Volume I, Issue II, Fall 2008

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    Udergraduate Reearch Appled to Iteratoal DevelopmetArticulAte.

    Volume I Issue II Fall 2008

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    Articulate: Undergraduate Research Applied to International Development a udergraduate cholarly joural that publhe academc paper

    ad wrtg ole ad -prt o ue teratoal developmetad healthcare Arca.

    Articulate a ub-dvo ad publcato o the o-prot, SCOUBANANA, whch eek to educate, motvate, ad actvate the publc

    about the healthcare cr Arca. T joural wll provde a orum

    or tudet to cotrbute to, a well a make, the debate terato-al developmet. We beleve udergraduate tudet are a vtal, utapped

    orce to brg ew dea, perpectve, ad cocept to the develop-met dalogue. Our goal to park, hare, ad pread kowledge or the

    ake o ovatve chage ow.

    SCOU BANANA Mo: o combe eort to ave lve. SCOUBANANA eek to buld a dometc ad teratoal movemet ded-cated to udametal ocal chage whch global health everyoe

    repoblty ad every dvdual huma rght.

    educate motivate activate

    i

    issn: 1943-6742

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    Volume I Issue II Fall 2008

    Editor-In-Chie

    Monica Mukerjee

    University of [email protected]

    Designer

    Ken HansenMichigan State University

    [email protected]

    Alex [email protected]

    Emily CodyFordham University

    John Metzler, Outreach DirectorMichigan State University

    [email protected]

    Alex [email protected]

    Steph DawesMichigan State University

    Mary Anne Walker, DirectorMichigan State University

    [email protected]

    Nicholas [email protected]

    Kari Jaska

    Michigan State University

    Meghan MurrayNew York University

    John [email protected]

    Kate Jongbloed

    University of Toronto

    Jessica NickrandMichigan State University

    Editorial Board

    Peer Reviewers

    Faculty Advisors

    Udergraduate Reearch Appled to Iteratoal DevelopmetArticulAte.

    Te opo expreed wth th joural are exluvely thoe o the dvdual author ad doot repreet the vew o the edtoral board, SCOU BANANA, or ay o the orgazato

    chapter, advor or alate.

    Curret ad pat ue o Artculate ca be acceed at www.coutbaaa.org

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    Letter Fromthe editor

    Dear Articulate Reader,

    Wth our rt ue behd u, our ta proud to howcae the ecod ue oArticulate:Undergraduate Research Applied to International Development . Supported by the Mchga StateUverty Arca Stude Ceter ad the MSU Oce o Iteratoal Developmet, Articulate a exteo o the youth-led o-prot, SCOU BANANA. Had had wth Articulate,SCOU BANANA am to tll chage acro the eld o teratoal developmet Arcaby vetg the work o youg people. Our joural gve voce to udergraduate ad challegethem to clary myth, vet ew polce, ad rerame old dea ovatve way o the topco Arca, developmet, ad healthcare.

    I th ue, Elle Emery decotruct ad problematze the two prmary lee ued toexpla the cofct Daruroe o geocde betwee Arab mlta agat black Daruraad the other o trbal warare that aturalze commual dvo a a dometc ue or theSudaee govermet to hadle. Bethay Stpe vetgate how evagelcal Chrtaty addevelopmet program at churche ad church-baed NGO ecourage tegrato ad relgouath wth the cotemporary Sudaee reugee youth commuty o Caro, Egypt. Ramya Nara-harett explore how partcpato the South Arca graroot orgazato, Rural WomeMovemet, llumate the umerou dculte rural wome the vllage o amaHlub acewhle alo empowerg them to create ther ow oluto.

    o make Arca ad developmet more tagble or reader, th ue alo clude refectveeay by two youg people who have recetly worked the eld. Baed o h egeerg expe-rece Leotho ad Sr Laka, Matt Zedler cotemplate the optmm ad dlluometthat he aced a a youg pero egagg developmet project. Meg owle coclude th uewth a pogat pece o the utlty ad hope he elt a he ecoutered the relc o death romHIV/AIDS Leotho.

    T ue a tetamet to the drecto that Articulate am to pave the utureo partc-pato ad collaborato rom author, peer revewer, ad youg proeoal rom uvertead cte aroud the world wth a commo purpoe or chage. I hope you thoroughly ejoy th

    ue, ad we would love to hear rom you oo.

    Scerely,

    Moca Mukerjee, Edtor--CheUverty o OxordFebruary 2009

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    Sudan:Page 3, Poltc o

    Mrepreetato

    Egypt:Page 14, Relgo ad Youth Reugee

    South Africa:Page 23: Wome Empowermet

    Lesotho:Page 37: DevelopmetPage 40: HIV/AIDS

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    Foreword

    Jeae Gazel, Ph.D.

