspects ofmanaging medium and large irrigation systems.

Table 5. Summary statistics, 1965-1983maximum irrigated areas as apercentage of design areas (AfterFerguson 1986)

Category Median Mean

All systems 75.5 75.1

By sizeSmall (less than 1,000 ha) 70.5 79.2Medium (1,000 to 3,000 ha) 72.1 75.7Large (greater than 3,000 ha) 76.8 72.8

VintagePre-NIA (before 1965) 92.6 94.0Early NIA (1965 to 1972) 71.0 69.5Recent NIA (1972 to 1983) 52.1 55.5

Table 6. Performance indicators of selected World Bank and ADB-supported national irrigationsystems projects

a Weighted average of three projects. SOURCE: World Bank (1991)b Figures in parenthesis estimated based on rice price at completion date

% Time % Cost ERR (%)Projects overrun overrun Appraisal Completion Evaluation

World Bank UPRIIS 43 105 13.0 14.0 8.9 (11.7) b

Aurora Peñaranda 88 44 17.0 8.6 2.6 (4.5)Tarlac ISIP 69 33 15.0 13.0 n.aMARIIS 56a -4a 13.0 9.5 n.aUpper Chico 90 -3 15.0 7.7 n.aJalaur 37 -2 20.0 20.0 n.a

ADBCotabato 15 68 14.0 n.a. n.aDavao del Norte 30 177 17.2 18.4 n.aPulangui 87 25 18.0 11.0 n.aAgusan del Sur 114 54 19.0 7.0 n.aAngat-Magat 45 102 24.2 16.6 n.aLaguna de Bay 63 42 14.2 2.0 n.a

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The measures to improve the performancesof existing systems include: (1) focusing on smallersystems which are more efficient, easy to manage,amenable to privatization, cheaper to construct, andhave shorter gestation periods; (2) streamlining,restructuring, and/or reorienting public institutionsor agencies concerned for better performance; (3)integrating and planning the design and operationactivities for the much needed interactions amongdesigners, planners, operation and management(O&M) engineers and user-beneficiaries; (4)emphasizing more cost-effective O&M andrehabilitation activities; (5) enhancing regional andprovincial capabilities for irrigation developmentactivities; (6) effective monitoring of irrigationsystems performance; and (7) implementing asystem of greater accountability in the use of publicfunds for irrigation.

2. Sub-Optimal Use of WaterIrrigation places a heavy demand on water partlybecause of its sub-optimal use of water. In thepredominantly rice-based cropping systems servedby large gravity irrigation systems, the real wateruse efficiency is less than 20%. The waterproductivity of such irrigation systems is not morethan half a kilogram of rice for every cubic meterof water used.

The large wastage in gravity-fed paddyirrigation has many adverse hydrologic andenvironmental side-effects. These include waterlogging, pollution from tail water runoff andreduced dry season flows of rivers feeding aquaticecosystems due to massive water diversion forirrigation.

There is now an increasing clamor torationalize and optimize the use of irrigation water.As a result, there has been a search for more cost-effective and efficient irrigation technologies. Thetrend now is towards the more efficient and cost-effective, small-scale irrigation systems. Thesesystems give farmers a greater degree of controlover their irrigation water and, hence, are moreamenable to crop diversification and privatization.

The strategies for increasing water useefficiency of irrigated agriculture include cropdiversification, modernization of existing gravityirrigation facilities, irrigation management transferor devolving as much irrigation managementactivities to local government units and water users

groups as possible, developing improved cropvarieties, manipulating cropping calendars, andimproving on-farm water management and cropcultural practices. Modernization of an irrigationsystem involves upgrading or improving the systemcapacity to respond appropriately to servicedemands. It is not simply rehabilitation because itincludes rectifying design shortcomings and itinvolves institutional, organizational andtechnological changes at all operational levels ofirrigation activities.

3. Cost-Effectiveness and Suitability of CurrentIrrigation TechnologiesConsidering the tight financial situation and thedemands for more public funds for the constructionof other infrastructure and facilities, investmentsin irrigation system rehabilitation must be cost-effective.

