Washtenaw CC 2010

8/8/2019 Washtenaw CC 2010

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Follow Where the Research Leads Us: What Brain

Research can tell us about Students Learning

Developed by Professor Terry Doyle

Ferris State University

www.learnercenteredteaching.com

[email protected]


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Slides available for download at:

www.learnercenteredteaching.com

Washtenaw Community College

Follow Where the Research Leads Us


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Presentation Outcomes

By the end of the presentation participants will:

1. Have a better understanding of how fast theresearch into human learning is progressing.

2.Have developed news ideas for applyingresearch findings to their courses.


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Folklore vs. Science

In A Celebration of Neurons by

University of Oregon Education

Professor Robert Sylwester in 1995

He said : the

information upon which

we make our teachingdecisions is much closer

to folklore than science.


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What was Then

Guido Sarducci Five Minute University


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http://www.ted.com/speakers/aditi_shankarda

ss.html

What is Now


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Brain Research

It is important to realize muchof the research on the brain asit relates to learning has beendone on animal models.

The research that is done onhumans consist of the study ofdiscrete tasks in isolation.(Dr. Janet Zadina, Neuroscientist andEducator)

This research can however,give us important ideas abouthow to make learning moreeffective.


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It is a Comprehensive Blend

Antonio Damasio, head of the Department of Neurology atthe University of Iowa Medical Center said

"The relation between brain systems and complex cognition

and behavior, can only be explained satisfactorily by acomprehensive blend of theories and facts related to all thelevels of organization of the nervous system, frommolecules, and cells and circuits, to large-scale systems andphysical and social environments. . . .

We must beware of explanations that rely on data from onesingle level, whatever the level may be."


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What We Know about the Brain

What we know about the

brain comes from

biologist who study brain

tissue, experimentalpsychologist who study

behavior, cognitive

neuroscientist who study

how the first relates to

the second and

evolutionary biologist.(Medina, 2008).


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Following the Research

In Thomas Kuhn's 1962seminal work, TheStructure of ScientificRevolutions, he described

how society respondswhen there is a significantshift in the prevailingparadigm.

Kuhn argued that such ashift is typically met withvehement denial andopposition.


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The Brain was Designed to Learn

The brain was meant to explore and learn


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The Brains Needs

The brain needs to

function effectively:

1. Exercise

2. Sleep

3. Oxygen

4. Hydration

5. Food (glucose)


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Brain Research and College Teaching

"If we ignore how the

student brain works, we

will risk student success

"Everything we do uses

our brain; let's learn more

about it and apply that

knowledge."

Leslie Hart 1983." , Human Brain,

Human Learning


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The Human Brain

The human brain weighs three (3) pounds but

uses 20-25% of the bodies energy.


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The Human Brain

The human brain has 100 billion neurons.

(It does grow thousands of new cells daily)

www.enchantedlearning.com/.../gifs/Neuron.GIF


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The Human Brain

These 100 billion neurons

are capable of making40,000,000,000,000,000(Forty quadrillion connections )

(James Ratey, Users Guide to the Brain, 2002)


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Learning is when Neurons Wire

Learning is a change

in the neuron-patterns of the

brain.(Ratey, 2002, Goldberg, 2009)

www.virtualgalen.com/.../ neurons-small.jpg


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Teachers Definition of Learning?

Learning is the ability to use information aftersignificant periods of disuse

and

it is the ability to use the information to solveproblems that arise in a context different (if onlyslightly) from the context in which the information

was originally taught.

(Robert Bjork, Memories andMetamemories, 1994)


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Basic Finding from Brain Research as it

Impacts Human Learning

It is the one who does

the work who does thelearning.


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The Pace of Brain Research

Digital Overload: Is Your Computer Frying Your Brain?

Re-engineering a brain

High-risk autism gene 'changes brain patterns

Bionic implants melding man and machine

Good conversation can boost brain power, study finds

Beetroot juice good for brain

Glia:The Other Brain, The new frontier in brain science


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The Pace of Brain Research

Worm gene maps give clue to higher brain evolution

Virtual reality helps researchers track how brain responds to surroundings

Brain scans may someday track child development

Consistent brain activity key to good memory

Women and men have virtually identical brains, scientist claims

Study: Exercise helps kids get better grades

Specific Brain Region Linked to Introspective Thoughts

Brain scans could be used to 'prove' whether a child is mature enough to be triedfor a crime


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What has Researchers Discovered that

We Might Use?


