Water as Alternate Fuel

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VEL TECH POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

Department of Mechanical Engineering

WATER AS ALTERNATE FUEL

S.NO NAME REG.NO

1. K.LOKESHWARAN 10224757

2. P.KRISHNA PRASAD 10224755

3. M.SAIHUSADAKATHULLA 10224803

4. R.AAYIRAM 10224709

5. A.MANZUR ALIKHAN 102247656. D.HARI KRISHNAN 10224743

Guide: N. PRAVEEN RAJ B.E., Lect/ Mech H.O.D.:



HYDROGEN FROM WATER AS A ³ALTERNATE FUEL´ FOR

RUNNING A FOUR STROKE ENGINE

ABSTRACT

Introduction:

In this project, we have used Hydrogen as Alternate fuel for running a conventional four

stroke engine. The source for producing hydrogen is Water, which is available in plenty.

With increase in demand of petrol and frequent hike in price of petrol, this will be a best

economical alternate fuel.

Concept:

Method of Separating Hydrogen from Water

The simplest and cheapest way of separating Hydrogen from water is through

Electrolysis. Electrolysis is a method of separating elements by pushing an electric

current through a compound.

It is the one of the best way of producing "green-energy". By electrolysis process it

separates the water into oxygen and hydrogen which attach to the metal plates in small

bubbles. The energy thus obtained is three times that of gasoline per weight. No

poisonous exhaust gases are produced because the end product of combustion is water

vapor. As hydrogen is an excellent fuel, water molecule posses tremendous energy.

Water can be dissociated into its elements by electrolysis .Hydrogen is an important fuel

as it burns totally.

1 Litre of Water = 933.3 Litres of H2:O2 Gas

Significance of using water as a Fuel in IC Engines The Properties of Hydrogen are it has wide range of flammability, low ignition energy,

high autoigntion temperature, high diffusivity and very low density. Hence Hydrogen

can be an efficient fuel for running engines. Hydrogen gas from the Electrolysis process

will be passed through high pressure chamber and high pressure gaseous hydrogen and

fresh charge of air (from the manifold) is fed into the cylinder to perform the first stroke.



The air fuel ratio will be in the order of 34:1. The combustion of hydrogen with oxygen

produces water as its only product:2H2+O

2=2H

2O.

Depending on the condition of the engine and the operating strategy used (a rich versus

lean air/fuel ratio), a hydrogen engine can produce almost µzero emissions¶. The

burning process produces cleaner emission. The addition of hydrogen turns into H2O as

a result of the burning process. Improved emission quality is better for the environment.

The following problems in conventional internal combustion engine can be overcome by

implementing the new system.It will reduce the emission levels. As water is available in

plenty, fuel cost is reduced. As engine will not run with hydrocarbons, carbon deposits

will not be formed in the engine and hence lubrication would have been improved which

results in long engine life.

INTRODUCTION

The current energy crisis urges us to explore a variety of alternate methods to satisfy the

world¶s energy demands. A major market solution for the energy crisis is increasing

supply and reducing demand for crude oil. By increasing the list of feasible fuel

alternatives, the demand on crude oil reduces. Among all the potential environment-

friendly alternative fuels of the future, hydrogen is one of the most promising in terms of

practicality, long term feasibility and low pollution levels.

Thus it has the capability to contribute majorly towards solving two major issues: energy

security and climate change.

Hydrogen has a very low energy density when compared to gasoline. This is a

disadvantage for storage, transport and safety purposes since it will need to be stored at

very high pressures. In addition, hydrogen cannot be used to produce energy by

combustion at temperatures below 0 Celsius, since the fuel requires a higher temperatureto burn. Therefore the challenge becomes storing hydrogen at extremely high pressures

without drastically reducing the temperature.

The purpose of this project is to reduce CO2 emissions through use of alternative fuels

in clinker burning. Coal, oil, and natural gas are the traditional fuel inputs into the



cement production process. The project aims at introducing alternative fuels to substitute

the fossil fuels, predominantly coal, that currently are consumed during clinker burning

at Inducement¶s production plants. Inducement aims at utilizing biomass and other

alternative fuel types such as rice husks, saw dust, plastics, paper, textiles, used tires,

waste oil, industrial liquid, and solid waste.

The CO2 emission reductions from this project are due to bio-fuels which are regarded

as CO2-neutral fuels. The CO2 emissions from alternative fuels which are not bio-fuels

are included in the project emissions.

Hydrogen is considered´ energy storage medium,´ much like batteries, (Camp) and can

be made quite simply. The best method would be to take electricity to split (electrolyze)

water into hydrogen and oxygen. This could be done on a large scale in a hydrogen

plant. The US currently produces 100 billion cubic feet per year of hydrogen for

industry, and the space program (McAlister).