There is a strong bias in favor of certainmodes of irrigation in the allocation of funds andother resources for irrigation. To remove such bias,the criteria for allocation should be: (1) cost-effectiveness; (2) affordability (low unit areainvestment cost); (3) sustainability (full repair,O&M costs recovery); (4) efficiency in water use;(5) simplicity of O&M including on-farm waterdistribution and management practices for farmer-irrigators; (6) length of gestation period; and (7)potential for increasing unit area productivity.

One important implication of this policyinitiative is the need to reassess the present irrigationdevelopment priorities (e.g., rehabilitation ormodernization of existing gravity systems or thedevelopment of other modes of irrigation such asshallow tubewells [STWs], low-lift pumps [LLPs],small farm ponds, small inundation schemes andhand tubewells [HTWs]) in terms of the abovecriteria. Other implications include: (1) the needto delineate or zone areas according to the mostsuitable mode of irrigation (e.g., shallow versusdeepwell areas); (2) greater participation of farmer-irrigators in the planning, development and O&Mof irrigation facilities; and (3) removal of irrigationsubsidies.

A quick assessment of the different modes ofirrigation using the above criteria was carried underPhilippine setting by David and delos Reyes (2003).The results are shown in Table 7. When the available

89Wilfredo P. David

data permit, a given criterion was broken downinto its basic indicators. Agronomic performance,for example, was broken down into croppingintensity, yield level and unit area productivity.When quantitative information was inadequate,qualitative ranking was resorted to.

In many instances, the technical andeconomic feasibilities of STWs, LLPs and HTWsdemonstrate that there are better alternatives to largegravity irrigation systems. Collectively calledminor or small-scale irrigation, these modes ofirrigation would meet most of the criteria forpriority investments in irrigation development inmany Asian countries. The investment per unitarea for an STW in the Philippines, for example,is less than one fifth the average cost ofconstructing large gravity irrigation systems.

Many of the alluvial plains and valleys of theregion are criss-crossed by natural waterways whichcould serve as water sources for LLPs. In someplaces, there are also opportunities for inundationschemes and small reservoirs for combinedirrigation and fishery purposes. The developmentof these modes of irrigation is also well within thecapabilities of small communities. Where

technically feasible, these modes of irrigation couldbe more economically viable and sustainablealternatives compared to larger scale gravitysystems. Also, they have very short gestation periodsand higher water use efficiency. They are simpleto operate and maintain. They give farmers greatercontrol over their crop production environment,including the choice of crops and cropping systems.

In spite of the advantages of the differentminor irrigation technologies, these did not attractmany users due to: (1) total neglect of minorirrigation support services by agencies concerned;(2) lack of baseline information on shallow aquifercharacteristics, dependable flows of streams andrivers, and hydrology of potential areas forinundation schemes (e.g., swamps, marshes and wetseason waterlogged flood plains); (3) lack ofbenchmark information on suitable welldevelopment and well drilling techniques; (4) lackof affordable and suitable drilling rigs; and (5)unavailability of cheap pump sets.

4. Subsidy, Sustainabilityand Irrigation Service FeesOne overriding issue in irrigation development

Table 7. Comparative assessments of the different modes of irrigation in terms of differentperformance indicators

1STW – Shallow Tubewell including Low-Lift Pump (LLP); SWIP – Small Water Impounding Project; NIS – National Irrigation System or large gravity irrigation system; CIS – Communal Irrigation System or

small to medium-size gravity irrigation system.SOURCE: David and delos Reyes 2003

Indicators Modes of Irrigation1

STW SWIP CIS NIS

Quantitative indicatorsRice yield level 3.9 3.2 3.2 3.2Cropping intensity 183 125 125 125Unit area productivity 7.2 4.0 4.0 4.0Average investment cost 15 180 70 100Cost effectiveness (ERR, %) 77 13.6 8.1Average gestation period 1 week 1 year 1.5 years 5 years

Qualitative indicators (a rank of 1 is most desirable)

Sustainability 1 2,3 2,3 4Amenability to privatization 1 2,3 2,3 4Crop diversification 1 2,3 2,3 4Degree of farmer’s control 1 2,3 2,3 4

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today is sustainability. It is directly related to theissues of subsidy, cost-effectiveness, efficiency andcost recovery. To achieve efficiency andsustainability, irrigation subsidies must graduallybe removed. This implies that irrigationinvestments and O&M must be fully recoverable.

