Wastewater Reuse

1.0 TERMS OF REFERENCE

On 4 February 2011, Timothy Anak George Jimbai, Siti Sayidatul Durrah binti Khazalle, Tengku

Rohani binti Tengku Muda and Zalilawati binti Ibrahim from the Faculty of Civil Engineering,

UiTM Shah Alam were instructed by Madam Ananda, the Report Writing lecturer (BEL 422) to

write a report on wastewater reuse. The report which includes the background information,

findings, conclusion and recommendations is to be submitted on 1st April 2011

1

Report BEL 422 – Wastewater reuse

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This section will discuss the background of the study, the statement of the problem regarding

with the study, the objectives of the study, methods used and the limitations of the study.

2.1 Background

Population growth, industrialization, agricultural practices and urbanization all help increase the

water demand as well as the quantity of water generated. Nowadays, wastewater reuse is one of

the methods that provide better management for water resources. In short, wastewater treatment

is a method of treating wastewater and treated wastewater has been reused as either potable or

non-potable water. This method has been applied a long time ago to overcome shortage of

freshwater. Nowadays, treated wastewater has recently been applied as supplementary water in

arid zone area for example Jordan, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Algeria.

2.2 Statement of the Problem

The quality and hygiene of treated wastewater has been an issue to the public where they

questioned the safety of wastewater to be reused either as potable or non-potable water.

Nowadays, the public lacks information or facts regarding wastewater reuse and the future

benefits to the world. Therefore, it makes the public mentally not prepared to use treated

wastewater for daily use although research has proven that treated wastewater is safe to drink

and more than capable for agriculture use.

2


2.3 Objectives of the Report

The following are the objectives of this project:

2.3.1 To know in details about wastewater and the potential future use of treated

wastewater.

2.3.2 To provide extra knowledge to the public in order to maintain the public’s safety

regarding wastewater.

2.3.3 To preserve freshwater by applying treatment of wastewater.

2.4 Methods and Limitations of the Report

To gather information for this report, we have acquired the details and research of wastewater

reuse based on the published journals and books from the UiTM library. The limitation of the

report is that we are unable to see the method of treating wastewater, therefore lack of firsthand

experience.

3


3.0 FINDINGS

The result of the report based secondary research findings.

3.1 Secondary Research Findings

This section summarizes recently published literatures on wastewater reuse in the countries

involved. The complete literature review is available in Appendix B. The literature on

wastewater reuse addresses all the information regarding wastewater reuse as well as the social

acceptance of wastewater reuse.

3.1.1 The History

The term ‘wastewater’ means any water that is no longer wanted, as no further benefits can be

derived out of it. It is said that almost 99% of wastewater is water while the balance is solid

waste. According to the literature, the benefits and understanding of wastewater reuse in order to

solve the water problems existed in Minoan civilization in ancient Greece, where indication for

utilization of wastewater for agriculture irrigation dates back to 5000 years. Besides that,

irrigation with sewage and other wastewater has a long history also in China and India.

(S.Vignesvaran, 2004)

For the last three decades, due to the growing awareness of the impact of sewage contamination

of groundwater, rivers, lakes and many more, wastewater treatment nowadays are receiving great

attention from the World Bank and government regulatory bodies. In addition, according to the

Kyoto summit in 2003, almost two billion people will not have access to safe drinking water

supplies in the year 2015.

4


3.1.2 Wastewater processes

The U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed Guidelines for water reuse, a

comprehensive, technical document in 1992. There is a lot of information regarding water reused

requirements and guidelines for treating and reusing water in this manual. There are also the key

issue in evaluating wastewater reuse opportunities, and case studies illustrating legal issues, such

as water rights, that effect wastewater reuse.

Wastewater reuse can be classified into several categories which are urban reuse consist of the

irrigation of public parks, school yards, highway medians, and residential landscapes as well as

for fire protection and toilet flushing in commercial and industrial buildings. The treatment that

applied to this are secondary treatment process that include activated sludge processes, trickling

filters, rotating biological contactors and many stabilization pond systems. It is also should

produce effluent in which both the BOD and TSS do not exceed 30 mg/L. Then filtration means

passing the effluent through natural undisturbed soil or filter media such as sand or anthracite.

Lastly disinfection means the destruction, inactivation or removal of pathogenic microorganisms.

It may be accomplished by chlorination, or other chemical disinfectants, UV radiation or other

processes. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992)

Second type of reuse is agricultural reuse for non-food crops which consist of pasture for milking

animals; fodder, fiber, commercial nurseries, pasture lands and seed crops. High quality

reclaimed water is used to irrigate food crops. The treatment suggested are secondary and

disinfection that is discussed above. The last type of reuse is indirect potable reuse that is

groundwater recharge by spreading into potable aquifers and the treatment using site specific

secondary and disinfection (min). It may also need filtration and advanced wastewater treatment.