Hydrogen is the heart of all hydro carbon fuels (fossil fuels) pure hydrogen and carbon

can be extracted. Carbon is a very reusable resource and is known for its light weight

and strength (Camp). Carbon would most likely be implemented as a method for storing

hydrogen, rather than using the traditional steel tank, which isn¶t as safe. A newer, hi-

tech method called Carbon fiber? Can be used to store hydrogen. Currently this method

of extracting hydrogen from oil is preferred due to its high efficiency, which means most

hydrogen used today is derived from a fossil fuel, but this will change. Once obtained

hydrogen can run virtually every application where other fuels are used today. Basically

anything that operates on a flame like a gas stove, or anything that operates on a

explosion like a internal combustion engine, anything that runs off electricity or could be

run by a battery, done through a fuel cell, or anything else that doesn¶t fit into those

three categories. Hydrogen can truly run anything that consumes energy of any kind, inany shape or form.



Environmental sustainability:

y Maintain the environmental sustainability by replacing some fossil fuel by

biomass and other alternative fuels

y The project complies with the national environmental quality standards, in terms

of local air emissions, water and soil

EXTRACTION AND STORAGE METHODS USED

Currently electrolysis is the most practical method of producing hydrogen on a large

scale without the use of fossil fuels. Water electrolysis is expected to be the primary

source of hydrogen in the near Future.

SCOPE OF PROJECT

Although the project is educational in nature, the program components support the

achievement of the two primary objectives of the office of Energy Efficiency and

Renewable Energy (EERE): 1) reduce dependence on foreign oil by developing biomass

based liquid fuels, and 2) foster the domestic biomass industry. Specific Department of

Energy EERE goals addressed fall primarily under Theme 1: Energy Security -

Promoting America's energy security through reliable, clean, and affordable energy. It is

anticipated that the integration of alternative fuels and renewable energy information

into curricula will serve to increase student awareness about and interest in the

opportunities of scientific investigation, research, and employment within the energy

industry. The objectives of the project will be achieved by conducting the following

overall scope:

o Develop laboratory and classroom curriculum for alternative fuel

production, focusing on the biodiesel production chain

o Educate the college community and extended county community on

renewable fuels with a focus on biodiesel

o Implement a mobile learning program

o Provide transportation for those attending the education programs



o Execute an outreach program for creating renewable fuel support and use

Literature Review

Before the discovery of oil wells, oil was extracted from animals, vegetables and coal-,

and was used mostly for lighting and heating. New types of transportation vehicles,

including all types of locomotives consumes the highest quantity of oil. The

consequences today are brutal because now the world is facing Peak-Oil, a term use that

indicates that the cost of extracting and refining oil is more or equal to the cost of oil

itself. This means that for one barrel of oil extracted and refined, the process consumes

one barrel of oil, hence it is not economically viable. Oil is known to have been used

since ghas many applications, especially in energizing the transportation industry. The

auto became extremely popular and with it, fuel consumption has grown exponentially

over the past decades as have the carbon dioxide and monoxide emission that are of

environmental concern.

HYDROGEN BASED VEHICLES - are divided in two main groups: the ones using

hydrogen in fuel cells that produce electricity for an electric motor to power the car, and

the other ones that have modified internal combustion engines, that work with hydrogen.

Fuel cell vehicles use the principle of obtaining energy by the chemical reaction between

hydrogen and oxygen. The reaction products are water and the electricity, used then to

power the car. The basic working principle of the fuel cell can be seen Cars that use

hydrogen as fuel for classic engines are also on the market.





2D DIAGRAM



CONTRUCTION

WATER RESERVOIR:

Water reservoir is a storage of water used as a fuel.

Water reservoir consists of a inlet and outlet .the inlet of water reservoir is used to

filling the water , outlet is connected to the reaction chamber REACTION

CHAMBER

Reaction chamber is the place where water is converted into hydrogen and oxygen. It

consist of cathode and anode .It has water inlet connection with the water reservoir. Hydrogen

gas produced is stored in hydrogen tank through gas outlet opening.

HYDROGEN TANK:

Hydrogen storage describes the methods for storing H2 for subsequent use. The

methods span many approaches, including high pressures, cryogenics, and chemical compounds

that reversibly release H2 upon heating. Hydrogen storage is a topical goal in the development of

a hydrogen economy. Hydrogen, in comparison, is quite different to store. Hydrogen gas has good

energy density by weight, but poor energy density by volume versus hydrocarbons; hence it requires a

larger tank to store. A large hydrogen tank will be heavier than the small hydrocarbon tank used to store

the same amount of energy, all other factors remaining equal. Increasing gas pressure would improve the

energy density by volume, making for smaller, but not lighter container tanks (see hydrogen tank).



Compressed hydrogen will require 2.1% of the energy content to power the compressor. Higher

compression without energy recovery will mean more energy lost to the compression step. Compressed

hydrogen storage can exhibit very low permeation.

BATTERY:

Batteries are an energy storage device. Energy stored is in the form of Chemical

Energy and when used in the form of electrical energy. Energy gets stored when it is being

charged and gets discharged when in use. These are used for use of Electrical Energy when the

actual source of generation of electrical power is not available.