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Rest after Learning Improves Recall

The researchers found thatduring rest, the areas of thebrain were just as active asthey were when they were

learning the task

The greater the correlationbetween rest and learningthe greater the chance of

remembering the task inlater tests.Dr Lila Davachi, NYU's Department ofPsychology and Center for Neural Science.


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Significance of this Finding

Should Students not

take classes back to

back?

"Taking a coffee break

after class can actually

help you retain the

information you just

learned." Dr Lila Davachi


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Naps Help Learning

You need to sleep beforelearning, to prepare yourbrain, like a dry sponge, toabsorb new information.(M. Walker, UC Berkley)

A NASA study foundastronauts who napped for27 minutes in the afternoon

improved this cognitivefunctioning on later daytasks by 31% over nonnapping astronauts. (Medina2008)


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Naps and Learning

In a study by M. Walker

of UC Berkley he found

those who napped 90

minutes beforelearning improved

performance by 10% vs.

non nappers who did

10% worse on basicmemory tests.(Matthew P.Walker, UC Berkley)


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Caffeine and Sugar (glucose) and

Learning A study reported in the journal Human Psychopharmacology:

Clinical and Experimentalfound that the combination of caffeineand sugar (glucose) enhanced attention, learning and memory.

The conclusions suggested that a combination of caffeine andglucose has beneficial effects on attention (sequential reaction timetasks) and learning and on the consolidation of verbal memory,none of which were observed when the substances were consumedseparately (Grabulosa,2010).

The studies main finding was that the combination of the twosubstances improves cognitive performance in terms of sustainedattention and working memory by increasing the efficiency of theareas of the brain responsible for these two functions. (Grabulosa,Adan, Falcn, and Bargall, 2010)


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The Brain and Learning

The human brain was

designed to solve

problems of survival in

outdoor, unstableenvironments while in

almost constant

motion.

( Dr. John Medina, Developmental Molecular

Biologist, University of Washington and Author

of Brain Rules)


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The Brain and Learning

If educators had set

out to design a learning

environment that was

in complete oppositionto what the human

brain is good at they

would have designed

the schools of yesterdayand today.

(John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)


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Neuroscience has Become Main Stage

The journals of

Biological Psychiatry,

Social Neuroscience.

Nutritional Neuroscience

Arts and Neuroscience


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Mens and Womens Brains are

Different

There are differences

in the physical

structures of mens and

womens brains


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Different Aside from external

anatomical and primaryand secondary sexualdifferences, scientists

know also that there aremany other subtledifferences in the waythe brains from men andwomen processlanguage, information,emotion, cognition, etc.Renato M.E. Sabbatini,PhD


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Different

One of the mostinteresting differencesappear in the way menand women estimate

time, judge speed ofthings, carry out mentalmathematicalcalculations, orient inspace and visualizeobjects in threedimensions. (Renato M.E.Sabbatini, PhD)


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Left Brain- Right Brain

Left Hemisphere of brain

deals with routine.

E. Goldberg, 2009

Right Hemisphere of brain

deals with novelty.


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Mirror Neurons and Learning

The discovery of mirror neurons by Giacomo

Rizzolatti and colleagues suggests a vehicle for

an imitative reciprocity in our brain.

To date no widely accepted neural or

computational models have been put forward

to describe how mirror neuron activity

supports cognitive functions such as imitation.


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Social Conditions and the Brain

Social conditions

influence our brain in

ways we didn't know

before.


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Social Conditions and the Brain

School behaviors arehighly social experiences,which become encodedthrough our sense of

reward, acceptance, pain,pleasure, coherence,affinity, and stress.

Students are moreaffected by it than wethought. (American Institute forResearch, 2011)


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Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain

to rewire and remap

itself by means of

neuroplasticity isprofound.

Schools can influence

this process.


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Neuroplasticity

Neuroscientists Michael

Merzenich and Paula

Tallal verified that when

the correct skill-buildingprotocol is used,

educators can make

positive and significant

changes in our brains ina short time.


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Neuroplasticity and Remediation

-- the brain tissue that

carries signals between

areas of grey matter,

where information isprocessed -- improved

substantially after the

children received 100

hours of remedialtraining.


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Remediation of Reading Difficulties

"Showing that it'spossible to rewire abrain's white matter hasimportant implications for

treating readingdisabilities and otherdevelopmental disorders,including autism."