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992)

5


3.1.3 Advantages

There are a lot of advantages using the technology of wastewater. First, it can reduce the

demands on potable sources of freshwater and need for large wastewater treatment systems, it

significant portions of the waste stream are reused or recycled. It also can reduce pollution of

rivers and groundwater. Second, the technology may diminished the volume of wastewater

discharged, resulting in a beneficial impact on the aquatic environment. Then, the capital costs

are low to medium for most systems and are recoverable in a very short time; this excludes

systems designed for direct reuse of sewage water. Other than that, the operation and

maintenance are relatively simple except in direct reuse systems where more extensive

technology and quality control are required. It also provision of nutrient-rich wastewaters which

can increase agricultural production in water-poor areas. Lastly, lawn maintenance and golf

course irrigation is facilitated in resort areas and in most cases, the quality of the wastewater, as

an irrigation water supply, is superior to that of well water. (S.Vignesvaran, 2004)

3.1.4 Disadvantages

Besides that, the disadvantages of the technology is if implemented on a large scale, revenues to

water supply and wastewater utilities may fall as the demand for potable water for non-potable

uses and the discharge of wastewaters is reduced. Second, reuse of wastewater may be seasonal

in nature, resulting in the overloading of treatment and disposal facilities during the rainy season;

if the wet season is of long duration and/or high intensity, the seasonal discharge of raw

wastewaters may occur. More worst when it cause health problems, such as water-borne diseases

and skin irritations, may occur in people coming into direct contact with reused wastewater and

gases, such as sulphuric acid, produced during the treatment process can result in chronic health

problems. In some cases, reuse of wastewater is not economically feasible because of the

requirement for an additional distribution system. The last disadvantage is the application of

untreated wastewater as irrigation water or as injected recharge water may result in groundwater

contamination. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992)

6


3.1.5 Social acceptance

In the present of new technology nowadays has opened the opportunities to the consumers to

accept the wastewater reuse in their daily life. As proven the wastewater reuse is practically used

in arid zone areas and Mediterranean area. Before this, there are several countries that have

accepted the wastewater reused because of the shortage of water and to solve the drought

problem. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992)

The other factor of acceptance the wastewater reuses is education. It is the key to overcoming

public fears about a reuse system, particularly fears that relate to public health and water quality.

“A broad, in-depth public relations program and a demonstration project are especially helpful

when the reuse project is the first of its kind in the state,” says Curtis Stultz, assistant

superintendant, Wastewater Treatment Plan for the City of Woodburn, Oregon.

Some considerations for costs include the type of reuse equipment chosen, whether or not the

reuse system was constructed at the same time as the treatment plant or added on afterward, the

level to which the effluent must travel between the treatment site and the discharge site. Many

communities have defrayed costs through low-interest loans and federal, state, and local grants.

Actions promoting wastewater reuse are everywhere such as New Jersey has formed a ten

member commission to investigate wastewater reuse for non-potable urban uses such as

irrigation, dust control, and fire fighting and several cities like Odessa, Texas, and Denver, and

Colorado. Wastewater reuse is a proven technology that has been used for more than 40 years

across the US because it is a drought-proof, renewable supply of water that will help

communities keep water tables from dropping, water resources from shrinking, and waterways

from becoming polluted. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992)

7


4.0 CONCLUSION

4.1 Secondary Research Findings

It is concluded that this section summarizes recently published literatures on wastewater reuse in

the countries involved. The literatures on wastewater reuse addresses all the information

regarding wastewater reuse as well as the social acceptance of wastewater reuse.

4.1.1 The History

Wastewater in the simplest of terms is used water. This can be water contained in the waste

products of industry, domestic water use from residential, commercial and industrial uses and

storm runoff.

Wastewater also can view as a resource, fresh water containing plant nutrients. In the ground

water nutrients are a pollutant, but on growing crop or turf, they are resource. When waste water

reused, it is not available to pollute the groundwater supply.

4.1.2 Wastewater process

All of this wastewater contains various types and quantities of contaminants, unhealthy

contaminants for the most part, and should be treated to allow safe disposal or reuse. Wastewater

treatment removes these contaminants from the used water. The treating of wastewater can be

achieved in numerous ways depending on the type of wastewater. Wastewater treatment is

typically broken down into two approaches, biological and chemical.

Wastewater is an urgent demand for proper, well described, reference values on waste

production. Monitoring program need to be set up to allow for a more reliable environmental

impact assessment of animal product processing than is presently the case. This monitoring

program should result in emission factors per unit of product processed. Because of the diversity

in processes and waste production, proper data collection on waste processing will be an

expensive and time consuming undertaking.

8


4.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages

All of this wastewater contains various types and quantities of contaminants, unhealthy

contaminants for the most part, and should be treated to allow safe disposal or reuse. Wastewater

treatment removes these contaminants from the used water.

