Was There Ever a Ruling Class? 800 Years of Social Mobility in England

Gregory Clark, Department of Economics, University of California, Davis

(gclark@ucdavis.edu)

Using evidence from surnames, this paper makes two surprising claims. First, pre-modern England, all the way from the heart of the middle ages in 1250 to at least 1860, was a society without persistent social classes. It was a world of complete social mobility, with no permanent over-class and under-class. It was, despite all appearances, a world of complete equal opportunity. There was, however, a gain from being in the upper class in any generation in the form of leaving more copies of your DNA permanently in later populations. Second, signs of persistent social classes have only emerged in societies like England and the United States in recent years. Instead of moving from a world of immobility and class rigidity to a world of equal opportunity we have moved in the opposite direction. The US, for example, now exhibits persistent upper and under classes.

Introduction

In 1886 Francis Galton – the famous anthropologist, eugenicist,

geographer, inventor, meteorologist, polymath, statistician, tropical

explorer, and cousin of Darwin – published a fabulous discovery

which he labeled “regression towards mediocrity.”1 Galton’s paper

showed the tendency of both tall and short parents to have children

whose heights tended towards the mean of the society. This might

seem small potatoes, but Galton had uncovered a general process –

regression to the mean - with potentially profound social

implications, since it applies to all personal characteristics including

1 Galton, 1886.

education, IQ, income and wealth. It is a process that has led free-

market economists such as Gary Becker to proclaim

Almost all earnings advantages and disadvantages of ancestors

are wiped out in three generations. Poverty would not seem to

be a “culture” that persists for several generations2

If Becker is correct Galton’s discovering shows that there cannot

now be social classes – meaning persistent groups of privileged and

poor – in meritocratic societies such as England and the USA where

regression to the mean is strong. Within a few generations, a very

few generations, there must be a complete churning of the society:

the descendants of the poorest and the richest will be equally

represented. Whatever its appearance in the small, we live in a

profoundly egalitarian society once we move to the scale of

generations. Class is the illusion of the moment.

Yet even now we live in a world where the average person has a

strong belief in the reality and persistence of class. We all know there

is some social mobility. But we assume still that the children at

Choate, Hotchkiss and Groton, or at Eton, Harrow and Rugby, are

mainly drawn from some timeless elite. When we see pictures of

inner city deprivation we do not think these are the ultimate offspring

of middle class households. Rather we assume them the latest

generation of a permanent and persistent underclass, which

thankfully our own descendants will never inhabit.

English historians, similarly, while debating the degree to which

the pre-industrial English upper classes were an “open” elite, still

assume that

The English elite of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was full of

old families….Great families, often growing more prosperous and

prestigious over time but important even in the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries and frequently retaining their original patrimony….Many of

their names are familiar to any student of English history: Berkeley,

2 Becker and Tomes, 1986, S32.

Cavendish, Courtenay, Herbert, Howard, Lowther, Manners,

Pelham, Stanley, and Talbot. (Wasson, 1998, 35).

Elite society was not closed to new entrants, but it had long

persisting members.

Social mobility is, of course, a matter of keen interest to all upper

class parents in any society. While we celebrate mobility in the

abstract, we struggle ferociously in the concrete to frustrate it. At

the personal level we desperately hope that there is a ruling class, and

that our children and grandchildren can remain within its warm

embrace. We do not see the future of our offspring as an eventual

decline back to mediocrity.

The central question this paper addresses is whether this is a

grand illusion? Was there ever – even in the dark heart of medieval

England - a ruling class? A ruling class, that is, in the sense of a

persistent, upper class, strata within the society? Was there, in

conjunction, even in the era of lord and serf, ever a persistent

underclass? Can most members of the group with the top ten

percent of incomes now trace their origins to the ruling class of

medieval England? Can most members of the bottom ten percent of

the income distribution trace their origins to the landless laborers of

the medieval manor? Similarly was there ever a criminal underclass?

What we will learn are two astonishing things. First, pre –

modern England, all the way from 1250 to at least 1914, was a society

without persistent social classes. It was a world of complete social

mobility, with no permanent over-class and under-class. It was,

despite all appearances, a world of complete equal opportunity.

George Orwell could not be more incorrect when he observed:

England is the most class-ridden country under the sun. It is a land of snobbery

and privilege (George Orwell, 1941).

Second, persistent social classes have only emerged in societies

like England and the United States in recent years. We congratulate

ourselves that we have created a meritocracy with access for all

compared to the bad old days. Yet instead of moving from a world

of immobility and class rigidity to a world of complete mobility we

have moved in the opposite direction. The US now exhibits

persistent upper and under classes. Why this has happened is a

matter, of course, of considerable interest and concern.

The Mathematics of Mobility

The evidence on social mobility in the long run is surprisingly

limited. The reason for this is that most studies of social mobility

have looked only at parents and children. Linking people through

three or more generations is difficult, and has been done rarely.

These two-generation studies consistently do find Galton’s

“regression to the mean.” The children of the rich are poorer than

their parents, the children of the poor are richer than their parents. It

applies to all characteristics that can be measured for parents and

children.

Thus if we measure the logarithm of the income or wealth of the

parents relative to the average by y0, and that of the children by y1

then we can estimate empirically the value of the coefficient b in the

expression y1 = by0 + u0

If b is 1, then the best predictor of the children’s income is that of

their parents and there is no regression to the mean. In this case

there would be persistent social classes. In practice modern estimates

of b vary between 0.2 and 0.5, implying substantial regression to the

mean. A coefficient of 0.5 implies that if a parent has income double

the national average then their children on average would have an

income level only 50% above the national average. Figure 1 shows

what regression to the mean looks like in practice, for the case where

b = 0.5.3

3 With a stable distribution of wealth or income over time, b also indicates how much of the variation in income in societies is explicable from inheritance. The

Figure 1: Regression to the mean in income

Observing the intergenerational regression of income, wealth

and status to the mean, some free market advocates such as Gary

Becker have argued that with enough time we are in a society of

complete social mobility. The argument is by iteration. Assuming

for the next generation that

y2 = by1 + u1

then

y2 = b{by0 + u0} + u1 = b2y0 + [bu0 + u1]

Thus when we get to generation n yn = bny0 + u*n ≈ u*n

where share so explained will be b2. This means that with a b of 0.5, only about 0.25 of the variance of incomes in each generation is explained by inheritance.

u*n = bn-1u0 + bn-2u1 + …….. + un .

The expected log income of the children after a number of

generations, whatever the initial income y0 will be 0. The regression

of expected income to the mean value for the society will occur very

quickly if b has a commonly estimated value such as 0.5 or less. If

the parents have an income 100% above the society mean, then for

grandchildren it will be 25%, and for great grandchildren 12%.

However, the one generational regression to the mean that is

typically observed

y1 = by0 + u0

is compatible with very different conclusion about long run social

mobility. To see this assume that the initial income has two

components, so that y0 = z + e0

z is the systematic component of the income, determined by such

things as genetics and social class, and e0 is the random component.