    Genocide or Tribal Warfare

    Poltc o Mrepreetato ad the Humatara Cr DarurElle Emery

    The Intersection of Religion and Development ProgramsA Study o Sudaee Youth Reugee Caro

    Bethay Stpe

    Give Women the Power to Face and Strategize About Tomorrow

    Examg the Experece o South Arca Wome Rural Wome MovemetRamya Naraharett

    Development Disillusionment

    Refecto o radtoal Developmet WorkMatt Zedler

    Coffins on Horses

    Refecto o HIV/AIDS ad Acto

    Meg owe

    Call for Papers

    1

    3

    14

    23

    37

    40

    43

    tabLeoF Contents

    Young PeoPLeinthe FieLd

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    Foreword

    A th promg ew tudet drve tatve, Artculate: Udergraduate Reearch Appledto Iteratoal Developmet take o t ecod ue, the world abuzz the atermath o the2008 htorc U.S. electo. Whle pollter ad pudt debate the varou reao or the ecodhghet tur out U.S. voter htory, t clear that youg people (age 18-29) played a pvotalrole. wo-thrd o th group voted or Barack Obama--who they hope wll be the platorm ochage. Perhap eve more hopeul the umber egaged etroot voter regtrato ad -ue educato. Youg people have ued the Iteret to exchage vew ad make coecto wthther couterpart throughout the coutry ad world. Te uprecedeted global repoe to theU.S. electo captured thee coecto ad demotrated that may udertood the outcomewould matter to ther lve. Youth aroud the world are udoubtedly o the move. Now there

    much buzz about whether th ca be utaed.

    Te youg author th joural repreet a e example o thoe who have commtted thercholarly qury o utaable ocal chage what they have come to kow a a creaglyuequal globalzed world. Whether t ew kowledge, a peroal experece or a combatoo both that parked ther teret; they have choe to take a deeper look to preg ueacg coutre ad rego o the Arca cotet. Tee work gy a crtcally mportatdevelopmet udergraduate educato whereby tudet recogze ad act upo ther ablty tocotrbute to cholarhp ad actvm ad the tercoectede thereo. Egaged cholarhpat the earlet tage o ther career may ope door o udertadg a they grow to challege

    tradtoal bary ytem: u/them, rt world/thrd world, developed/developg. Tey may alodevelop a crtcal cocoue that gude them to udertad macro orce that et up ad ueltructural equalty. Gve a ecouragg evromet, th cocoue lead to a great dereto chage what doet work or o may.

    Durg a recet tudy abroad program South Arca, a 17-year-old youth wrote ad per-ormed a poem or the MSU vtor. We lteed awe to a vceral terrogato o why omehave a chace at le ad other do ot. She eded her poem akg: how that you are ad Iam ot, that you lve ad I de, that our world are o deret ad yet o cloe? She challegedaculty ad tudet uch a way that we were redered peechle, acutely aware that there o

    jut awer. Te author th ere ad thoe to ollow ca hoor th queto by commtmetto cholarhp ad actvm that wll addre the codto that polarze our world.

    Jeae Gazel, Ph.D.Drector, Mult-Racal Uty ExpereceMchga State Uverty

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    genoCideor tribaL warFarePolitics o Misrepresentation and

    the Humanitarian Crisis in Darur

    Ellie EmeryCornell UniversityBiological Sciences

    abstraCtSince 2003, Sudans westernmost province o Darur has been immersed in a bloodbath that has

    claimed more than 300,000 lives and displaced an estimated 2.7 million people rom their homes. Terepresentation o this conict in the international arena has been polarized according to its examina-tion through one o two lenses, both myopic and distorting in their analysis. Te rst o these lenses, thegenocide lens, depicts the conict as a government-sponsored genocide in which Arab militias epito-mized by the Janjaweed are carrying out a campaign o violence against the black Arican population oDarur at the behest o the government in Khartoum. Te second lens, the tribal warare lens, portraysthe violence as warare between Darurs many ethnic communities, and thus as a domestic issue thatshould be dealt with by the government o Sudan. Tough there is truth in both perspectives, each ails toaddress the complex historical ramework rom which the conict emerged either accurately or in its en-tirely. Consequently, an analysis through either o these lenses alone will not yield an efective solution tothe conict in Darur. Te resolution o this crisis requires an unraveling o the politics o representationsurrounding the polarized depiction o the conict, a complication o both lenses through the demystica-tion o the conicts complex history, and an analysis o how misrepresentation has hindered the process

    o conict resolution in Darur.

    introduCtionI February 2003, Daur complex htory o coloalm, poltcal power truggle, cofct

    betwee ethc group, ad coteto over acce to lmted reource erupted to oe o thegreatet humatara cre o our tme. Over the coure o t ve year pa, the volece thrego o Weter Suda ha clamed more tha 300,000 cvla lve ad dplaced a more tha2.5 mllo people, accordg to Uted Nato Uderecretary Geeral or Humatara A-ar, Joh Holme.1, 2 Depte the cotually rg death toll, a eable ad eectve propoal orachevg peace Darur ha yet to be placed o the table. Whle the jot UN-Arca Uo

    mo Darur (UNAMID) fouder t attempt to brg peace to the rego3 the utureo the vctm o the volece Darur beg decded thouad o mle away, the chambero the UN Securty Coucl.4

    unraveLingthe PoLitiCsoF rePresentation

    1 CNN.com. U.N.: 100,000 More Dead in Darfur Than Reported. 22 April 2008.http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/04/22/darfur.holmes/index.html.