The present policy on subsidy is biasedtowards large gravity irrigation schemes. Thenational and local governmental units subsidizetheir construction and part of their O&M costs.Most countries (e.g., Bangladesh and Philippines)give very little subsidy to the development of minorirrigation schemes.

The heavy subsidy on large gravity irrigationsystems has been the primary disincentive to thejudicious choice of irrigation technologies. Suchinequity in subsidy increases farmers’ demands forgravity irrigation systems relative to the more cost-effective irrigation technologies and discouragesprivate sector participation in irrigationdevelopment. Obviously, such a policy cannot besustained.

Many countries (e.g., Philippines, Malaysia,Indonesia, and Bangladesh) subsidize the O&M oflarge irrigation systems to supplement irrigationservice fees (ISF). The rationale for this policy isto prevent the deterioration of irrigation facilitiesand expensive rehabilitation work which is usuallythe end-result of cumulative O&M neglect.

In the Philippines, the level of O&M subsidyis about the same as the total ISF collection. Theactual ISF collection averaged only 50% of thetotal amount collectible. It is interesting to pointout that this was about the same percentage of theservice area actually irrigated in the dry season.The level of ISF collection seems to be correlatedwith the quality of irrigation service or irrigationsystem performance.

The cropping intensities in many gravity-fed,rice-based irrigation systems are in the order of 95to 140%. Even during the wet season, a significantpercentage of the irrigation service area cannot beserved with supplemental irrigation water. Thus thelimited money available for irrigation O&M isspread thinly over an unrealistically large irrigationservice area. One way of reducing O&M cost orincreasing O&M allocation per unit area is to reducethe irrigation service areas down to realistic levels.This will enable irrigation authorities to focus theirrepair, O&M and rehabil-itation on smaller but

manageable service areas.Irrigation authorities should redouble their

efforts toward equitable, adequate and timelydelivery of irrigation water and improved deliveryof irrigated agriculture support services for higheryield and cropping intensity. Re-delineating theirrigation service areas down to realistic levels willgo a long way towards increasing the dependabilityof water supply and in improving irrigatedagriculture support services. Strengthening waterusers associations (WUAs) by giving them betterincentives to take control over the repair, and O&Mof secondary and tertiary canals will also helpreduce O&M costs and improve ISF collection.

The policies governing ISF rates should becarefully reviewed. In some countries the ratesare way below the amount required for adequateO&M. In others, farmers are exempted from thepayment of ISF in times of poor harvest. The samefarmer-beneficiaries, however, are not chargedhigher fees during periods of good harvest.

5. Irrigated AgricultureSupport Services and FunctionsA study in many Asian countries by Anden andBarker (1973) showed a yield gap of 87% betweenexperimental or demonstration farms and farmers’fields (Figure 2). This gap has been attributed tothe production constraints shown in the chart.

The experience in many Asian countries alsoshowed that irrigation brings rice yield up to a levelof about 3 t/ha. Yields beyond this level pretty muchdepend on how well the above-mentionedproduction constraints are circumvented by thefarmers. There is a considerable margin for yieldimprovement in irrigated areas associated withproper management of soil and fertilizer, water,pests, seeds and seedlings.

Studies also revealed significant interactionsamong these production constraints. The qualityof water management, for example, is known toinfluence the level of farm inputs, such as fertilizeras well as the incidence of weeds and pests. Hence,production constraints should be viewed in termsof their functional relationships. Most of the seriousrice production problems in irrigated areas arisefrom the inability of those concerned to appreciatethe cause-and-effect relationship among watermanagement, dynamics of important soil properties,and control of weeds and insect pests. Coordination

91Wilfredo P. David

and harmony in policy instruments aimed atoptimizing the benefits from irrigation developmentare lacking.