CHEMICAL REACTION

CHEMICAL EQUATION

Zn+Cu+H2O=2ZnH+CuO

The chemical equation for electrolysis is:

energy (electricity) + 2 H2O -> O2 + 2 H2 .

At the cathode (the negative electrode), there is a negative charge created by the battery.This means that there is an electrical pressure to push electrons into the water at this end.



At the anode (the positive electrode), there is a positive charge, so that electrode would

like to absorb electrons. But the water isn't a very good conductor. Instead, in order for

there to be a flow of charge all the way around the circuit, water molecules near thecathode are split up into a positively charged hydrogen ion, which is symbolized as

H+

in the diagram above (this is just the hydrogen atom without its electron, i.e. the

nucleus of the hydrogen atom, which is just a single proton), and a negatively charged"hydroxide" ion, symbolized OH-:

H2O -> H+

+ OH-

.

You might have expected that H2O would break up into an H and an OH (the sameatoms but with neutral charges) instead, but this doesn't happen because the oxygen

atom more strongly attracts the electron from the H - it steals it (we say the oxygen atomis more "electronegative" than hydrogen). This theft allows the resulting hydroxide ion

to have a completely filled outer shell, making it more stable.

But the H+, which is just a naked proton, is now free to pick up an electron (symbolized

e-) from the cathode, which is trying hard to donate electrons, and become a regular,neutral hydrogen atom:

H+

+ e--> H

This hydrogen atom meets another hydrogen atom and forms a hydrogen gas molecule:

H + H -> H2,

and this molecule bubbles to the surface, and wa-la! We have hydrogen gas!

Meanwhile, the positive anode has caused the negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH -) totravel across the container to the anode. When it gets to the anode, the anode removesthe extra electron that the hydroxide stole from the hydrogen atom earlier, and the

hydroxide ion then recombines with three other hydroxide molecules to form 1 molecule

of oxygen and 2 molecules of water:

4 OH- _

> O2 + 2

H2O + 4e

-

The oxygen molecule is very stable, and bubbles to the surface.

In this way, a closed circuit is created, involving negatively charged particles - electrons

in the wire, hydroxide ions in the water. The energy delivered by the battery is stored bythe production of hydrogen.

By providing energy from a battery, water (H2O) can be dissociated into the diatomicmolecules of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). This process is a good example of the

the application of the four thermodynamic potentials.



The electrolysis of one mole of water produces a mole of hydrogen gas and a half-

mole of oxygen gas in their normal diatomic forms. A detailed analysis of the processmakes use of the thermodyamic potentials and the first law of thermodynamics. This

process is presumed to be at 298K and one atmosphere pressure, and the relevant

values are taken from a table of thermodynamic properties.

Quantity H2O H2 0.5 O2 Change

Enthalpy -285.83 kJ 0 0 H = 285.83 kJ

Entropy 69.91 J/K 130.68 J/K 0.5 x 205.14 J/K TS = 48.7 kJ

The process must provide the energy for the dissociation plus the energy to expand

the produced gases. Both of those are included in the change inenthalpy included inthe table above. At temperature 298K and one atmosphere pressure, the system

work is

W = PV = (101.3 x 103 Pa)(1.5 moles)(22.4 x 10-3 m3/mol)(298K/273K) = 3715 J

Since the enthalpy H= U+PV, the change in internal energy U is then

U = H - PV = 285.83 kJ - 3.72 kJ = 282.1 kJ

This change in internal energy must be accompanied by the expansion of the gases

produced, so the change in enthalpy represents the necessary energy to accomplishthe electrolysis. However, it is not necessary to put in this whole amount in the formof electrical energy. Since the entropy increases in the process of dissociation, the

amount TS can be provided from the environment at temperature T. The amount

which must be supplied by the battery is actually the change in the Gibbs free energy:

G = H - TS = 285.83 kJ - 48.7 kJ = 237.1 kJ



Since the electrolysis process results in an increase in entropy, the environment"helps" the process by contributing the amount TS. The utility of the Gibbs free

energy is that it tells you what amount of energy in other forms must be supplied to

get the process to proceed.

WORKING

In principle, fuel cells are electrochemical devices like batteries that

convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly and very efficiently into electricity (DC)

and heat, thus doing away with combustion. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run

down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as

long as fuel is supplied.

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes

over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity water and heat.

Layers of materials with distinct electrochemical properties are sandwiched together to

form a single galvanic cell. At the heart lies a membrane that can only be crossed by

charged molecules. Gas-permeable electrodes coated with a catalyst adhere to this

membrane, adding a layer on either side. There electrodes are in turn connected to a

device that can utilize electricity. Hydrogen gas flows into channels on one face of the

cell and migrates through that electrode, while the same occurs with oxygen gas along

the opposite electrode. Spurred by a catalyst, favorable chemistry causes the hydrogen to

oxidize into hydrogen protons and give up its electrons to the neighboring electrode,

which thereby becomes the anode. this buildup of negative charge then follows the path

of least resistance via the external circuit to the other electrode. It is this flow of

electrons through a circuit that creates elecricity.

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power.

Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles and

other transportation vehicles. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical

energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal

combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric



motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is a key element of a

proposed hydrogen economy.

Hydrogen fuel does not occur naturally on Earth and thus is not an energy source, but is

an energy carrier. Currently it is most frequently made from methane or other fossil

fuels. However, it can be produced from a wide range of sources (such as wind, solar, or

nuclear) that are intermittent, too diffuse or too cumbersome to directly propel vehicles.

Integrated wind-to-hydrogen plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring

technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with

traditional energy sources.

Many companies are working to develop technologies that might efficiently exploit the

potential of hydrogen energy for mobile uses. The attraction of using hydrogen as an

energy currency is that, if hydrogen is prepared without using fossil fuel inputs, vehicle

propulsion would not contribute to carbon dioxide emissions. The drawbacks of

hydrogen use are low energy content per unit volume, high tankage weights, very high

storage vessel pressures, the storage, transportation and filling of gaseous or liquid

hydrogen in vehicles, the large investment in infrastructure that would be required to

fuel vehicles, and the inefficiency of production processes.

A hydrogen fuel cell is the main source of energy in a hydrogen fuel engine and works

like a battery. There is a membrane situated in the middle of the cathode and anode.

Hydrogen breaks down when it hits this membrane through a chemical reaction that

makes negatively charged electrons and positively charged hydrogen ions.

An electric current is formed when the positively charged hydrogen ions travel through

the membrane while the electrons go around. This hydrogen ions usually combine with

oxygen, which is naturally available, to form water. The water is expelled from the fuel

cell along with heat which are the only by products of the process. This is why the

hydrogen fuel engine is believed to be eco-friendly.



CALCULATION current is required to produce 400.0 L of hydrogen gas, measured at STP, from the

electrolysis of water in 1 hour (3600 s)

y Calculate the number of moles of H2. (Remember, at STP, 1 mole of any gas

occupies 22.4 L.)

y Write the equation for the half-reaction that takes place.

Hydrogen is produced during the reduction of water at the cathode. The equation

for this half-reaction is:

4 e- + 4 H2O(l) 2 H2(g) + 4 OH-(aq)

y Calculate the number of moles of electrons. According to the stoichiometry of theequation, 4 mole of e- are required to produce 2 moles of hydrogen gas, or 2

moles of e-'s for every one mole of hydrogen gas.

y Convert the moles of electrons into coulombs of charge.

y Calculate the current required.



Powering the engine

To be able to produce enough electricity to fuel the engine of the car, many Hydrogen

fuel cells are installed in stacks. This is because you may find that one hydrogen fuel cell

produces like one volt of electricity and the reaction happens many times. You may

perceive the hydrogen fuel cell as a battery except the fact that it is charged by hydrogen

fuel.

The electricity produced from the hydrogen fuel cell is funneled to the engine and

powers the vehicle. That is how a hydrogen fuel engine works to be able to provide

power for a vehicle to move. The basic concept of the hydrogen fuel engine may be used

to create innovative hydrogen fueled engines.

produces water as a byproduct compared to the harmful carbon dioxide emitted by

gasoline and diesel.

ANALYSIS

The use of hydrogen as the fuel source also provides benefits with respect cooling

abilities. As the hydrogen is stored at very low temperatures, this can be used as an

active cooling area on temperature critical parts of the vehicle body .This procedure is

generally not available to standard hydrocarbon fuels.

The principal disadvantages of the use of hydrogen as the fuel of choice in scramjet

combustion lie with its very low density and lower energy per unit volume compare to

hydrocarbon variants. The added size and mass from the extra fuel and storage

containers within the vehicle design are major factors in fuel selection. This addedweight has a compounding effect as although there have been significant attempts to

develop single stage to orbit scramjet vehicles, most still rely on some additional

mechanism to achieve the speeds required for the engine combustion to be sustainable.

The main methods for this are currently through use of a low speed engine being

incorporated into the design of the vehicle, or some form of booster rocket or assistance



to reach the high speeds. This means any added weight in the vehicle itself will require a

larger secondary engine or platform to propel it, compounding any efforts for minimum

size. Additional design implications arise with the need to store the fuel cryogenically, in

liquid or hydrogen slosh form and the complexity and weight to achieve this.

Advantages of hydrogen fuel

Hydrogen fueled engines are highly recommended alternatives for the gas fueled engines

due to their ability to conserve the environment. Hydrogen is being advocated to being

the alternative of fuel source because it also avoids the overdependence on fossil fuels. It

is believed to be the best fuel because it produces water as a byproduct compared to the

harmful carbon dioxide emitted by gasoline and diesel.

