Ritual, Cult, WorshipRITUAL AND ITS CONSEQUENCES: AN ESSAY ONTHE LIMITS OF SINCERITY. By Adam B. Seligman et al.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Pp. iv + 229. $19.95.

This text offers an understanding of rituals, whether“religious” and/or “non-religious,” premised upon tensionoccurring between two human orientations utilized inframing existence: rituals and sincerity. In this context,rituals are spaces that create “as-if” worlds in order to grapplewith life’s ambiguity and fragmentation. Such worlds, asexpressed in Chinese temple curing rituals and Daoists’ tal-ismans improvisation, act as intermediate spaces, a notionthis text develops using a Winnicottian notion ofplay—between the “as-if” and “as-is.” Sincerity, like ritual,acknowledges ambiguity; but in contrast to ritual, sincerityattempts to totally resolve any type of blurred or fragmentedstate. In addition to analyzing tension existing between ritualand sincerity, this text also employs an ethnographicapproach, revealing the presence of both modes of under-standing in literature, architecture (aligning rituals withrepetitive ornamentation and sincerity with structural singu-larity), and music. While examining ritual via its relationshipto sincerity allows for a fresh understanding of ritualisticstructure/functionality, the text’s sole equation of rituals as“as-if” and sincerity as “as-is” posits a danger of creating fixedboundaries much like the ones that the authors suggestthreatens the existence of rituals in this current age of ratio-nality. Despite this concern, this text is highly recommendedfor those interested in ritual studies in general and ritual/religion interaction in particular.

Margarita Simon GuilloryRice University

Philosophy of ReligionTHE METAPHYSICS OF PERFECT BEINGS. ByMichael J. Almeida. New York: Routledge, 2008. Pp. ix + 190.$105.00.

In this dense apologetic, Almeida refutes variations onthe argument that an infinite sequence is the enemy of thefinite—that an all-perfect creator must instantiate the bestpossible world and because it is always possible to create abetter world than its immediate predecessor in the sequenceof possible worlds (asymptotically approaching but neverreaching absolute perfection), God can never instantiate anyworld. After articulating this argument, Almeida refutesvariations offered in terms of best possible world (Chapter2), whether God can instantiate a minimum amount of evil(Chapter 3), whether God is constrained by a maximumamount of evil (Chapter 4), whether a subtle distinctionbetween the good and evil of rational agents permits thedamnation of some while others are saved (Chapter 7), andthe logical implications of modal realism, multiverse, andhyperspace theory for the best possible world objection(Chapter 8). Chapter 5 explores the logical issues at work in

these chapters, while Chapter 6 considers the question ofwhether some form of divine-command ethics can obviateproblem of evil objections to less-than-perfect worldswithout introducing insoluble logical dilemmas. Almeida’smain strategy for defending Anselmian theism is deployingthe notion of a vague boundary between good and bad statesto permit free rational choice between finely graded optionsinstead of making no decision. Almeida argues that we donot understand the implications of vague minimums andmaximums for all-perfect beings, and God may be in a “life-guard” situation where he is constrained to instantiate somedegree of vague imperfection in order to realize a concretemeasure of goodness. This work assumes familiarity withlogical notation, technical vocabulary, and prior acquain-tance with the issues.

P. J. JohnstonUniversity of Iowa

FAITH, REASON, AND COMPASSION: A PHILOSO-PHY OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH. By James Gilman.Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2007.Pp. x + 193. Cloth, $65.00; paper, $22.95.

Gilman’s book addresses a traditional topic, faith andreason, but in an unnconventional way. Gilman argues thatboth are always operative, even if not equally, and that inreligion neither possesses an independent or privilegedstatus. He thus aims to navigate between fideism and ratio-nalism. Though a familiar thesis, Gilman’s novel methodol-ogy draws heavily on three principles he borrows fromcontemporary physics: symmetry, asymmetry, and super-symmetry. By symmetry, Gilman means the order and patternin the world that reason allows us to discover and interpret.Asymmetry refers to those aspects of the universe that areincommensurable, unpredictable, and incongruent with thatwhich is symmetric. Faith allows us to directly apprehendthat which is asymmetrical. Gilman hopes to show how phi-losophy of religion can overcome the discrepancies betweensymmetry and asymmetry, resulting in a “supersymmetricalharmony.” After developing these principles in part I, Gilmanshows in part II how they can be employed “as a kind ofmethodological compass by which to navigate the tumultuousand hazardous waters of philosophy of religion,” focusing inparticular on belief in God’s existence, goodness, and abilityto perform miracles. In part III, he applies these principles tointerreligious dialogue and the role of religion in society.Though his methodology may strike some readers as irregu-lar, analytic philosophers of religion will find many engagingarguments on central issues.

Kevin TimpeUniversity of San Diego

PERSONS: HUMAN AND DIVINE. Edited by Peter vanInwagen and Dean Zimmerman. New York: Clarendon Press(published in the U.S. by Oxford University Press), 2007. Pp.ix + 380. Paper, $35.00.