6. Water Rights and Water PricingMany countries have no coherent policy guidelinesand regulations on water rights, water pricing andwater control. Water rights policies and regulationsshould be reviewed with the end in view of makingthese fair, effective, and doable. Such policies andregulations should consider resource capabilities,such as dependable surface water supplies fromrivers and safe yields from aquifers as well asdemands for water from competing users. Thereshould be provisions for trading or selling waterrights for economic efficiency and equity.

Irrigation water prices should be set, at thevery least, at full O&M cost recovery with the ISFgoing to public or private entities managing theirrigation system.

7. Irrigation R&D and Technological Basefor Planning, Design, Development,and Operation of Irrigation SystemsSupport for irrigation R&D in the region has alwaysbeen inadequate, despite the fact that the bulk ofavailable information worldwide shows very highrates of return of irrigation and irrigated agricultureresearch. Thus the problem of alternative choice

of technologies for more efficient and cost-effectiveirrigation systems has never been adequatelyaddressed. Likewise, the non-structural solutionsto water resources development projects, such asproper pricing of water to reflect its full cost,protecting aquatic ecosystems, managing demand,promoting multiple-use concepts, devising cost-saving measures, and developing water-savingtechnologies, have not been given adequateemphasis.

In addition, the very limited research inirrigation and irrigated agriculture is under-funded,incorrectly focused, fragmented, crop-oriented, andrarely takes into account the socioeconomicconstraints faced by farmers. Thus, most of theresults are inconclusive and are of little relevanceto real irrigated farming situations. The mostpressing challenges in irrigation today are to boostirrigation water productivity, manage ground andsurface resources for sustainable use, reduce thecost of irrigation development, formulate sounddesign criteria, and generate technologies forimproved construction of irrigation facilities. Theseimply technological solutions for meeting theincreased demand for water.

Considering that the region has a large andrapidly growing population but with very limitedlands to exploit and, as such, must depend oncontinuing expansion of irrigation for sustained

Fig. 2. Percentage contribution to the rice yield gap of the various production constraints

35%

26%

21%

9%

9%Insect pests &diseasesWatermanagementFertilizer & soilmanagementSeeds & seedlingmanagementWeeds

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agricultural growth, there is a very strong case forincreasing public investments in irrigation andwater management research. In fact, withintensified and correctly focused R&D efforts, thewastage of huge financial resources for thedevelopment of inefficient irrigation infrastructurescould have been avoided.

The very high and still escalating cost ofgravity irrigation development and rehabilitationis, in part, due to the lack of research leading tothe development of more accurate, efficient andcost-effective gravity irrigation systems.Specifically, research efforts should aim to developirrigation software (e.g., suitable irrigationmethods, on-farm water management packages fordiversified crops, and improved irrigation systemsoperation and maintenance). Along with relevantsocio-economic and policy concerns, theseproductivity-enhancing research agenda deservehigher priorities.

The following weak points of the researchsystem on water resources planning anddevelopment, irrigation and irrigated agriculturemust be addressed immediately:

a. weak planning, programming, prioritization,and packaging;

b. weak management, accountability, andcoordination;

c. inadequate regular funding;d. inability of agencies concerned to effectively

monitor, evaluate and coordinate the researchactivities of various agencies and institutions;

e. highly fragmented efforts; andf. weak linkages with extension services.