Suppose that z can get faithfully transmitted between generations.

Then the income of the next generation will be y1 = z + e1 If we regress y1 on y0 then the estimated value of b will be

Where is the variance of the part of income arising as an

idiosyncratic component in each generation, and is the variance of

the part of income that is systematic and inheritable. If these

variance were equal would be estimated as 0.5. But the important

thing is that the expected value of b in

y2 = by0 + u0 ,

between grandfather and grandson, will be just the same as for the

connection between father and son. After one generation there will

be no further regression to the mean. In this case, depending on the

initial value of z there will be persistent social classes.

Suppose that society consists of a group of people of different

economic classes z1 , z2 , ….. zn. What would the global connection

between fathers and sons look like in this case? Figure 2 shows a

simulation of this where there are two social classes, with the first

(shown by the squares) having an underlying inherited component of

income 3, and the second (the triangles) an inherited component of 5.

Around each of these means there are random deviations. But the

underlying mean of each group is fixed over time. In this case there

are social classes that persist. But if we just take the raw data ands

estimate the coefficient b in the expression

y1 = by0 + u0

then the estimated value of b is 0.43. The dashed line shows the

estimated connection. There is the classic regression to the mean,

even though with the specification underlying this simulation the two

groups will never converge in income.

If we knew that the parents and children in figure 2 belonged to

different groups then we could figure out by estimating y1 = a + by0 + u0

for each group that the groups were in fact regressing to a different

mean income. In example shown in Figure 3, the estimated within-

group b’s would be close to 0.

Figure 2: Regression to the mean with different social classes

But if we do not know a priori what the social strata are –

because, for example, they are distinguished by race or religion - then

there will be no way of disentangling the various social classes.

Presented with the raw data we would observe just the general

regression to the mean of the world of complete long run mobility.

So to observe whether there are persistent social classes in any society

we need to be able to look at the experience of regression to the

mean across multiple generations. That is what I do below.

Surnames and Social Mobility: Common Names

In looking at surnames I use two types of analysis. The first

concerns common surnames – those held by many people – such as

Smith, Clark and Jones. These surnames attached to the population

of England sometime in the middle ages, starting with the upper

classes and moving down to the general population.4 By 1381

4 The Domesday book of 1086, records surnames, including combinations of Saxon forenames with Norman family names.

surnames were near universal.5 They also had the characteristic in

England of passing, at least in principle, unchanged from father to

sons. Thus if we could at the time of establishment of surnames

show an association between certain types of surnames and the

bearer’s economic and social class, we can then use the distribution

of these surnames in later periods as a measure of the mobility of

people between social classes, stretching back to the heart of the

medieval era in England. They also, as we shall see trace the path of

the Y chromosome. So we can also use surnames to measure

reproductive success in a society like pre-industrial England.

Surnames in England had at least six different origins, as shown

in table 1. The first are “locative.” These are surnames formed from

the place – town, village, county – the bearer originated from or had

their estate in. In the medieval period they were typically preceded by

a French “de”, though over time this was mainly dropped. Thus

“Roger de Pakenham” would become “Roger Pakenham.” The next

category of surnames were “toponymic.” These referred to the

location of the person’s house or farm within the village or town. In

early years they were often preceded by the English “at” or “atte”,

though this was later dropped or incorporated into the name. Thus

“William atte Helle”, “Edward atte Grene.” Patronymic names were

formed from the name of the person’s father. A father called

William could thus produce son’s with surnames William, Williams,

Williamson, Wilson, Wilkins, Wilkinson, Wilcocks, Wilcox: the latter

were pet names for someone called William. Nicknames were

formed from personal characteristics of the person. Occupational

names were formed from occupations, and in the medieval period

were sometimes preceded by “le” the French “the.” Thus “Robert le

Smith.” The occupations which gave rise to these names were

typically those where there was only one such person in a village or

5 Surnames developed because of the limited variety in forenames. The four or five most common male and female first names covered the majority of people from the middle ages on. So surnames became essential to identification, especially in a commercial and mobile society like pre-industrial England.

Table 1: Types of English Surnames

Type of

Surname

Examples Percent

Taxpayers

1327-32

Locative Walsham, Pakenham, Merton 27

Toponymic Hill, Green, Wood, Lane 13

Patronymic Williamson, Wilson, Adams 20

Nicknames Brown, White, Little, Hardy 19

Occupations Smith, Taylor, Wright, Baxter 10

Other - 11

settlement: thus Smith, Clerk, Shepherd, Cooper, Carter. Very few

people were called “laborer” or “farmer” as their surname.

Occupational surnames are the names that most directly convey the

original social status of the founder of the line. Table 1 shows the

calculated frequency of surname types among taxpayers in 1327-1332

in a variety of English counties.6

In medieval England there is a strong association between

surname type and economic status. We get evidence on upper class

surnames in the thirteenth century from such sources as the

Inquisitions post Mortem. Inquisitions post mortem were inquiries at the

death of feudal tenant in chief (direct tenants of the crown), to establish

what lands were held, and who should succeed to them. The holders

of these properties were typically members of the upper classes of

medieval England. What is distinctive about their surnames is that

they commonly had the locative form, where the surname itself

referred to the place where they had their major residence. Table 2

shows the distribution of surname types for this wealthy group.

6 McKinley, 1990, 23.

Table 2: Surnames of the rich, 1236-1273

Type of

Surname

Subclass Number Percent

Locative 590 72.3

Toponymic 2 0.2

Patronymic 5 0.6

Nicknames 17 2.1

Occupations higher status 15 1.8

Occupations artisan and lower 5 0.6

Other/Unknown 158 19.4

No Surname 24 2.9

All 816 100

590 of 816 named deceased – some were just referred to as Earl

of Warwick and the like - between 1236 and 1273 had names of the

explicit “de” form. Only 5 had lower class occupation surnames

(Archer, Fletcher, Taylor (3)). Names formed from fathers’ first

names (patronyms) were also very rare. There are only 5 such names

of the 816. Toponymic names were also extremely rare, perhaps only

2 of 816.

The first survey we get of all surnames for England comes from

the 1377-81 Poll Tax returns. These taxes, levied to support the wars

of King Richard II in France and Scotland, were assessed on the

entire adult population (except clerics) regardless of income or status.

An still incomplete analysis of the 1381 returns for Suffolk suggests

the name type distribution shown in table 3.

Table 3: Surnames 1381 Poll Tax, Suffolk, 1381

Type of Surname Number Percent Average

Tax

Assessment

(d./head)

Locative 149 9.6 14.8

Toponymic 72 4.6 12.2

Patronymic 91 5.8 11.7

Nicknames 92 5.9 12.2

Occupations –high status 37 2.4 13.8

Occupations - artisans 233 14.9 11.2

Other/Unknown 886 56.8 12.2

All 1,560 100 12.3

The problem here is that more than half of the surnames are of

unknown origin (at the moment). But the share of lower class

occupational surnames is still 15 percent, radically higher than for the

rich of the IPM. The share of locative surnames is less than 10

percent, though this might be increased once the unknown names are

added. Thus we can see the clear class distinction in early English

surnames.