Hydrogen as an energy source for vehicles is still being developed but is extremely

promising. Hydrogen is a gas that can be created through electrolysis ± the process of

combing water and oxygen. Therefore, hydrogen is not only clean, it is also a renewable

energy source (no fear of its depletion). In a vehicle powered by hydrogen, hydrogen

fuel cells are contained in the vehicle and are replenished with hydrogen, just as gasoline

is replenished into the tank of a traditional vehicle. Consumers may even be able to fill

up at home if an appliance that generates hydrogen is developed so that it is small

enough and safe enough to store in a garage. No distribution system currently exists for

hydrogen as a vehicular fuel source. This is because hydrogen powered vehicles are not

being marketed to consumers at this time. The "Big Three" US auto manufacturers as

well as the Japanese and Europeans are working to further develop and refine hydrogen

powered automobiles. Once these vehicles are "consumer ready", there will be

development of a hydrogen distribution system.



BILL OF MATERIALS

S.NO TYPE MATERIAL QUANTITY

1. Water tank Plastic 1

2. Battery(12 volt) - 2

3. Reaction chamber plastic 1

4. Anode copper 1

5. cathode zinc 1

6. Hydrogen tank 1

7. 4-stroke engine - 1

SPECIFICATION

ANODECopper is used as anode. Anode is supplied with positive terminal of the battery.

The physical properties of copper are

y Malleable and Ductile

y Excellent Electrical Conductor

y Excellent Alloying Characteristics

y Non-Magnetic

y

Essential Nutrient to Lifey Resistant to Corrosion

y Machinable

y Excellent Heat Transfer Characteristics

y Recyclable

Specific properties of copper are



y Chemical Symbol: Cu

y Atomic Number: 29

y Atomic Weight: 63.54

y Density: 8960 kg m(-3)

y Melting Point: 1356K

y Crystal Structure: Face Centered Cubic

CATHODE

Zinc is used as cathode. It is given negative supply from the battery.

Physical properties

Zinc, also referred to in nonscientific contexts as spelter , is a bluish-white,lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have

a dull finish. It is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure.

The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100

and 150 °C. Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low

melting (419.5 °C, 787.1 F) and boiling points (907 °C). Its melting point is the lowestof all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium.

Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, an alloy of zinc and copper. Other metals

long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminum, antimony, bismuth, gold,

iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium and sodium. Whileneither zinc nor zirconium are ferromagnetic, their alloy ZrZn2 exhibits ferromagnetism

below 35 K

4-STROKE ENGINE

We are using pep engine. It is Air cooled 74.60 ccm (4, 53 cubic inches) and Singlecylinder type of engine. It as a max power of 3.68kw/bhp@6500rpm. It as 87.8c.c.

HYDROGEN GAS

Discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1766, hydrogen owes it name to Lavoisier,who combined the Greek hydor, water, and genen, to engender. It is the lightest gas inthe world and therefore is not held by the earth¶s gravity.

Hydrogen is only found in the atmosphere at trace levels ; it is synthetized from

hydrocarbons (petroleum and petroleum by-products) and from water where itconstitutes the lightest fraction of the H2O molecule. Hydrogen gas is colorless, highly



flammable, very light, cannot sustain life and reacts easily with other chemical

substances.

The fuel cellThe world dreams about driving in a silent car that doesn¶t pollute! Hydrogen is a clean

energy carrier. Used in a fuel cell, it combines with oxygen to efficiently produce

electricity and doesn¶t emit anything« except water.A REACTANT PRIZED BY THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES; AN EXCELLENTCLEAN ENERGY CARRIER

Hydrogen:SUPPLY MODECylinders, Liquefied gas tank, Pipeline, On-site generator,

Main applications

y IndustriesApplications

y Food and BeveragePure hydrogen is used for the production of plastics, polyester and nylon. H2 gas is also

used in the hydrogenation of amines and fatty acids (food oils).

y Glass, Cement and LimeHydrogen is an active gas used in combination with nitrogen to create a reductiveatmosphere over the tin bath in the FLOAT glass process.

Hydrogen is used for heat treatment (oxy-hydrogen flame) of the hollow glass and theoptic fibers pre-forms.

y Metals industryReductive atmosphere for various processes of heat treatment.

y Laboratories & analysisHydrogen is used as a carrier gas in gas chromatography and in various analyticalinstrument applications, most commonly as a fuel component of combustion gases for

Flame Ionization (FID) and Flame Photometric (FPD) detectors. Spark discharge

analyzers, total hydrocarbons measurements use also hydrogen mixtures.y Welding, Cutting & Coating

Heat treatment of various metals

y Oil and Gas

Desulfurization of fuel-oil and gasoline

y Electronics

Hydrogen is used as carrier gas in semiconductor processes, especially for silicon

deposition or crystal growing and as a scavenger gas in atmosphere soldering as well asfor annealing copper films. The use of forming gases (that is H2 diluted in nitrogen)allows virtually a complete elimination of oxygen and its inconveniences in medium to

high temperature processes.

y Space and AeronauticsHydrogen is used in their liquid states as ergols for the propulsion of the cryogenic

stages of the Ariane rocket.y Automotive & transportation



Hydrogen is a carbon-free energy source used in the fuel cells.