Intensive and diversified irrigated agriculturewill require irrigation, good quality seeds and otherinputs, suitable farm mechanization, primaryprocessing (e.g., drying and storage) of farmproducts, and secondary and tertiary processing offarm products and by-products (e.g, food and feedprocessing). This vertical integration of activitiesin crop agriculture (from intensive and diversifiedirrigated agriculture to suitable farm mechanizationto agro-processing and development of relatedagribusiness) offers the best opportunities forincreasing farm incomes, generating employmentand livelihood for the rural poor, and bringingwomen and other underprivileged groups into the

mainstream of agricultural development.There are no easy and uniform pathways or

processes for the effective transfer of irrigationtechnologies from R&D centers to farmers’ fields.The irrigated crop subsector is not homogeneous.Each country has many different agro-ecologicalzones with varying water supply conditions, cropmixes, and farm groups with different needs andfarming constraints. The intervening processes orlinkages between research and extension includemonitoring of existing as well as newly developedtechnologies; identification, evaluation, suitabilityassessment and adaptive modification of promisingtechnologies; and eventual packaging of maturetechnologies for dissemination. These processesare, in fact, indispensable parts of an effectiveresearch and extension system. Only bystrengthening these vital linkages can research andextension services be made sensitive to the changingneeds of farmers. The testing, suitabilityassessment, modification and packaging oftechnologies must be location-specific and specificproblem-oriented to conform to the needs ofdifferent farming groups and agribusiness concerns.

8. Institutional Arrangements/MechanismsFigure 3 shows the essential irrigated agricultureactivities, support services and functions. Anassessment on the adequacy of existing institutionalmechanisms and arrangements would most likelyreveal critical gaps and overlaps in many Asiancountries.

In countries like Cambodia and Laos, thereare crucial shortages on technical manpower at alllevels. Yet in Cambodia, there are three separateministries looking at irrigation development. Far-reaching institutional reforms are urgently neededto (1) fill the void and strengthen essential supportservices and functions, and (2) reorient existingorganizations for stronger linkages and greatersynergy in the areas of policy analysis; planning;programming; monitoring; research anddevelopment; extension; credit and marketing; andinputs supply.

The lines of responsibilities andaccountabilities for these services and functions arenot clearly defined in many of the countries of theregion at present. The essential support servicesand functions that urgently need strengthening inmany South and Southeast Asian countries include:

93Wilfredo P. David

a. policy formulation, planning, programmingand monitoring at the upstream level;

b. research and technology generation, technologyidentification and packaging, institutionaldevelopment, packaging of credit andmarketing facilities, and resources capabilityassessment at the midstream level; and

c. extension and technology demonstration at thedownstream level.

The needed institutional changes may includeestablishing new institutions and/or restructuring,strengthening, downsizing and dismantling existinginstitutions as well as enhancing the participationof the private sector in irrigation developmentactivities.

9. Public Sector’s Capacityto Develop and Improve Irrigated AgricultureEfforts to accelerate the pace of irrigationdevelopment and improve in the performance ofirrigated agriculture suffered periodic setbackspartly because of inadequate monitoring andineffective policy planning on the part of the publicsector. Examples of policies and policy instruments

that had negative impacts on irrigation developmentinclude the following:

a. emphasis on large, multipurpose irrigationsystems, leading to neglect of small irrigationsystems;

b. heavy bias towards irrigation hardware at theexpense of irrigation software and collectionof essential baseline information;

c. non-tariff barriers to the importation and tradein irrigated agriculture production inputs;

d. heavy subsidy on gravity irrigation investment,repair, and operation and maintenance;

e. highly fragmented institutional arrangementsfor the development of irrigation facilities anddelivery of irrigation support services; and

f. under-investment in the development ofirrigated agriculture technologies aimed atincreasing irrigated agriculture productivityand enhancing production incentives.

Strengthening the capability for irrigationsub-sector policy planning both in terms of staffnumber and technical depth is urgently needed inmost Southeast and South Asian countries.

Fig. 3. Essential services and functions for accelerated transformation to irrigated agriculture

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Policymakers, planners and technical staff shouldbe supported with improved information andinformation systems (preferably an irrigation sub-sector monitoring and evaluation system withexpanded technically-based analytical support).Effective formulation of appropriate design criteria,design philosophy, and an irrigation policy as wellas routine adjustments in policies and policyinstruments would require such information.