D.O. Hebb Professor of Psychologyand director of Carnegie Mellon'sCenter for Cognitive Brain Imaging(CCBI).


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Gene Expression

The old-school view wasthat either environmentor genes decided theoutcomes for a student.

We now know thatthere's a third option:gene expression.

Neuroscientists Bruce Lipton andErnest Rossi


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Gene Expression

This is the capacity of

our genes to respond to

chronic or acute

environmental input.

This new understanding

highlights a new vehicle

for change in our

students.


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Dendrite Growth

Within 20 minutes of

being exposed to new

learning the dendrites

in the brain begin togrow new cellular

material.

(Cognitive Neuroscientist Janet Zadina, 2010)


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Use it or Lose it

When new material is

not practiced the new

dendrite tissue is

reabsorbed to conserveresources.

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)


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Learning Activates the Brains

Reward Pathways

Real life, meaningful,

and authentic learning

activates the reward

pathway in the brain

It is this pathway that

keeps us alive

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)


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Learning Activates the Brains

Reward Pathways

By giving us a jolt ofpleasure (dopamine)the reward pathwayworks to ensure that wewill repeat thebehaviors necessary tosurvive.

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/ad

diction/reward/


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Reading in the Brain

Cause of Dyslexia

For 100 years believed

to be a problem with

the visual processing

parts of the brain.

Cause of Dyslexia

2009 French

Neuroscientist Stanislas

Dehaene proved it is a

problem with the

auditory processing

parts of the brain


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Memory and Similar Patterns

People are more likelyto rememberinformation if thepattern of activity intheir brain is roughlythe same with eachreview.


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Memory and Similar Patterns

The findings, published

online Sept. 9, 2010 in

the journal Science,

challenge the long-heldbelief that humans

remember more

effectively when they

review information invarying context.


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How Practice Makes Perfect

The question is howpractice makes perfect, Ifyou precisely reactivate thesame pattern each time,then you are going to

remember better.

Xue cautioned that thestudy does not disprove the

effect of variable contexts inenhancing memory.

(GuiXue,USC)


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How Practice Makes Perfect

Restudy under similar

context might not

always lead to pattern

reinstatement, and atthe same time, variable

contexts might enhance

pattern reinstatement..


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We Use all our Senses

The traditional belief amongneuroscientists has beenthat the five senses operatelargely as independentsystems.

However, mounting datasuggest interactionsbetween vision, hearing,smell, touch and taste are

the rule, rather than theexception.Aaron Seitz Journal Current Biology, 2006


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Smell and Learning

Proust Effect is the

unusual ability of

smell to enhance

recall.

Best results when

smells are congruent

with the situation.Medina, 2008, Brain Rules, p.212


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Emotion and Memory

Emotional arousalorganizes andcoordinates brain activity(Bloom, Beal & Kupfer 2003)

When the amygdaladetects emotions, itessentially boosts activity

in the areas of the brainthat form memories (S.Hamann & Emony, UN.)


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Which of the following slides

would be easier to recall after

two weeks?


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Slide One

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/...


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Slide Two

www.operationsudan.org/images/darfur_child_st...


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Multitasking Slows Learning

It is not possible to

multitask when it

comes to activitiesthat require the

brains attention.


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Multi-tasking

Multi-tasking violates everything we know about howmemory works .

There is objective scientific evidence that multi-tasking

impairs learning.

The imaging data indicated that the memory task andthe distraction stimuli engage different parts of the

brain and that these regions probably compete witheach other.

(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. )


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Multitasking

Our brain works hard to foolus into thinking it can domore than one thing at atime. It cant.

When trying to do twothings at once, the braintemporarily shuts down onetask while trying to do theother.

(3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. )


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Sleep and Memory

"Periods of slow-wave sleep are very long and

produce a recall and probably amplification

of memory traces. Ensuing episodes of REM

sleep, which are very short, trigger the

expression of genes to store what was

processed during slow-wave sleep."

Sidarta Ribeiro, Duke University, 2004


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Sleep and Memory

The MRI scans are showing us that brain regionsshift dramatically during sleep,

"When you're asleep, it seems as though you areshifting memory to more efficient storage regionswithin the brain. Consequently, when youawaken, memory tasks can be performed bothmore quickly and accurately and with less stress

and anxiety."