Top of the page

ADVANTAGE

1. Most abundant element Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe,

which makes up about 3/4 of all matter! Helium makes up most of the remaining 25%.Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe. All of the other elements arerelatively rare. Anywhere there is water (H2O) you have hydrogen and oxygen.Maybe

the reason hydrogen is so plentiful is because Shell Oil Company claims to have

produced this element. Check out the ad below.

2. Hydrogen has the highest energy content. Energy content of hydrogen is the highest per unit of weight of any fuel. Therefore it offers the most "bang for the buck". When

water is broken down into HHO, otherwise known as oxyhydrogen or Brown's Gas, it

becomes a very, very efficient fuel. The flame is cool to the touch but will still cuttungsten steel like butter.

3. Hydrogen is non-polluting. Along with it's effectiveness as a fuel, hydrogen is non-

polluting. The only byproduct of hydrogen when it burns is heat and water.

4. Hydrogen is a renewable fuel source. Again, think of where you can find hydrogen. I

have a glass of it on my desk right now. A glass of water. I can get a few gallons of itout of my faucet in my sink right now. And just a few miles to then East of me is the

Atlantic Ocean. I bet there are a few gallons of hydrogen there. Hydrogen is very plentiful. The trick is to break the water molecules down to release it.

5. Reduce dependency on foreign oil. We have shown that hydrogen fuel technology has

been around for well over a hundred years. Hydrogen is a very effective fuel and very plentiful along with being non-polluting. Just imagine what we could do and where we

would be if we were able to harness this alternative energy source and be rid of the



stranglehold foreign oil has on our economy, our environment and our security.

Something to think about when looking at hydrogen fuel advantages.

Gas PropertiesMolecular Weight

y Molecular weight : 2.016 g/molSolid phase

y Melting point : -259 °Cy Latent heat of fusion (1,013 bar, at triple point) : 58.158 kJ/kg

Liquid phase

y

Liquid density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 70.973 kg/m3

y Liquid/gas equivalent (1.013 bar and 15 °C (59 °F)) : 844 vol/voly Boiling point (1.013 bar) : -252.8 °Cy Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 454.3 kJ/kg

Density & temperature calculation of the liquid phase

Given the pressure (in bar), this module calculates the temperature and the density of theliquid phase on the liquid-gas equilibrium curveCritical point : Critical temperature : -240 °C

Critical pressure : 12.98 bar

Critical density : 30.09 kg/m3

Triple point

Triple point temperature : -259.3 °CTriple point pressure : 0.072 bar

Gaseous phaseGas density (1.013 bar at boiling point) : 1.312 kg/m3

Gas density (1.013 bar and 15 °C (59 °F)) : 0.085 kg/m3

Compressibility Factor (Z) (1.013 bar and 15 °C (59 °F)) : 1.001Specific gravity (air = 1) (1.013 bar and 21 °C (70 °F)) : 0.0696

Specific volume (1.013 bar and 21 °C (70 °F)) : 11.986 m3/kgHeat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) (1 bar and 25 °C (77 °F)) :

0.029 kJ/(mol.K)Heat capacity at constant volume (Cv) (1 bar and 25 °C (77 °F)) : 0.021

kJ/(mol.K)Ratio of specific heats (Gamma:Cp/Cv) (1 bar and 25 °C (77 °F)) :

1.384259

Viscosity (1.013 bar and 15 °C (59 °F)) : 0.0000865 PoiseThermal conductivity (1.013 bar and 0 °C (32 °F)) : 168.35 mW/(m.K)

MiscellaneousSolubility in water (1.013 bar and 0 °C (32 °F)) : 0.0214 vol/vol

Concentration in air : 0.00005 vol %



Autoignition temperature : 560 °C

Fuel

Higher Calorific Value(Gross Calorific Value - GCV)

kJ/kg Btu/lb

Hydrogen 141,790 61,000

Physical properties

Color colorless

Phase gas

Density (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)

0.08988 g/L

Liquid density atm.p. 0.07 (0.0763 solid) g·cmí3

Liquid density atb.p. 0.07099 g·cmí3

Melting point 14.01 K -434.45 °F -259.14 °C, ,



Boiling point -423.17 °F -252.87 °C, 20.28 K,

Triple point 13.8033 K (-259°C), 7.042 kPa

Critical point 32.97 K, 1.293 MPa

Heat of fusion (H2) 0.117 kJ·molí1

Heat of vaporization (H2) 0.904 kJ·molí1

Molar heat capacity

(H2)28.836 J·mol

í1

·K

í1

Pollution and Costs

This section will help obtain a broader understanding of the long term societal andenvironmental effects of using different types of fuels. The costs and pollution involved

in producing and using five different types of fuels is analyzed, along with their

negative effects on the environment and as a result on human beings. These five basicfuels are conventional gasoline, other hydrocarbons such as LPG and CNG, hydrogen,and electricity. The methods of producing hydrogen in a fuel cell are also discussed,

along with the pollutants associated.