Even though the tax was fixed at 12d per head, and always 12d

per person in the return is collected, the individual amounts assessed

per person in the village often varied from the 12d. A significant

minority paid significantly more or less than 12 d. Of 1,470 payers

where the assessment was given only 899 were assessed 12d per head.

242 paid more, some as much as 120d per head, 329 less to as little as

2d per head. It is clear that the actual payments were based on

wealth. Thus for 1381 we have measures both of the general

surname distribution, and also of the association with status.

Of the 60 taxpayers who paid 24d per head or more for their

households, only one had an artisan surname (Skynner), and only one

a patronym (Gerard). Nine had locative surnames beginning with the

“de.” In contrast among the rest of the assessed, 12.2 percent had

artisan surnames (including shepherd and carter). This meant that of

221 lower level artisan surnames on the roles with assessed tax listed,

only 1 was among the richest tax payers. If artisan names were

evenly distributed across wealth we would expect 9 such surnames

among the wealthy. Similarly of 144 persons with locative surnames,

15 were among the top 60 tax payers (as compared to an expected 6).

Thus still in 1381 there is a class distinction in surname types.

The next set of data we get on the distribution of the surnames

for the rich comes from the wills probated at the Prerogative Court

of Canterbury 1384-1858. Before 1858 wills were dealt with in

ecclesiastical courts. But there was a hierarchy of these courts, with

more modest estates probated in local courts and more substantial

wills dealt with in the major courts at Canterbury and York.

Canterbury was the most important of the ecclesiastical courts that

probated wills, dealing with relatively wealthy individuals living

mainly in the south of England and Wales (what was originally the

ecclesiastical province of Canterbury).

The details of more than 1 million of these wills survive, with

Table 4 showing the frequency in terms of distribution by century.

Normalizing by the number of adult deaths per year gives an

impression, in the last column, of the share of the population they

covered. By the eighteenth century 4 percent of those dying in

England and Wales would leave wills probated in the Canterbury

court. Allowing for those dying intestate, and the fact that will

makers were more likely male, this would represent perhaps the top

10 percent of the income distribution. In earlier years such wills

Table 4: Distribution of PCC wills

Century PCC wills Population

(m)

Wills/year/death

1384-99 87 2.5 .0002

1400-99 5,915 2.3 .002

1500-99 45,555 3.3 .010

1600-99 218,624 5.2 .029

1700-99 361,827 6.7 .040

1800-58 384,119 14.6 .036

Figure 3: Percent Artisan Names in PCC wills

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900

Perc

ent A

rtis

an N

ames

Smith

represented a much smaller fraction of deaths, so that it may

represent a smaller share at the top of the income distribution.7

Over time, and particularly over the years 1400-1500, the

distribution of names in the PCC wills changed markedly. Names

associated with lower class origins were not found in any PCC wills

before 1400, but by 1500 they had risen to what was likely close to

the shares of these names in the general population. Figure 3 shows

this process for names associated with artisans. The most common

of these is the decidedly unglamorous surname “smith,” most of

whom would have an ancestor who was a simple village blacksmith.

“Smith” was held by about 1.33 percent of the English population by

1853.

By 1850-58, “smiths” represented 1.27 percent of the surnames

of all PCC will makers, so they were nearly as equally represented

among the rich as among the general population. Before 1400 the

percentage of smiths in PCC wills was 0, but it rose by 1550-74 to

1.22 percent. So already by 1550 the “smiths” were as well

represented as a share of the rich in England as they are in the

general population: assuming the share of smiths in the general

population did not change between 1550 and 1853.

Using a wider set of artisan surnames in addition such as Taylor,

Baker, Cook etc. shows the same result. Rapid upwards mobility in

the fifteenth century, followed by a rough constancy of shares

thereafter. Thus it took only about 150-250 years, 4-7 generations,

for the descendants of the original modest artisans to be absorbed

completely representatively into the wealthiest groups in England.

We can get an even finer slice of the rich from the PCC wills by

focusing on those labeled “gentleman.” This came to represent

about 12 percent of all those leaving PCC wills by 1575 and later.8

7 One problem is that PCC wills include anyone in England dying abroad, which would include numbers of relatively poor sailors and soldiers from the outposts of the British Empire.

Figure 4: “smiths” as a fraction of “gentleman” in PCC wills

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900

Figure 4 shows the fraction of all testators called “smith” (by 25

year periods) as well as the fraction of all “gentlemen” called “smith.”

The numbers in these cases being much smaller, there is much more

noise in the data. But the same pattern appears. By 1550 smiths are

as well represented among gentleman as they are later in the general

population. They seem to have moved to be fully represented in the

higher strata of the society long before the era of modern growth.

The speed of this observed social mobility in the medieval

period depends on when inherited surnames amongst the lower

classes first widely appeared. If that was by 1200 then it would have

taken 350 years for regression to the mean to have worked its magic.

If it was 1350 then the process took only 200 years to completion,

which is six generations. Judging whether surnames were inherited,

or were merely temporary by-names, is difficult, however, from the

existing tax and court lists of the medieval period.

8 Earlier most wills have no indication of the occupation or status of the testator.

In 1381 occupational surnames still correlated with actual

occupations. Table 5 shows the reported occupations of those with

the specified surnames. Vastly more than chance of these people

work in the occupation that would be implied by their surname. If

surnames by then had become completely hereditary then either they

were formed within a very few generations of 1381, or there was

strong intergenerational persistence of occupations. Table 6 shows

by listed occupation the numbers of people with a surname that fits

with that occupation. Of 35 carpenters, for example, 7 bore the

name “wright.”

The 1381 data thus suggests that at this date surnames carried

significant information about the economic status of the bearers.

There is one puzzle in this data, however, which is that the frequency

of occupational surnames is much greater than in later populations,

even populations as early as 1600. Table 7 thus shows the frequency

of common occupational surnames in Suffolk in 1381, in England

and Wales in 1853, and in the PCC wills around 1600. This data

suggests that somehow the stock of people with artisanal names

declined over time. We will posit an explanation of this decline

below, but since we do not know when this decline occurred, it

implies that it is possible that there had not been complete

convergence towards the mean by 1600.

However, we can check this by using measures of name

frequency at the very lowest end of the income/status spectrum for

these years, which are the surnames of criminals. These are derived

from the assize indictments of Essex for the years 1598-1625, which

yields 3,524 male surnames. The assize records also reveal

occupations and literacy: literacy since those who could read could

plead benefit of clergy if found guilty if they were literate. Table 8

shows the occupational characteristics of the indicted, compared to a

group of wealthy will makers from Suffolk and Essex in the same

period. The majority of the indicted were “laborers”, the bottom of

the social scale, and only 2 percent were from the gentry.