The primary purpose of wastewater treatment is public safety and environmental health. In many

countries there are stringent rules regarding discharge of effluents and wastewater, rules

designed to protect the public safety and environment.

Economic reality sometimes prevents the proper treatment of wastewater, creating the conditions

for pollution of lakes, streams, soils and groundwater. Part of what we do is make wastewater

treatment available in a cost effective way.

Preventing pollution is a powerful incentive for wastewater treatment, as the benefits are not

only cultural and social but help sustain a human friendly environment for the long-term.

4.1.4 Social acceptance

Initial acceptance is shown to depend mainly upon cognitive factors, including the awareness of

the public about water supply, distribution and treatment, the perception of the adequacy of

existing supplies, and income. Peripheral factors such as age, political affiliation and attitudes to

local government are also related to acceptance, but neither price nor psychological factors

influence the level of acceptance.

It is concluded that public acceptance of waste-water reuse is not a formidable obstacle to its

adoption, but that a greater constraint is the pessimistic perception by planners of consumer

attitudes.

9

http://wecleanwater.com/html/company/integrated_engineers_guarantee.htm

http://wecleanwater.com/html/company/integrated_engineers_guarantee.htm

http://wecleanwater.com/html/services/public-safety-and-environmental-health.htm


5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the preceding information, the followings are the recommendations that will help the

government and public to overcome the issue of treated wastewater, either as potable or non-

potable water.

5.1 It is recommended that the government should be responsible in organising campaigns on

the importance of treated wastewater for the public to gain detailed knowledge about

wastewater.

5.2 It is also suggested that the public should be made aware on the process of treating the

wastewater in order to gain their confidence on the hygiene and safety of the treated

wastewater to be used either as potable or non-potable water in their daily life.

5.3 Another suggestion is that the government should inform the public on the benefits of

treated wastewater, not only to preserve freshwater, but also used as renewable supply of

water.

5.4 The public should be made aware on the issue of preserving the freshwater by using

treated wastewater to overcome the problem of water shortage in the future.

5.5 It is proposed that the media plays the important role in advertising the treated

wastewater to be used for the public in their daily life, due to the negative response or

thinking of the public on treated wastewater even though research has shown that treated

wastewater has been proven safe to be used as drinking water or agriculture use.

10


References

A.Bahri, Water reuse in the Middle East, North Africa and Mediterranean Countries.

National Research Institute for Agricultural Engineering, Water and Forestry, Tunisia,

Kyoto Water Forum, 2003.

Levine, A.D., Asano, T., 2004. Recovering sustainable water from wastewater. Environ.

Sci. Technol. 38 (11), 201A–208A.

S.Vigneswaran,M.Sundaravadivel, (2004), RECYCLE AND REUSE OF DOMESTIC

WASTEWATER, in Wastewater Recycle,Reuse,and Reclamation, [Ed. Saravanamuthu

(Vigi) Vigneswaran], in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed

under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK,

Kuiper D. and Wechsler R. (1974) “Conceptual aspects of water re-use”, Water Res. 8,

529, Testing and Research Institute of the Netherlands Water Work KIWA, Netherlands.

Kuiper D. and Wechsler R. (1973) “Domestic waste watern re-use-aspects of the

treatment system”, Testing and Research Institute of the Netherlands Water Work KIWA,

Netherlands

From scarcity to security: averting a water crisis in the Middle East and North Africa,

Washington, DC, World Band, 1995.

Abdel-Gawad, S., “Agricultural drainage reuse policy in Egypt; Conservation and

challenges”, National Water Research Center, MWRI. Personal communication with Dr.

Hesham Kandil.

11


Chashm, K., “Water conscious development and the prevention of water misuse and

wastage in the eastern Mediterranean region”, Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal,

Vol. 6, No. 4, 2000.

Ali Khan, M.Z., “Domestic water conservation technology in arid regions”, Arabian

Journal for Science and Engineering 1986, 2 (4).

Abdul Razzak, M.J. and Ali Khan M.Z., “Domestic water conservation potential in Saudi

Arabia”, Journal of Environmental Management 1990, 114 (2): 167-178.

Afifi, M.M., “Egyptian national community water conservation program”, Paper

presented at the Environmental Communication Strategy and Planning for Non-

Governmental Organizations- Main, Jordan, 27-31 May, 1996.

El-Kady, M. and Elshibiny, F., “The Role & Non-conventional water for Egypt future

development strategy”, 3rd Conference of On-Farm Irrigation and Agro Climatology,

Cairo, January 25-27, 1999.

Rassoul, E.M.A., “Prospects & water reuse in Egypt”, Proceedings of the 10th

International Water Technology Conference, Alexandria, Egypt, 23-25th March 2006,

Vol. II, pp. 561-567.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1992. Guidelines for Water Reuse. (EPA)/625/R-

92/004

12

Documents

Wastewater Reuse