Matthew Walker, PhD, director of BIDMC's Sleep and Neuroimaging Laboratoryand Assistant Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School,


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Vision Trumps All

Vision trumps all other senses


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Vision Trumps All

Text and oral

presentations are not

just less efficient than

pictures for retaininginformation they are

way less efficient

(Brain Rules p.234)


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Vision Trumps All

Oral information has arecall of about 10%after 72 hours

Add a picture and therecall increases to 65%

(Brain Rules, P.234)


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192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg

192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg

Cramming


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Brains are Wired Differently

All brains are

wired differently

Our experiences

make us different


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Progress is Vital

A feeling of making

progress is what allows

humans to deal with

tasks, especially taskswe dont necessarily

like to do.

(Dr. James Zull, 2002)


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Stress

Long term

stress

diminishes/

harms brainfunction.


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Short Term Stress

Acute stress activatesselective moleculescalled corticotropin(CRH) releasing

hormones, whichdisrupted the processby which the braincollects and stores

memories. ( Tallie Z. Baram, theDanette Shepard Chair in NeurologicalSciences in the UC Irvine School ofMedicine.


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Brain Based Education

How reputable is brain-based education?

Harvard University nowoffers both master's anddoctoral degrees in it.


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Brain Based Education

Harvards mission is to

build a movement in

which cognitive science

and neuroscience areintegrated with

education so that we

train people to make

that integration both inresearch and in

practice.


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Exercise and Learning

Exercise

significantly

enhances brainfunction.


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Exercise is the single

most important thing a

person can do to

improve their learning.

(John Ratey, 2008, Spark, The

Revolutionary New Science of

Exercise and the Brain)


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Exercise influences

learning directly, at

the cellular level,

improving the brains

potential to log in

and process newinformation.

Ratey, p35


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Newest Findings

Exercise increases

production of

neurotransmitters that help:1.Focus and attention

2.Motivation

3. Patience

4. Mood (more optimistic)

(Ratey, 2008)

E i d BDNF


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Exercise and BDNF

(Brain-derived neurotrophic factor )

Exercise produces BDNF

( Miracle Grow for the Brain)

(Ratey, 2008)


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BDNF

Improves brain health

Enhances the wiring of

neurons

Is a stress inoculator

Makes the brain cells

more resilient


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BDNF and Exercise

In particular BDNF seems to be important for

long term memories (John Ratey, 2008)


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Exercise Can Reduces Bad Behavior

Exercise produces theneuro-chemicals that aidthe brain in self control

Studies show dramaticdeclines (66%) insuspensions anddiscipline referrals in

public schools involved intest studies(Ratey,p.14)


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Exercise and Brain Pathologies

Exercise reducessignificantly thepotential for the brainto succumb to certain

pathologies

1. Alzheimers 50%

2. Dementia 60%

3. Depression 70%(Dr. John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)


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The Brain is Social

Survival is accomplished

by working with other

brains

Groups of brains

almost always

outperform a single

brain


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The Brain is Social

Group work has

tremendous potential

to aid understanding

and learningif thegroups understand their

roles and what they are

trying to accomplish.


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Memory

Memory

Repetition over timeand elaboration are

necessary for

memory formationand recall


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Why Students Forget

Review helps to limit the 3 Sins of Memory that

commonly occur among students.

1. Blocking information stored but cant be

accessed (Schacter, 2001)

2. Misattribution attributing a memory to the

wrong situation or source (Zola, 2002)

3. Transience memory lost over time 65% of a

lecture is lost in the first hour (Schacter, 2001)


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Listen to the Music

Do you know the lyrics to

songs that you did not try to

learn and do not want to

know the lyrics to?

YES


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Practice over Time

Practice, Use ,

Repetition, Review,

Reflection or other

meaningful ways weengage with new

learning over time is a

major key to its recall.


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Memories are Reconstructed

The more senses

used in learning and

in practicing what

has been learnedthe more pathways

are available for

recall.


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Elaborations are the Key

For better or worse, our recollections are largely at the

mercy of our elaborations (Daniel Schacter author of the Seven Sinsof Memory)

Elaboration is a


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Elaboration is a

Major Key to Recall

Step One. Accuracy

Step Two: Reflection

Step Three: Review

Step Four: Mapping

Step Five: Recoding


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Keeping Memories

The best way to minimize memory decay is to useelaborative rehearsal strategies

Visualizing

Singing

Writing

Semantic Mapping

Drawing Pictures Symbolizing

Mnemonics.