Table 5: Surnames versus occupations, 1381

Surname Number Number

working in

their

occupation

Unspecified

“artisan”

Smith 22 11 3

Wright 12 7 2

Taylor 12 3 5

Miller 11 3 1

Webber 7 1 3

Cooper 6 0 1

Baxter 5 1 3

Fuller 5 2 1

Table 6: Occupations versus surnames, 1381

Occupation Number Occupation

appropriate

surname

Carpenter 35 7

Smith 16 11

Taylor 16 3

Weaver 15 1

Fuller 14 2

Miller 3 2

Table 7: Surname frequencies (%)

Surname 1381

Suffolk

1853

England

1600

PCC

1600

indicted

Essex

Smith 1.67 1.36 1.22 1.36

Wright 0.77 0.45 0.31 0.65

Taylor 0.90 0.68 0.40 0.28

Cook 0.71 0.38 0.36 0.71

Carter 0.71 0.18 0.14 0.20

Shepherd 1.09 0.07 0.15 0.26

All 10.84 5.24 5.14 6.74

Table 8: Occupational Distribution of Rich Local Testators and

the Indicted, c 1600

Social Group

Fraction literate

amongst all will makers

Bequest of

£250 or more (percent)

Indicted (percent)

Gentry 0.94 17 2 Merchants/Professionals 0.88 8 1 Farmers/Yeomen 0.54 70 6 Traders 0.44 2 9 Craftsmen 0.43 2 13 Husbandmen 0.27 2 11 Laborers 0.17 0 54

As table 7 reveals the percentage of those with artisan names

among this group was only modestly higher than for the PCC will

makers, at 6.74 percent. Regression to the mean was largely complete

by 1600, in the sense that those with artisan forbears had diffused

almost equally into the top rungs and the bottom rungs of the

society. If we look, for example, at the 32 indicted called “Smith”

whose occupations were recorded, 20 were laborers, 5 husbandmen,

and none smiths.9 Such names had effectively lost status information

by 1600.

We can do the same exercise with the PCC wills for patronyms:

Williams, Edwards, Adams. These seem to have been attached to

people of even lower status than those with artisan surnames when

first formed. Figure 5 shows, for a small sample of such names –

those based on William, Edward, Edmund, Adam, Richard, Robert

and Roger – their frequency over time in the PCC wills. The lower

curve shows the frequency of these names by 25 year periods. In

comparison also the uppermost curve shows the percent of artisan

surnames. The diffusion of bearers of these names into the upper

classes is similar to that of those bearing artisan surnames, except that

is seems to lag by 50-100 years. We can show this by rescaling the

patronyms by multiplying by 2 (the dotted line) to more closely

approximate the artisan name frequencies. While the frequency of

artisan names is close to their modern level by 1475, this does not

happen for patronyms until 1550-75.

Again we can compare patronym surnames among the indicted

and the PCC wills circa 1600. For the PCC wills 2.2 percent have

one of our 7 selected patronyms. For the indicted the corresponding

figure is 1.4 percent. Thus again these names have diffused all across

the status spectrum by 1600.

9 The others were carpenter (2), butcher (2), barber, bricklayer and weaver.

Figure 5: Patronym Frequency in the PCC wills

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900

Perc

ent P

atro

nym

s

The upward mobility of the artisan and patronym surnames

implies equivalent downward mobility of the names associated with

the upper classes in the middle ages, and also of their descendants.

Measuring this is much trickier, so I just give one example here,

which is that of the surnames “Neville”, “Bassett” and “Corbett”

which were all well represented in the IPM data. Neville was born by

8 of the deceased in the IPMs, Bassett by 6, and Corbett by 3. What

happened to the frequencies of these names in the PCC by century?

Figure 6 shows this. There is a sharp decline in the frequency over

time. Interestingly this decline continues all the way from the 1400s

to the 1800s, though the initial decline is by far the greatest. The

combined frequency of the three names in the 1400s PCC wills is

0.22 percent, but that declines to 0.08 percent by the 1800s.

This is not a fair test, however, since I chose names at relatively

high frequency in the IPM. A more systematic test would be to take

a random selection of these names and then follow them. This

however, for rare names, raises the issue of name mutation, which

would make names seem to disappear.

But the general impression here is of a world of great

intergenerational mobility, where between 1381 and 1550 surnames

Figure 6: Percent of IPM and PCC surnames Neville, Bassett and Corbett

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900

Neville

Bassett

Corbett

which started as reasonably reliably attached to status become empty

of such content. This also implies, however, that we cannot use

common surnames to measure social mobility from 1550 and

beyond, because they do not contain such information. For this we

need to turn to rare surnames.

Social Mobility 1600-1850, Rare Surnames

To measure social mobility after 1600 we need to turn to rare

surnames, since common surnames convey no information about

social status. Here I identify two groups of rare surnames in England

1560-1640. The first was rare surnames held by economically

successful men, as revealed by their leaving a will. The second group

was rare surnames held by a man on the margins of society, someone

indicted in the Essex courts in the years 1598-1620 for assault,

burglary, theft, poaching, robbery and murder. The indicted were

overwhelmingly from low socio-economic groups.

For rare surnames a significant fraction of the holders will

typically be related: brothers, cousins, second cousins. We know

wealth and social status was strongly correlated between fathers, sons

and brothers.10 Thus the average man holding the same rare surname

as a successful man in 1600 will be relatively wealthy. The average

man holding the same rare surname as someone indicted in 1600 will

be relatively poor. That is we can identify a subset of surnames where

the typical holder was wealthy or poor in 1600.

We can then track both the frequency and the occupational

status of these names by 1851. Two facts emerge. The first is that,

as table 9 shows, the surnames of the rich of 1600 survived much

better than those of the poor in the following 250 years. By 1851

there were at the median four times as many people bearing the

surnames of the richest group in 1600 as those with the surnames of

the indicted in 1600. But even among the rich, the richest testators,

as would be expected from the results reported in A Farewell to Alms,

had better reproductive success than the poorest testators.11 The

differential becomes even stronger when we concentrate on names

held in by people in 1851 in the same geographic area as their

ancestors, and most likely to actually be descendants of the man

observed or his close relatives.

The implication is simple. Economic success by a man in 1600

substantially increased the share of their genes in the English gene

pool by 1851. The genes of the English in 1851 were composed

disproportionately of those who succeeded economically in the pre-

industrial era. This we can posit can explain the decline in the

frequency of “artisan” surnames after the fourteenth century.

However, we can also observe the economic status of the

descendants of these forbears by 1851, and again we find complete

regression to the mean.

10 Clark, 2008. 11 Clark and Hamilton, 2006.

Table 9: Summary of the Frequency Results

Group

Number of Rare Names 1560-1640

Median

Occurrence 1841/51

Name

disappeared by 1841/51 ( percent)

Indicted 337 27 21

Poorest Testators 159 70 15 Middling Testators 297 65 17 Richest Testators

206 115 8

The Method

While forenames in early England showed limited diversity,

surnames exhibited from the earliest years astonishing variation. The

56 million people in England and Wales in 2002 were using nearly

one million distinct surnames, 750,000 of which were held by fewer

than 5 people.12 This implies that in 2002 about 3 percent of the

English population had surnames held by less than 5 people.