The analysis will be performed based on the energy required to propel an averageautomobile 100 miles at a constant speed of 50 mi/hr. The fuel efficiency at this speed is

approximately 27 mi/gal, which implies that 3.7 gallons of fuel are used for this distanceat 50 mi/hr. The energy contained in 3.7 gallons of gasoline is 132.87 kWh, since theenergy density of gasoline is 34.2MJ/L. Thus an approximation can be made for the

amount of energy required using this data for gasoline. It is assumed that for LPG,

CNG and hydrogen, the energy conversion efficiencies in a vehicle are the same as for gasoline.



Hydrogen (internal combustion engine)

There are two types of hydrogen-powered vehicles. In the type analyzed in this report,stored or on-board produced hydrogen is used as fuel in an internal combustion engineto power the vehicle. The other type of hydrogen-powered vehicle uses hydrogen to

produce electricity in a fuel cell that powers an electric motor. These vehicles are also

equipped with batteries that store the electricity that cannot be used by the motor immediately.From this data, the energy density of liquid hydrogen is 10.1MJ/L or

2.81kWh/L. Thus 47.3 liters or 12.51 gallons of hydrogen are required to drive the car

100 miles. At current rates of hydrogen available, 12.51 gallons of hydrogen would cost

Since accurate information regarding the breakup of the cost of one gallon of hydrogenis not easily available, one can assume the profit for the manufacturer to be about 10%

of the selling price since there are no refining costs involved. However, transportation

and storage costs are high since the hydrogen is highly compressed at up to 10,000psi. A profit rate of 7-10% of profit for the company, when enough hydrogen to propel a car

100 miles is sold.

This is obviously very uneconomical for the consumer, and although the profit figuresfor the company are steep, they are used to recover the high capital investment made to

set up a hydrogen manufacturing plant as will be seen later on.

An alternative method to solar power can be used to obtain the required electricity toelectrolyze hydrogen from water, such as nuclear power. The cost of electricity from a

nuclear power plant is around 12 cents/kWh. The energy required to produce, compressand store 1 liter of hydrogen is 1.75kWh. This would cost 21 cents when using

electricity produced in a nuclear power plant. Since 47.3 liters of hydrogen or 82.8kWhof energy is being used here, the cost of electricity Since the CO2 emissions when

obtaining electrical energy from nuclear power is 66 gCO2/kWh, the total CO2emissions are 3,953g when a car travels 100 miles.manufactured by various methods, in

comparison to emissions from gasoline

POLLUTION

The trouble with today's cars is that they still put out a lot of pollution, and use up

fossil fuels. One day, we have to run out of fossil fuels. People have been talkingabout running cars on water for ages. Unfortunately, most of the time, these

people are crackpots. But there is a certain amount of truth in what they say.

Now I know that trying to predict the future is hard, but I reckon that an electriccar, powered by a fuel cell running on hydrogen, could be a goer! If you



remember back to your chemistry classes at school, water is H2O. In other words,

a molecule of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen, and one atom of

oxygen. If you use energy, and pass electricity through water, you can split water into hydrogen and oxygen. And you can run this reaction backwards, and

combine hydrogen and oxygen to give you water and energy. (In fact, the word,

"hydrogen", means "maker of water" in the original Greek language.)

There are two main ways that you can burn hydrogen with oxygen, to give youwater, and energy.

The first way is that you can burn hydrogen in a modified car engine. Twocompanies, BMW and Mazda, are working on this. The engine works fine, but

with about 20% less power - which is pretty reasonable, considering that we have been working on the petrol engine for a century or so. When you burn hydrogen

in an engine, you get mostly water coming out of the tailpipe. You also get smallamounts of oxides of nitrogen (from the nitrogen in the air), and even smaller

amount of hydrocarbons (from traces of the lubricants in the combustionchambers of the engine). Even so, a hydrogen-powered car is much less polluting

than a petrol-powered car. Of course, you use a normal gearbox and diff.

The second way to use hydrogen to run your car is in an electric car. Mercedes-

Benz have been using a strange device called a fuel cell, which has been aroundsince 1839.

A fuel cell is very similar to a battery. Both a fuel cell and a battery turn achemical reaction into electrical energy. But a battery is sealed, and when the

"goodness" in the chemicals is used up, the battery is flat. A fuel cell is like a

battery, but with one important different difference - you can pump in thechemicals indefinitely. Fuel cells take in hydrogen and oxygen, and give off puredrinking water, and electricity. You use the electricity to run electric motors.

Fuel cells are up to 80% efficient. They will get two or three times more energyout of hydrogen, than will a modified car engine. This is because the internal

combustion engine has a stage where you generate a lot of heat - and this is where

a lot of energy is wasted, and where the efficiency goes right down.

The real problem with today's electric cars is that our battery technology is

pathetic. The battery pack in today's best electric car, the EV-1, gives great

acceleration, but a range of less than 100 kilometres. But if you use a fuel cellinstead of a battery, you suddenly get an electric car with very low pollution, and

good range and performance.

There are two main ways to store hydrogen in your car-of-the-future. First, you

can squash it and turn it into a liquid - but the container has to be very strong and

heavy, and you have to insulate it to keep it at a temperature of about 260oC below zero.