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Multiple Senses with Emotion

Powerful

memories can be

created when

using multiple

senses and

emotionTheimagepart with relationship ID rId2wasnotfound in thefile.


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20 Ounces of Coke

74 grams of sugar or 2.7 oz


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A Burger King Whopper

47 grams of fat

d


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Patterns and Learning


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The brain is a pattern seeking device that

relates whole concepts to one another and

looks for similarities, differences, or

relationships between them. (Ratey, 2002, pg.5)

Sociology Psychology


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Which of the following

slides is easier toremember and WHY?


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SLIDE ONE

`4915802979

l d


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Slide Two

(491) 580-2979

l d


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Slide One

NRAFBINBCUSAMTV

lid


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Slide Two

NRA NBC FBI USA MTV

l d ff


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Similarity and Difference

The most common pattern used in schools is

similarity and difference.

E l B b ll


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Example-- Baseball

Who are the two

players that play infront of the Right

Fielder?

P tt d L i


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P tt d L i


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However, if all a person did was memorize the names

in order 1-9 trouble!!!


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References

Medina, John, Brain Rules, Pear Press, 2008

Sylwester, R. A Celebration of Neurons An Educators Guide to the Human Brain, ASCD:1995

Sprenger, M. Learning and Memory The Brain in Action by, ASCD, 1999

.How People Learn by National Research Council editor John Bransford, National Research Council, 2000

Goldberg, E. The Executive Brain Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind ,Oxford University Press: 2001

Ratey, J. MD. Spark: The New Science of Exercise and the Brain, 2008, Little Brown

Ratey, J. MD :A Users Guide to the Brain, Pantheon Books: New York, 2001

Zull, James. The Art of Changing the Brain.2002, Stylus: Virginia

Weimer, Maryellen. Learner-Centered Teaching. Jossey-Bass, 2002

Sousa, David. How the Brain Learns(Corwin Press, Inc., 1998),

Long-Lasting Novelty-Induced Neuronal Reverberation during Slow-Wave Sleep in Multiple ForebrainAreasSidarta Ribeiro,Damien Gervasoni, Ernesto S.Soares, Yi Zhou, Shih-Chieh Lin, Janaina Pantoja, Michael Lavine, Miguel A. L. Nicolelis , 2004

(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memory systems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)

3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. Isolation of a Central Bottleneck of Information Processing with Time-Resolved fMRI. Neuron.52 (6): 1109-1120

Geary, D.C. Chapter 8: Sex differences in brain and cognition. In "Male, Female: the Evolution of Human Sex Differences".AmericanPsychologicalAssociation Books. ISBN: 1-55798-527-8 [AMAZON].

Sabbatini, R.M.E.: The PET Scan:A New Window Into the Brain http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n11/mente/eisntein/cerebro-homens.html

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References

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Brain-Based Education," Phi Delta Kappan, May 1999, pp. 648-57; and idem, "Points of View: On the Implications of Neuroscience

Research for Science Teaching and Learning: Are There Any?," CBE Life Science Education, vol. 5, 2006, pp. 445-61.

2. Bruer, "In Search of," p. 655.

3. Leslie A. Hart, Human Brain, Human Learning (New York: Longman, 1983).

4. Howard Gardner, Frames ofMind: The Theory ofMultiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983); Renata N. Caine and Geoffrey

Caine, Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain (Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,

1991); David A. Sousa, How the Brain Learns, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin, 2005); and Eric Jensen, Teaching with the Brain in

Mind, 2nd ed. (Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2005).

5. Conor Liston, "An Interview with Antonio R. Damasio,"The Harvard Brain, Spring 2001, p. 2, emphasis added.

6. Gerd Kempermann, Laurenz Wiskott, and Fred Gage, "Functional Significance of Adult Neurogenesis," Current Opinion in

Neurobiology, April 2004, pp. 186-91.

7. Marco Iacoboni et al., "Grasping the Intentions of Others with One's Own Mirror Neuron System," PLoS Biology, 22 February 2005,

available at http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030079.

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References

8. Michael Kilgard and Michael Merzenich, "Cortical Map Reorganization Enabled by Nucleus BasalisActivity," Science, vol. 279, 1998, pp. 1714-18; Henry W. Mahncke et al., "Memory Enhancement inHealthy Older Adults Using a Brain Plasticity-Based Training Program: A Randomized, ControlledStudy," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 15 August 2006, pp. 12523-28; and EliseTemple et al., "Neural Deficits in Children with Dyslexia Ameliorated by Behavioral Remediation:Evidence from Functional MRI," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 4 March 2003,pp. 2860-65.