This may stem in part from emigration, and the creation of new

surnames, but the evidence of the 1851 census suggests that even

then there was an enormous variety of surnames. In 2002 the top 40

surnames covered only 13.1 percent of the population of England

and Wales. In 1851 the top 40 surnames covered exactly the same

13.1 percent of the English population. There has always been a very

long tale of rare surnames possessed by small numbers of individuals.

12 http://www.taliesin-arlein.net/names/search.php

We have a good measure of what surnames were rare in England

in 1601-2 through two books documenting the occurrences of

surnames in 964 parish registers in England in 1601 and 1602, about

10 percent of all English parishes (Hitching and Hitching 1910,

1911). Someone’s surname only appeared in the parish registers only

if they had their baptism, wedding, or burial in these years. Thus the

average person in the course of an average lifespan of 35 years, would

appear three times in the registers. This implies that these registers

contained a 1.8 percent sample of English surnames in 1601-2, about

73,000 names.

If this was a true random sample of names, a name held by as

few as 400 people in England in 1601 would have a 99.9 percent

chance of showing up on the list. Surnames held by as few as 41

people would still have an even chance of appearing. Only rare

names, almost all with less than 200 holders, would escape this sieve.

In practice names are clustered by parish so that the sieve

provided by these parish lists is less fine. Some quite common names

will not be excluded. The name “Emery,” for example, is not

excluded even though there were more than 3,000 Emerys in

England by 1841. To control for the inclusion of some not very rare

names in our sampled from 1600 I look at the median occurrence of

the surname 250 years later (rather than the mean). This avoids

giving undue weight to common names that slipped through. But the

typical name not excluded will be held by very few people. The name

Spyltimber, for example, which showed up among the indicted, and

which had disappeared by 1841, was excluded since it appeared in a

register in 1601.

Since surnames passed from fathers to sons, the number of

descendants from each of these groups in 1841/51, the first English

censuses which recorded individual names, can be estimated just

from the numbers of people in the 1841 and 1851 censuses bearing

these surnames.13 The records of these censuses have been

transcribed and formed into a commercial database.14

The census returns were hand written, and that handwriting can

be difficult to read. This produces errors in estimates of name

frequencies in each census, which become apparent when we

compare the frequencies of rare names in the 1841 and 1851

censuses. Some of these vary in implausible in the intervening 10

years. For example, 47 “Combers” listed in the 1841 census

database, but only 6 for 1851. Inspection of images of the original

returns shows that the 1841 “Combers” were transcribed in 1851 as

“Comber.” To reduce the transcription errors I used the average

frequency of names in 1841 and 1851.

Another problem in categorizing surnames is that English

spelling was highly irregular before the nineteenth century. The same

surname would have many different variants. Johnson in 1601-2 was

spelled Johnson, Johnnsone, Johnsone, Johnsonne, Jonson, Jonsson,

Jhonson. “e” was added promiscuously to the end of names, without

seemingly affecting the pronunciation. “y” and “i” were

interchangeable. To control for this I checked for variant spellings of

surnames in 1601-2 and 1841/51 in determining their frequency in

1600 and 1841/51. Thus, for example, if a name ended in –y, I also

checked for the same stem ending in –ie and –ey. If the name had a

“ck” I also checked it with only a “k”.

Spelling variants introduce more errors, but not errors that

should favor the names of the rich versus the poor. We can check

this, however, in our data by looking at the relative frequency of

spelling variants, versus the originally spelled name in the case of the 13 Since illegitimate children in England bore the surnames of their mothers, illegitimacy will not be a barrier to this test. Thus greater illegitimacy rates by the poor and the indicted would not affect the outcome here, since offsetting any loss from children of them or their sons not bearing the surname will be illegitimate children of their daughters who will bear the surname. 14 http://www.ancestry.co.uk/

rich and the poor. This will test whether the names of the rich

somehow were more fixed in their original form because of their

greater literacy.

Another source of error that cannot be controlled for, is the

mutation of surnames over time.15 Partly this can occur because of

shifts in the way names are pronounced, leading to a later shift in

spelling. Thus the wills and court records for 1600 show a ratio of

“Clarks” of various stripes of 6:1 with “Clerks.” By the 1841 census

there were 73,049 “Clarks” and only 835 “Clerks” a ratio of nearly

100:1. Some of the “Clerks” must have evolved to become “Clarks.”

(Presumably because the pronunciation of clerk in modern English is

clark). Again the errors introduced by such mutations should not

tend to favor the rich versus the poor, unless again the names of the

literate rich are less subject to mutation.

Rare Surnames, circa 1600

I get a sample of rare surnames held by at least one rich man

with 1560-1639 from a database of 2,445 wills probated in these

years, mainly in the counties of Essex and Suffolk.16 689 of these

men, 28 percent, had names which did not appear on the parish

registers lists for 1601-2. We can further divide these testators with

rare names into rich (bequest of £250 or more), middling (£25-250),

and poor (£0-25), where wealth is measured in 1630s prices.

Those leaving wills represent the upper end of the social scale

and asset distribution in pre-industrial societies. Identifying rare

surnames held by a man in the poorest strata of the society in socio-

15As an extreme example, the surnames Birkenshaw, Bircumshaw, Burkimsher, Burtinshall, Brigenshaw, Buttonshaw, Brackenshaw, Buttinger, and Bruckshaw all apparently stem from the place name Birkenshaw (McKinley, 1990, 55). 16 Clark and Hamilton, 2006, describe how these data are constructed from the raw will transcripts.

economic terms is more difficult. Most tax lists for pre-industrial

England identify the propertied. The civil and manorial court

records again tend to identify individuals with property to transact or

dispute. One place where the poor do show up, however, is in

criminal indictments. As in modern societies those accused of theft,

forgery, assault, riot, robbery, murder, and desertion were

disproportionately the poor.

For the reason that I am attempting to get a sample of the

poorest and most violent, I excluded from this sample men indicted

for what were crimes against regulations in restraint of trade, or of

religious orthodoxy: keeping an unlicensed alehouse, baking without

license, erecting cottages on less than 4 acres of land, and recusancy.17

From this sample of 1,523 indicted men, we get 374 (25 percent) who

have rare surnames, a similar percentage to that for the sample of will

writers.

There is some overlap between rare names held by the indicted

in this period and rare names held by will writers. This in part

reflects some relatively common names escaping the parish register

sieve. I thus use a second filter to form the final samples, which is to

exclude from the wills sample any names found among the indicted,

and from the indicted sample any names found among will makers.

In the resulting smaller samples, whose numbers are reported in

table 9, there are some names that occur more than once among both

the indicted and the will writers. Sometimes these people are clearly

related: brothers, or fathers and sons. But names with multiple

occurances in 1600 also tend to appear with greater frequency in

1841/51, because they were always more common. In table 9, and in

the statistical tests below, I include each occurrence of such names as

an observation. Otherwise the size of the initial sample matters in

17 Recusants, those who refused to attend Church of England, tended to have upper class occupations. Since there were substantial numbers of recusants in these years an interesting parallel study would ask what their reproductive success was.

terms of the median frequency of the occurrence of names later.