Irrigation policy options should initiallyconsider broader policy guidelines in the utilizationof water resources as embodied in national andsectoral development plans. Next would be thesectoral development objectives and strategies,resources development potentials, ongoingdevelopment activities, and constraints toharnessing the full benefits from irrigationdevelopment.

In formulating specific policies and policyinstruments, various options are weighed in termsof: economic, environmental and social impacts;sustainability of long-term resources use; andpracticality of implementation. Hence, widerconsultation among stakeholders should be carriedout in performing the tasks of packaging irrigationprograms, projects and other policy instruments.

Monitoring and evaluation are two importantfunctions that are indispensable to the nationalmanagement process. Strategic monitoring is usefulin formulating policies and policy instruments.This activity rightfully belongs to the public sector.Operational monitoring is for assessing the progressof implementation and impact of projects, programsand other policy instruments. It is useful for mid-course correction and other intervention measuresfor timely, effective and efficient implementationand coordination of irrigation developmentactivities.

Inappropriate policy and policy instrumentsprevented the timely introduction of moreappropriate irrigation technologies; imposed addedcosts on irrigation facilities and services; andallocated scarce public resources to activities andtechnologies were either unnecessary, unsustainableor inefficient. These precluded the increasedparticipation of the private sector in irrigationdevelopment despite the fact that such participationwould have enhanced commercial viability,operational efficiency, increased competition andcost recovery.

The public sector should devolve to theprivate sector as much essential irrigation services,functions and activities as possible. As theexperiences in many Asian countries (e.g., India,Bangladesh, Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand) haveshown, the private sector is more efficient andeffective than the public sector in promoting certainirrigation development activities. This devolutionwill enable the public sector to focus its resourcesand energy on enhancing the incentives for irrigatedagriculture production and promoting moreproductive investments in agriculture.

10. Role of Farmersand Water Users OrganizationsAs a matter of policy, governments of the regionencourage greater farmers’ participation in theplanning and implementation of irrigationdevelopment activities. Many countries promoteownership and control of minor irrigation facilities.In some countries, the O&M of larger irrigationsystems are handled by commercially orientedpublic utilities that enter into explicit contractualobligations with user associations. Thisarrangement should be pilot tested in the othercountries of the region.

The recent initiative in Asia’s irrigation sectoris the irrigation management transfer (IMT)program. Its basic premise is that giving directcontrol of irrigation system management to waterusers groups and LGUs would enhance thesustainability of irrigation and the productivity ofagriculture. However, despite the program’swidespread popularity, there is little evidence ofits positive impact on agricultural performance.Rather, the main impact has been the gradualdecline in government financing of irrigationsystems O&M. There is no evidence either of anyadverse impact on the O&M of irrigation systems.It seems that with the program, water groupsincrease their stake or participation in the O&M ofirrigation systems.

In the Philippines, the Local GovernmentCode of 1991 and the Agriculture and FisheriesModernization Act (AFMA) of 1997 devolved tothe LGUs and water users groups theimplementation of locally-funded communalirrigation systems and the management ofsecondary and tertiary canals of large irrigationsystems. The transfer is moving at a snail’s pace

95Wilfredo P. David

as the irrigation authority prioritized for transferthe problematic and poorly performing irrigationsystems.

As a result, many local water groups andLGUs were reluctant to accept the transfer to avoidincreased financial burdens. They also lacktechnical expertise to address the technical problemsbesetting the poorly performing systems. Thisexperience stresses the urgency and importance ofrecognizing and addressing jointly the technical andmanagement constraints to improved irrigationperformance.

11. Farming Systems DiversificationThere are excellent opportunities and potentials forincreasing food production and alleviating povertythrough farming systems diversification. However,unfavorable policy environment, developmentstrategies and allocation of resources across policyenvironments and other constraints preclude thedevelopment of these potentials. A classic exampleof an unfavorable policy is the concentration ofpublic funds for irrigation development on gravityirrigation systems designed for rice monocultures.