9. Bruce McEwen and John Wingfield, "The Concept of Allostasis in Biology and Biomedicine,"H

ormone Behavior, January 2003, pp. 2-15. 10. Bruce Lipton, The Biology of Belief(Santa Rosa, Calif.: Mountain of Love Publishing, 2005); andErnest Rossi, The Psychobiology of Gene Expression (New York: Norton, 2002).

11. Temple et al. (learning to read); HweeLing Lee et al., "Anatomical Traces of VocabularyAcquisition in the Adolescent Brain," Journal of Neuroscience, 31 January 2007, pp. 1184-89(learning vocabulary); Bogdon Draganski et al., "Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Brain StructureChanges During Extensive Learning," Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 26, 2006, pp. 6314-17 (studyingfor tests); and Christien Gaser and Gottfried Schlaug, "Brain Structures Differ Between Musiciansand Non-Musicians," Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 23, 2003, pp. 9240-45 (learning to play a musical

instrument). Josep M Serra Grabulosa, Ana Adan, Carles Falcn, Nria Bargall. Glucose and caffeine effects on

sustained attention: an exploratory fMRI study. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical andExperimental. DOI: 10.1002/hup.1150 (2010).

.

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References

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Successful Remedial Training," Neurology, April 2002, pp. 1203-13.

13. Nancy Brener, John O. G. Billy, and William R. Grady, "Assessment of Factors Affecting the Validity of

Self-Reported Health-Risk Behavior Among Adolescents: Evidence from the Scientific Literature," Journal

of AdolescentHealth, vol. 33, 2003, pp. 436-57.

14. Henriette van Praag et al., "Running Enhances Neurogenesis, Learning and Long-Term Potentiation in

Mice," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 96, 1999, pp. 13427-31; and Ana C. Pereira et

al., "An In Vivo Correlate of Exercise-Induced Neurogenesis in the Adult Dentate Gyrus," Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences, vol. 104, 2007, pp. 5638-43.

15. Grace S. Griesbach et al., "Voluntary Exercise Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Brain-Derived

Neurotrophic Factor Upregulation and Recovery of Function," Neuroscience, vol. 125, 2006, pp. 129-39.

16. Tracey J. Shors et al., "Neurogenesis in the Adult Is Involved in the Formation of Trace Memories,"

Nature, vol. 410, 2001, pp. 372-76; and Yasuji Kitabatake et al., "Adult Neurogenesis and Hippocampal

Memory Function: New Cells, More Plasticity, New Memories?," Neurosurgery Clinics North America,

January 2007, pp. 105-13.

17. L. Sanji Nandam et al., "5-ht(7), Neurogenesis and Antidepressants: A Promising Therapeutic Axis for

Treating Depression," Clinical Experiments in Pharmacology and Physiology, May-June 2007, pp. 546-51.

18. Gitanjali Saluja et al., "Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Depressive Symptoms Among Young

Adolescents,"Archives of Pediatric and AdolescentMedicine, August 2004, pp. 760-65.

19. Astrid Bjornebekk et al., "The Antidepressant Effect of Running Is Associated with Increased

Hippocampal Cell Proliferation," InternationalJournal of Neuropsychopharmacology, September 2005, pp.

357-68.

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References

20. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1970).

21. Bruer, "In Search of."

22. Ibid., p. 657.

23. Chunliu Zhan and Marlene R. Miller, "Excess Length of Stay, Charges, and Mortality Attributableto Medical Injuries During Hospitalization,"Journal of the American Medical Association, October2003, pp. 1868-74.

24. Bruer, "In Search of."

25. Bruer, "Points of View: On the Implications of Neuroscience," p. 104.

26. Temple et al., op. cit.

27. Michael Posner and Mary Klevjord Rothbart, Educating the Human Brain (Washington, D.C.:American Psychological Association, 2006); Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia (New York: RandomHouse, 2004); and Helen Nevills and Pat Wolfe, Building the Reading Brain (Thousand Oaks, Calif.:Corwin, 2005).

28. Julia Hanna, "Mind, Brain, & Education: Linking Biology, Neuroscience, & Educational Practice,"Harvard Graduate School of Education News, 1 June 2005, available at

www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/mbe06012005.html http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/23/health/research/23beha.html Nap Study

Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memorysystems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)


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