Smaller samples will contain proportionately more common names,

and have higher median numbers later. Since we have unmatched

sample sizes this is undesirable.

Table 10 shows a random sample of 10 percent of the names of

the indicted and of 5 percent of the names of the rich, constructed by

arranging them in alphabetical order and selecting each 10th, or 5th,

name. There is nothing evident from this list that would suggest why

the names on the second list would be far more common by 1841.

The appendix gives a complete list of the names of each of these

groups and their frequency by 1841/51 in order of frequency.

Name Survival by Group

Table 9 shows the results for these various samples of rare

names. 21 percent of the surnames of the indicted had disappeared

by 1841/51, implying that a fifth of these men had no legitimate

patrilineal descendants. For the richest men only 8 percent of

surnames disappeared. For the indicted the median frequency of

names by 1841/51 was only 27. Since population by 1841/51 was

four times that of 1601, on average every name frequency should

have quadrupled. Thus unless the median name in this sample was

held by 7 or fewer people in 1601, the median numbers of people

bearing these names was declining as a population share.

To test the statistical significance of the median differences

reported in table 9 I carry out two tests. The first looks just at the

differences in the medians, and is a non-parametric test of the

hypothesis that two samples were drawn from a distribution with the

same median. Table 11 shows the results of this test for each of the

four samples. The table reports the probability that the medians of

the groups in the row and column are the same. These results

indicate that the chances that each of the three wills samples have the

same median as the indictments sample varies between 3 in 1000 and

Table 10: A Random Sample of Names of the Indicted and the Rich Names of the indicted

Names of the Rich

Abstan Aldham Banbricke Ayliffe Bittin Base Bradwyn Birle Cabwell Breame Cheveney Bynder Cockle Cobbold Creame Coventry Cutmore Danbrook Drinckall Fatter Elvis Folkes Fossett Gatteward Gillham Godbold Gullyes Gooch Heditche Hazell Hownell Hunringdon Kenwood Ilger Los Kingsberie Meese Libbis Mounson Maynerd Nouthe Negus Osteler Overed Pennocke Playfere Pollen Raynberde Reddyforde Rosington Sache Scolding Segrave Spatchet Shurly Tokelove Sticinger Upston Terlynge Thurland Uphavering Wendham Wrothman

Table 11: Difference of Medians Test

Indictments

Wills-Poor

Wills-Middle

Wills-rich

Indictments - 0.003 0.001 0.000 Wills-Poor - 0.92 0.12 Wills-Middle - 0.37 Wills-rich - Table 12: Difference in Distributions - Rank Test

Indictments

Wills-Poor

Wills-Middle

Wills-rich

Indictments - 0.0021 0.0000 0.0000 Wills-Poor - 0.59 0.12 Wills-Middle - 0.25 Wills-rich -

less than 0.5 in 1000. We cannot reject with any confidence,

however, the hypothesis that the median was the same across all

wealth levels of those leaving wills.

The second test, that of Mann and Whitney, looks not just at the

medians, but the whole rank of the observations. This tests not just

the median, but whether the samples are from populations with the

same distribution of values. Table 12 shows again that this test

rejects even more strongly the possibility that the distribution of

frequencies for the names of the indicted in 1841/51 is the same as

that for any of the will samples. For the rich versus the indicted, for

example, there are less than 0.5 chances in 10,000 that these samples

were drawn from the same distribution. But again there is only weak

evidence that the distribution of the wills of the rich is any different

than that of the middling testators or the poor testators.

Might the indicted have been more likely to change their name,

perhaps to escape social census of the long arm of the law? One test

of this possibility is how frequent were reports of people who had

aliases among the indicted and the will makers. This would be a sign

of name changing in process, or less fixed surnames. 7 out of 337

rare surname indicted had an alias (2.1 percent), compared to 16 out

of 741 deceased will makers (2.2 percent). Thus in this regard

surnames look as firmly attached to the rich as to the poor.

I can also test whether the names of the rich adhered to them

better because they could write, and thus the name would mutate less

over time. To test this I look at the fraction of matches for each

name in 1841/1851 that were exact matches to the earlier name as

opposed to just similar sounding matches (Adwicke as the original, for

example, compared to the similar sounding Adwick or Addwick).

Table 13 shows the results of this test for the names of the indicted

and the will makers using cases where there were less than 300

bearers of the name in any spelling by 1841/51. The names of the

rich were just as likely to be found in variant spellings from that

originally observed as were the names of the indicted. Thus there is

no evidence that the names of the poor were any more mutable than

those of the rich.

Table 13: Exact versus inexact name matches 1841/51

Group

Number

Matches under

original name,

1841/51

Matches under variant

spellings

Percent of matches to the

original spelling

Indicted 278 18.4 35.7 52

Poorest Testators 159 28.6 52.8 54 Middling Testators 297 27.1 54.1 50 Richest Testators

206 28.3 64.5 44

Regional Analysis

Though there was mobility in the English population in the pre-

industrial era, people holding rare surnames in 1841/51 who were

genetically related to those we observe circa 1600 would tend to live

close to their ancestors. Figure 7, for example, shows the distribution

of people with the rare surname “Benefield” in 1881. As can be seen

this population is concentrated in east Kent and the nearby city

London.

The data for the indicted is taken from Essex, and most of the

wills come from Essex or the adjacent county Suffolk. Figure 8

shows these two counties, as well as the set of adjacent counties.

Surrey was included even though it is not contiguous to Essex,

because the big destination of out migration of people from Essex

and Suffolk before 1841 was the London area, part of which lay

south of the river Thames in Surrey. In 1841 these counties had 27.5

percent of the population of England.

Figure 7: Distribution of the surname “Benefield” in 1881

Figure 8: English Counties in 184118

Notes: Suffolk = 32, Essex = 12 (adjacent counties are Norfolk (23), Cambridge (4), Hertford (16), Middlesex (22), Surrey (33) and Kent (18)).

18 This map is reproduced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_counties_of_England.

Under the hypothesis is that the differential survival and spread

of rare surnames by the rich of 1600 is caused by the differential

reproductive success of groups of people genetically related then this

effect should be stronger if we concentrate on the South-East. By

doing that we will be concentrating on the people in 1841/51 most

likely to be actually related to the men in the 1600 samples, as

opposed to be related by orthographic accident.

Table 14 shows the results for the medians and number of zeros

for each group in the South-East in 1851. The differences between

the indicted and will makers is now more marked than in table 9.

The median number of occurrences of the names of the rich by 1851

is more than 7 times as great as for the indicted in the South-East

(compared to a ratio of 4:1 for the country as a whole). This is

because the fraction of the rare names for the indicted showing up in

the South-East is much smaller than for any of the groups of will

makers.

In contrast in the country outside the South-East the difference

in name occurrence by 1851 between the will makers and the

indicted, while still present, is greatly muted. Rare names of the rich

show only twice the median number of occurrences as the rare names

of the indicted. Table 15 shows these results.