Other constraints are the inadequate irrigationsupport services (e.g., very limited irrigationfacilities, failure to inject good quality seeds intofarming communities on a timely basis, and lackof processing and market facilities) for crops otherthan rice. It is, therefore, imperative that suchconstraints be addressed to enable farmers to takeadvantage of the opportunities for increased foodproduction and poverty alleviation.

SUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYSUMMARYAt first glance, it appears that Asia is well endowedwith water resources. While accounting for onlyabout 16% of the world’s land surface, it receives22% of its precipitation and produces 28% of itsrenewable water resources. However, the regionis home to 53% of the world’s population and itsinternal renewable water resources (IRWR) is onlyabout half of the world’s average.

The available supply in the Islands sub-regionis relatively high – 21,000 m3, 12,000 m3, and 3,000m3 per person per year for Malaysia, Indonesia andthe Philippines, respectively. Singapore, which hasa supply of only 170 m3 per person per year has torely on Malaysia and Indonesia for additional watersupplies. The Indian sub-continent, Eastern Asia

and the Far East are relatively arid, having muchless water resources per person than the rest of Asiaand the world.

South Korea’s per capita water supply ofabout 1,500 m3 per year is already below thethreshold level of 2,000 m3. India and China arenear this threshold.

On a macro level, it appears that the presentdemand for water in most Asian countries is stillwell within the available water supplies. Theincreases in demand to expand the irrigation baseand to meet increasing requirements for domesticand industrial uses are expected to outpace thedevelopment of new water sources.

The countries in the region that haverelatively high percentages of total withdrawal toIRWR include India (34%), South Korea (26%),Japan (21%), Sri Lanka (20 %), China (19%) andNorth Korea (18%). A value of 25% or more (e.g.,Indian subcontinent) indicates high pressure onwater resources.

About 84% of the total water withdrawal ofthe region is for agriculture. At 92%, 90% and88%, respectively, the Indian subcontinent, theIslands and the Southeast region have the highestpercentage of water withdrawal for agriculture.There are, however, wide variations amongindividual countries in the share of agriculture overtotal water withdrawal (90% for Burma, 78% forVietnam, 90% for Thailand, 60% for thePhilippines, 76% for Indonesia, 73% for NorthKorea, 47% for Malaysia; 43% for South Koreaand 94% for Cambodia).

Irrigation accounts for the bulk of water usein agriculture. This is due to the large irrigationbase and the fact that approximately half of theirrigated area is devoted to flooded rice production.

Although still relatively small in most Asiancountries, the industrial, municipal and environ-mental demands for water continue to increase at arate twice that of population growth. Theproportion of water available for agriculture isprojected to decline to 62% worldwide and 73%in developing countries by 2020. Hence, theopportunities for expanding the irrigation base arelimited. If food security is to be maintained, waysof increasing the productivity for water must befound.

There is a host of interrelated issues that mustbe addressed in the short and medium terms if a

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 1, No. 196

water crisis in the region is to be averted. Amongothers, these include: changing demand patterns;impact of climate change and watershedmodifications on dependable water supply; lowwater productivity in agriculture; inadequateinvestments in water supply systems to meet futuredemands; the trend toward decentralized andprivatized water service and market mechanisms;the need to reduce non-revenue water; sustainingand expanding the irrigation base; recyclingwastewater for agriculture; access to water of ruraland urban poor; groundwater mining; the need tostrengthen international collaboration for managingshared water resources; protection of freshwaterecosystems; and unfavorable environment for acomprehensive water resources policy and programframework.

The specific issues in irrigation that are morepressing were discussed. Among these are: the poorperformance of irrigation agriculture; the sub-optimal utilization of irrigation water; the low waterproductivity; suitability and cost-effectiveness ofcurrent irrigation technology, sustainability andsubsidy; adequacy of irrigated agriculture supportservices and functions; the weak R&D andextension services; inadequate institutionalarrangements and mechanisms; and the roles ofthe different stakeholders in irrigation development.Suggestions on how to address these issues weregiven.

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