The second way is to shove the gas into a metal, such as magnesium, and it will

squash into the spaces between the magnesium atoms. It sounds unbelievable, but

you can actually store more hydrogen inside a metal, than you can as a liquid. Nelly Rodriguez and her fellow scientists at Northeastern University in Boston

claim that they can do even better. They used incredibly thin sheets of graphite

only one third of a billionth of a metre apart, and they reckon that they can store30 litres of hydrogen on a single gram of graphite, which works out to anamazing 8,000 kilometres per tank, with your hydrogen-powered car.

Either way, you can fill your tank in under three minutes - which is not muchdifferent from filling up with petrol.

One problem with hydrogen is the bad public relations angle - most of us haveheard of hydrogen bombs, and seen the dramatic footage of the hydrogen-filled

Hindenberg airship exploding in 1937. But hydrogen can be stored safely - in aseries of tests on a tank of liquid hydrogen, BMW played flames at 900oC on it

for 70 minutes, punched holes into it, and even squashed it until it broke.Sometimes the hydrogen leaked out, and sometimes it caught alight, but it never

exploded

The Basic Electrolysis Process is as follows

Ideally, sodium chloride salts(NaCl) are added to pure water

Voltage is applied across anode and cathode

Cathode area produces alkaline(reducing) water

Anode area produces acidic(oxidizing) water

y high ORP

y low pH

y high Dissolved Oxygen(DO) and residual Cl

y hypochlorous acid

Some of the features of electrolyzed water include:

y adherents promote it as a process which requires no chemicals with essentiallynothing added to the water.

This is not entirely true for all applications. For example, as shown above where pure

water(ion free) is needed for medical or dental applications, tap water is unacceptable

and the "input" water for the electrolysis process must be "doped" with sodium chlorideor other inorganic salts. Claims include:



y produces hyperoxygenated water which can kill bacteria, viruses and other

biological contaminants in various medical and dental applications and provide

significant and highly beneficial effects to plants, animals and humans;

y causes organic and inorganic water-borne contaminants to coagulate and

precipitate out of solution, rendering them easy to remove with simple filtration;

andy breaks down harmful, toxic substances into non-harmful components.

Whereas these features indicate that a wide variety of benefits can accrue from

electrolysis technology, the crippling technical, economic and mechanical limitations of conventional(current) technology being produced or developed in the U.S., Russia and

Japan has severely restricted the use of electrolysis to mere demonstration purposes in amanner which has not allowed the technology's primary attributes to be brought to bear

on significant water treatment problems.

Electrolyzed water can be considered a type of "functional" water, whereby the ability of

water to

y apparently carry nutrients; and

y penetrate cellular structures with these nutrients is claimed to be considerablyenhanced.

A wide variety of water structuring technologies exist in laboratory and limited

production environments and are known to provide surprising levels of growth

enhancement for plants, animals and aquatic entities. The ability of scientists andengineers to provide consistency and persistence of these "structured water" features will

have a major impact on the efficiency and profitability of agricultural, aqua culture,

animal and poultry operations worldwide.

Certain scientists claim that electrolyzed water also holds significant promise for use by

humans whereby the ability to hold and transport essential nutrients to the body aremade possible by a variety of proprietary methodologies.

Significant percentages of selected foreign populations now claim to find measurableand surprising results from the use of simple, electrolyzed water. Encapsulating variousnutritional elements with the electrolyzation and "structuring" process is seen by some

scientists as a major advance in the growing nutraceutical marketplace.



CONCLUSION

The problems in conventional internal combustion engine can be overcome by

implementing the new system. It will reduce the emission levels. As water is available in

plenty, fuel cost is reduced. As engine will not run with hydrocarbons, carbon deposits

will not be formed in the engine and hence lubrication would have been improved which

results in long engine life.

Hydrogen has been called the "most alternative" of the alternative fuels: if it is made

by electrolysis of water using electricity from a nonpolluting source like wind or solar

power, then no pollutants of any kind are generated by burning it in an internal

combustion engine except for trace amounts of nitrogen oxides, and if it is used in a fuel

cell then even these disappear. Furthermore, no greenhouse gases are generated because

there's no carbon in the fuel. All that comes out the vehicle's exhaust is drinkable water!

Using hydrogen as the "battery" to store energy from a nonpolluting, renewable source

would result in a truly unlimited supply of clean fuel. The advantage of using hydrogen

to store energy rather than a battery pack is that a hydrogen tank can be refilled in

minutes rather than recharged in hours, and it takes less space and weight to store

enough hydrogen to drive a given distance on a single refueling than it does to carry

enough battery capacity to go the same distance on a single recharging. The battery-

electric drive train uses energy more efficiently, and can handle the vast majority of

daily commute-and-errands driving that people do, but for long trips hydrogen could

prove to be a lot more convenient. The obvious advantages of hydrogen are its

environmentally favorable profile and availability of multiple sources to produce

hydrogen, such as water, methane, gasoline or coal.

Documents

Water as Alternate Fuel