Table 14: Summary of the Results for the South East

Group

N

South-East

Fraction of

names 1851 in

South East

South-East

Median Occurrence

1851

Name

disappeared by 1851

(percent)

Indicted 337 0.46 9 35 Poorest Testators

147 0.62 36 21

Middling Testators

289 0.62 48 19

Richest Testators

204

0.67 67 17

Table 15: Summary of the Results for the rest of the Country

Group

N

South-East

Fraction of names 1851

outside South East

Median

Occurrence 1851

Name

disappeared by 1851

(percent)

Indicted 337 0.54 9 33 Poorest Testators

147 0.38 19 24

Middling Testators

289 0.38 22 24

Richest Testators

204 0.33 20 20

Social Mobility, 1600-1851

As well as name frequencies, the 1851 census also supplies

occupations by surname for men. Thus I can compare the average

occupational status of the rare surname groups in both 1600 and

1851. Table 7 above shows that the rich were concentrated in high

status occupations. 85 percent were listed as gentlemen, merchants,

professionals, or farmers (yeomen). In 1600 the indicted in contrast

were overwhelmingly from lower-status occupations. Only 9 percent

were in these higher status occupations.

How do the descendants of these two groups look in terms of

socioeconomic status by 1851? Surprisingly there seems to be almost

complete regression to the mean. Table 16 shows some measures of

the socioeconomic status for a sample of adult men of both name

groups, taken from the names with the less frequent occurrences.

While those descended from the rich show a slightly greater

percentage in the top socio-economic groups, that result may well be

sampling error. And at the bottom of the socio-economic scale,

there are more of the descendants of the rich among “laborers” than

there are descendants of the indicted.

If we compare these results to occupational distributions of

England as a whole we find both groups have regressed to the mean.

They are indistinguishable from each other and from the population

as a whole. This implies both great downward mobility among the

descendants of the rich, and modest upward mobility among the

descendants of the indicted. The fraction of the descendants of the

indicted who were among the lowest social group, the laborers

actually declined from 54 percent circa 1600 to 29 percent in 1851.

Table 14: Socioeconomic Status by Surname History, 1851

Status, 1851

Rich in 1600

(percent)

Indicted in 1600

(percent)

“Gentry/Professionals” 6.1 4.1 “Farmers” 4.7 3.7 “Laborers” 31.5 28.6

Number in Sample 278 294

The regression to the mean of both groups also shows up in the

change in frequency of our rare surnames between 1841 and 1851.

At this time English population as a whole grew by 12.7 percent.

The rare surnames characteristic of the indicted of 1600 increased in

median frequency from 26 to 29, a gain of 12 percent. The rare

surnames characteristic of the will writers increased in median

frequency from 79.5 to 89, a gain again of just 12 percent. So by

1841 the reproductive success of these descendants of the lower and

upper classes of 1600 was indistinguishable, and also

indistinguishable from the general population.

The Modern World

In a classless society, no feature of any group – their surnames,

race, religion – will predict their income or status in the long run.

This, as we saw, is surprisingly true of surnames in England 1250-

1850. It is not, however, true of either modern England or the USA.

There are groups in both societies that have persisted over

generations with incomes either substantially above or substantially

below those of the median of the society. Thus in the last 35 years

within the US the average incomes of black Americans have not

converged on those of white or Asian Americans, despite average

black incomes being well below average incomes overall. [this section to be expanded]

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Appendix

Below are listed in order of frequency in 1841/51 the rare

surnames of the indicted and the rich (with the average frequency in brackets). Where a name appeared more than once in each sample that is indicated by a superscript giving the number of observations. The most common names on this list by 1841/51 were held by less than 0.01 percent of the population.

Rare Surnames of the Indicted Abstan (0), Adrinon (0), Adyen (0), Allegant (0), Berdsell (0), Caboule (0), Cabwell (0), Callingswood (0), Carrudder (0), Cheveney (0), Chopan (0), Cleefes (0), Clovell (0), Clovile (0), Culpacke (0), Cunsden (0), Cuppledike (0), Curtopp (0), Derryfall (0), Drakwood (0), Eatney2 (0), Eggesfield (0), Fawchett (0), Filbrick (0), Fitzgarratt (0), Fromfairefield (0), Furbench (0), Gannocke (0), Girord (0), Golesman (0), Gynnericke (0), Hewthett (0), Hinckhorne (0), Homsfield (0), Johnjohn (0), Kyttar (0), Lygeatt (0), Malbroke (0), Marborow (0), Michaelfield (0), Nynnam (0), Olster (0), Pafelyn (0), Pennoll (0), Penyall (0), Pettiepoole (0), Quanterell (0), Sansham (0), Sawdry (0), Selfscall2 (0), Selscall (0), Sheepbotham (0), Slaterford (0), Spratborowe (0), Sticinger (0), Straunge (0), Strechie2 (0), Surbote (0), Totnam (0), Uphavering (0), Vynold (0), Wakeringe (0), Whitekyrtle (0), Withar (0), Wrotheram (0), Wrothman (0), Wuthers (0), Wysbiche (0), Yecupp (0), Colwye (0.5), Littoll (0.5), Murcock (0.5), Offington (0.5), Pamphelyn (0.5), Pickroft (0.5), Toyse (0.5), Twyers (0.5), Wendam (0.5), Dudsbury (1), Frunt (1), Glyberie (1), Harridance (1), Pypall (1), Wystocke (1), Banbricke (1.5), Jeffarye (1.5), Mosier (1.5), Mounck4 (1.5), Selon (1.5), Thimble (1.5), Walgrave (1.5), Yarrett (1.5), Blossom (2), Mounson (2), Ridland2 (2), Sawkyn (2), Brockas (2.5), Claysbye (2.5), Cocksett (2.5), Lydcott (2.5), Romball (2.5), Terlynge (2.5), Inifer (3), Oath (3), Ole (3), Nouthe (3.5), Shatbolt (3.5), Gullyes (4.5), Pecham (4.5), Saffold (4.5), Warnor (4.5), Grynhill (4.5), Snellock (5), Dason (5.5), Dowdale (5.5), Goldingham (5.5), Bittin (6), Clanford (6), Dednam (6), Gunvyll (6), Hinnis (6), Hownell (6), Seckington (6), Bardney (7), Gervase (7.5), Thurger (8), Heditche (8.5), Worrett (8.5), Theedam (9), Strachie (9.5), Hovill (10), Elleott (10.5), Elrick (10.5), Fellford (10.5), Mullox (10.5), Jurdan (11), Paken (12), Hoyton (13.5), Rombold (13.5), Brussell (14), Chittam (14.5), Bickner (15.5), Earlinge (15.5), Reddyforde (16), Bradwyn (16.5), Pontifex (18), Chatwell (19.5), Paulter (20), Nowlinge (20.5), Byrchnall (21), Glydewell (21.5), Lawten (21.5), Halpeny (23.5), Tewse (23.5), Pordage (24), Combers (26.5), Stubben (26.5), Handler (27), Fromant2 (29), Thurland (29.5), Boath (30), Los (30), Trowton (31), Adwicke (32), Offyn2 (33), Tunge (34), Serritt (36),