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Persons consists of a series of highly significantarticles by top-notch Christian philosophers on what con-stitutes a person and the significance of some of these dis-tinctions for theological discussions. The essays are,without exception, important additions to contemporarydiscussions of personhood that take Christian theism seri-ously, and are therefore of potential interest to any philoso-pher or theologian. Zimmerman’s excellent introductionnot only defines the debate for the uninitiated, it also pro-vides a history of how (analytic) philosophy and theologycame to be so separated, and a plea for reopening the con-versation. While an estimable goal, and on a topic ofobvious interest to theologians and informed Christians,this book is unlikely to provide such a starting point pre-cisely because its essays engage current philosophicaldebate, most often in the terms of analytic philosophy.Some of the authors are better at defining their terms andproviding a less technical discussion (Adams on idealism,Plantinga on dualism, and Leftow on the Trinity, forexample), but all of the articles are conducted in the lan-guage of analytic philosophy, and the uninitiated may havetrouble accurately perceiving the relationships among theessays. While of potential interest to any intelligent Chris-tians, the most likely audience is other Christian philoso-phers, though anyone willing to seriously engage theseessays will find the excursion well worth the effort.

Jonathan Sands WiseBaylor University

THE CAMBRIDGE COMPANION TO EARLYMODERN PHILOSOPHY. Edited by Donald Rutherford.New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Pp. xv + 421.$90.00.

This Companion provides an informative synopsis ofthe major philosophical threads of the period, and wouldprove beneficial for novices as well as the more advanced.The articles trace major themes of the period not onlythrough the moderns, but also through their philosophicalpredecessors, both ancient and medieval. Also included arebrief biographies and an extensive bibliography. The statedgoals of the Companion are to “provide a comprehensiveintroduction to central topics” and “to acquaint the readerwith the most important developments” so as to “point theway toward more advanced studies in the field.” The Com-panion accomplishes the latter admirably. The articles areaccessible to any philosopher, but are carefully researchedand of sufficient depth to serve as a basis for more rigorousresearch in these areas. The one disappointment is thatthere seemed to be no consensus as to what figures areencompassed by the early modern period. Though theintroductions maintain a study of Montaigne through Kant,many of the contributors engaged no one after Leibniz,leaving Berkeley, Hume, and Kant underrepresented for avolume touting a “comprehensive introduction.” Beyondthis concern, the Companion is a concise, erudite introduc-tion to many of the important themes and figures and

serves as an excellent starting point for study of thisperiod.

C. M. LorkowskiPurdue University

WAS JESUS GOD? By Richard Swinburne. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2008. Pp. vi + 175. $24.95.

After The Existence of God and Is There a God?, Swin-burne now assumes that the truth of theism is moderatelyprobable and argues that, if God exists, he is very likely theChristian God. Part One offers a priori arguments for thecentral theological claims of Christianity: God is triune,would incarnate to share in our sufferings and teach us howto live morally good lives, and atone for sins and thus makeavailable the gift of heaven. Part Two argues that these con-clusions, in conjunction with a posteriori historical evi-dences, namely, records of the life and resurrection of Jesusand the teachings of the Church, show that it is very likelythat Jesus is God. However, aspects of his approach are prob-lematic. Swinburne argues that, necessarily, a perfectlyloving being manifests perfect love toward another perfectlyloving being. Consequently, the Father exists if and only ifthe Son exists. Since perfect love requires perfectly coopera-tive activity, and because such activity must be shared witha third equal, the Holy Spirit, too, necessarily exists. Nomore than three divine persons necessarily exist, he argues,because additional persons would not add a new kind of goodstate. These are deep waters. Can we successfully tread thema priori? Swinburne’s case for Jesus’ deity is strong, but doesthe gift of heaven require Christianity’s teachings on atone-ment? The a priori status of his claims is controversial; dis-agreements may weaken the value of a posteriori evidences.Surely, Was Jesus God? is a well-argued, rewarding text thatdeserves thoughtful consideration.

Erik BaldwinPurdue University

TheologyTHE DECLINE OF AFRICAN AMERICAN THEOL-OGY: FROM BIBLICAL FAITH TO CULTURAL CAP-TIVITY. By Thabiti M. Anyabwile. Downer’s Grove, IL: IVPAcademic, 2007. Pp. 255. $20.00.

The argument in this book is deeply flawed methodologi-cally since the author depends on the fact that some promi-nent African-American Christians during the early colonialera were Calvinists to conclude that Reformed orthodoxy isthe proper measure for the rest of the African Americantradition (from Pentecostals to contemporary Black theology).This is like saying that since the original pilgrims wereReformed Puritans, and the Reformed theological point ofview is no longer the dominant one in the contemporarylandscape, we might as well talk about “the decline of Ameri-can theology”! Of course, we have heard folk like David Wellsmake such arguments over the last twenty years, but the

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