Blighton (36.5), Staughton (36.5), Backen (37), Newyn (37), Eminge (39), Stanwood (40), Duche (42.5), Catmore2 (43), Hye (47.5), Benefield2 (49), Dunse (50.5), Stidman (52.5), Gyllian (58), Marleborrowe (58), Tynge (60.5), Alvyn (63), Elvis (65), Marryan (68), Marty (70.5), Meese (71), Creame (72.5), Forby (74), Boreman (82), Moxley (82.5), Vere (83), Croxon (83.5), Pollen (84), Armond (86.5), Thredder (89), Pecker (89.5), Kenwood (93), Raffe (94.5), Okeman (95), Bushie (99), Mullock2 (99), Cremer (99.5), Laman (100), Pleasante (106), Clithero (109), Tytman (109.5), Cadge (113), Hunley (116), Stammer (118.5), Garnsey (120.5), Petchie2 (121), Samford (122), Sunman (125), Lummys (125.5), Shurly (126.5), Tarver (136.5), Curryer (139), Sames (140.5), Sache2 (141), Rond (141.5), Liget (144), Fannynge (144.5), Fossett (144.5), Deeringe (146.5), Curbye (148.5), Drinckall (148.5), Muche (154), Patient (161), Treherne (162.5), Carewe (167), Curtyn (172), Hackley (176.5), Ratley (182.5), Saward (191), Bundocke (195.5), Pawlin (198.5), Devenishe (205.5), Lindsell (206), Wooddy (213), Tier (222.5), Luce (223.5), Bindley (225), Woofe (229), Bycroft2 (238), Fernes (238), Woodthorpe (241.5), Waterfall (251.5), Cranford3 (252), Boker (254), Plaile (254), Cockerton (260), Cockle (261.5), Garlinge (261.5), Roose (269.5), Cakebred (287.5), Cowland2 (292), Dearman (292.5), Berysford (302), Vynson (305.5), Borley (310), Shadbolt (310), Segrave (314.5), Sells (317), Woolsey (320), Cutmore (322), Motley (325.5), Hornsey (327.5), Hollowell2 (332), Enys (341.5), Hatten (359), Merell2 (360.5), Tubbs (362), Carder (378.5), Albert (385), Hewer (394), Kidman (398.5), Pennocke (409), Osteler2 (409.5), Powe (424.5), Pynnocke (433), Rudland (445), Stebbinge2 (474.5), Grout2 (477), Boreham2 (528.5), Munt (530), Rankin (530.5), Pidgeon (545), Botting (553), Greenhill (614), Rootes (615), Wakelyn (649), Burchall (730.5), Keeley (748), Whitney (757.5), Thurgood4 (784), Kirkland (812), Harlowe (835.5), Gillham (952), Cracknell (1,047.5), Seeres (1,096.5), Knapp (1,106.5), Adkyns (1,336.5), Hynes (1,447), Denham (1,524.5). Rare Surnames of the Rich Antleby (0), Arwaker (0), Brighthall (0), Bundich (0), Dirifall (0), Downsdale (0), Glamfield2 (0), Glozer (0), Harlakenden (0), Monnynges (0), Peperton (0), Salthorne (0), Selsden (0), Tovill (0), Typtott (0), Whitnam (0), Grenling (0.5), Hoxon (0.5), Innold (0.5), Leffingwell (0.5), Mawndry (0.5), Convers (1), Enyver (1), Ignes (1), Shawbery (1.5), Benold (2), Berriff (2.5), Hursteler (3), Mellsopp2 (3), Ridnall (3), Damron (3.5), Gages2 (4.5), Palsey (4.5), Pickys (4.5), Rowninge (4.5), Jower (5), Tokelove (5.5), Baas (6.5), Hompstede (7.5), Maynerd (7.5), Budley (8), Chacer (8), Coggeshall (8), Popley (8), Ilger (8.5), Fatter (10), Marcall (11.5), Bulbrooke (14.5), Gosnold (15), Spatchet (15), Drywood (15.5), Sandcroft (16), Barlyman (17.5),

Westhropp (17.5), Keagle (18), Roath (21), Kingsberie (22.5), Casborne (24), Danforth (24), Libbis (24), Danbrook (25.5), Overed (26.5), Raynberd2 (27), Playfere (27.5), Pitches (28.5), Derslye (29), Scolding (30), Birle2 (30.5), Flowerdew (31), Banoke (38), Turnidge2 (38.5), Berker (45.5), Scotchmere (57.5), Gilbard (59.5), Clodd (60), Huntingdon (61.5), Soame (64.5), Traye (64.5), Spencely (68), Tillott (70.5), Huggon2 (71.5), Faulke (73.5), Rutterford (80), Verdon (82), Rosington (84), Goldson (86), Manthorpe (91), Upston (91.5), Leaguy (95), Wyard (95.5), Bloyse (96.5), Cheesewright (100.5), Goymer (103.5), Aldham (111), Wace (111.5), Whiter (115), Soane (115.5), Stonham (116.5), Raneham (119.5), Riseing (124), Revett (124.5), Beart (129), Breame (129), Brother (130), Oxborowe (137), Pennyng (140.5), Base (147.5), Grimwade (152), Gatteward (159), Blosse2 (159.5), Shale (161.5), Clench (163), Debnam (163.5), Bobbett (167.5), Letton (176.5), Hagon (190), Culham (193), Bridon (195.5), Hovell2 (199.5), Buckenham (201), Daynes2 (201.5), Bynder (207), Brille (213.5), Bardwell (218), Hammand (219), Wyeth (220.5), Punchyarde (222), Felgate (234), Denington (237), Boycott (240), Meene2 (245.5), Lany (253), Cobbold (262), Jaggard (265.5), Noblett (266), Crowne (267.5), Rosier (275), Ayliffe (278.5), Greengrasse (282.5), Godbold3 (293), Bunnyng (310.5), Marvyn (311), Firman (324), Folkard (333), Folkes2 (344.5), Botwright2 (356.5), Pawsey (372.5), Burlynge (373.5), Hurrey (381), Voyce (381), Jenney (401), Copsey (415), Syer (441), Kingsbury (447.5), Hynson (489), Clover (499), Rackham (514), Fincham (537), Coventry (544.5), Everard2 (550.5), Negus (558.5), Sheldrake (564.5), Biles (633.5), Aldous3 (644.5), Copping3 (729.5), Welton (818.5), Creasey (887.5), Canham (953.5), Noone (980), Ryxe (995), Thoebald (1,000.5), Pett (1,086), Ryece (1,103.5), Keble (1,103.5), Starling (1,301.5), Mace (1437.5), Mayhew (1,481.5), Newson3 (1564.5), Hazell (1,656.5), Gooch3 (1,657), Buntinge (1,926.5).