    2 There is a signicant amount of controversy surrounding this mortality gure, which was extrapolated from

    a 2006 survey by the WHO and was not based on new research. The Sudanese government claims that only10,000 have died, though this number is based only on those who have died in actual combat and not as a resultof horric living conditions in internally displaced persons and refugee camps. Other scholars and humanitarianorganizations argue that the UNs estimates are to low, including Eric Reeves, the American author of a book onDarfur entitled A Long Days Dying, who puts the mortality gures closer to 500,000.

    3 Fowler, Jerry , and John Prendergast. Keeping Our World: Fullling the Mandate to Protect Civilians in Darfur.(June 2008).

    4 Straus, Scott. Darfur and the Genocide Debate. Foreign Affairs (Jan 2005), http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20050101faessay84111-p30/scott-straus/darfur-and-the-genocide-debate.html.

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    A the world uperpower debate the proper acto to take regardg the cr Darur, therrepreetato o the cofct poltcally motvated. Each takeholder portray the cofct the term that are mot cogruet wth t ow ageda, ad that are mot lkely to reult acceto the reource, ether phycal or tagble, that t whe to procure rom Suda. Depte themmee complexty o the root o th humatara cr, t perceved by the member o thorum through oe o two myopc ad dtortg lee, whch ca be decrbed a the geocde

    le ad the trbal warare le. Te le to whch takeholder ubcrbe fuece how theychooe to repreet the cofct the dcoure urroudg Darur, whch tur fuece theglobal commuty repoe to the cofct. I th way, the ue o ether perpectve by fuetaltakeholder ha prooud ad dtctly deret ramcato or the parte drectly volved the volece.

    A ether le accurately or etrely recogze the htorcal ramework rom whch the co-fct emerged, the tuato Darur caot be adequately addreed by a aaly through ethero thee lee aloe. Smlarly, ay acto take a a comprome betwee the two terpretatoo the volece, uch a the UNAMID cvla protecto orce or Darur that wa approved bythe UN Securty Coucl 2007,5 wll be eve more eectual becaue t mut appeae theaumpto ad bear the lmtato o both lee. Oly by decotructg the mrepreeta-to o the cre wll the alure o thee lee be maeted ad addreed; mply comprom-g betwee the two wll ot root out the dtorto heret them. Wthout th proce odecotructo, the polarzed repreetato o the cr that curretly pervade the dcoure oDarur wll cotue to prevet the rego rom achevg utaable peace.

    Te rt tep developg a oluto to the cofct Darur a decrpto ad aaly othe geocde ad trbal warare lee. Te key elemet o th aaly a vetgato tothe ageda that ha motvated each takeholder ubcrpto to oe o the two lee, ad tcoequet repreetato o the cofct accordg to that perpectve. Te uravelg o theepoltc o repreetato wll et the tage or the dago o the alure o each le to ad-equately addre the ue at the root o the cofct.

    the genoCide LensI May o 2007, Predet Buh urged the UN Securty Coucl to take a troger tace

    agat the Sudaee govermet. He declared, For too log, the people o Darur have ueredat the had o a govermet that complct the bombg, murder, ad rape o ocet cvl-a. Te world ha a repoblty to help put a ed to t. 6 Regardle o the extet to whchthe Buh admtrato ha acted o th tatemet, 7 t everthele exemple the perpectveo the rt le, whch ca be termed the geocde le. T le wa coceved March 2004,roughly a year ater volece erupted Darur, whe New York me columt Nchola Krtopublhed a ere o artcle that reerred to the emergg cr a geocde. 8, 9 I makg th

    clam, Krto voked the Geocde Coveto, a treaty draw up ater the Holocaut wth theteto o ever aga allowg the targeted detructo o a partcular ethc, racal, or relgougroup.10 Propoet o the word geocde to decrbe the curret cr Darur argue that thecofct meet the tadard or th label becaue the volece targeted at eradcatg a partcularethc group, ytematc ad tetoal, ad tate-poored.

    I a report ubmtted Jauary 2005, a commo appoted by the U.N. Securty Couclrejected thee clam, tatg that the cofct ca ot be labeled a geocde becaue the tetoha ot bee to completely elmate a partcular ethc group, ad thu that the volece cot-

    5Fowler, 2008.6Dinmore, Guy, Mark Turner, and Andrew Ward. Us Tightens Us Sanctions on Sudan. Financial Times, 29 May 2007.7Whether or not the Bush administration has done enough to address the crisis in Darfur and place pressure onthe government in Khartoum to end the violence is a contentious issue.

    8Kristof, Nicholas D. Will We Say Never Again yet Again? New York Times, 27 March 2004.9Nicholas Kristof is internationally recognized as one of the most inuential spokesman for the humanitariancrisis in Darfur. In 2006, he won the Pulitzer Prize for his writing on the conict.

    10 Straus, 2005.

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    tuted crme agat humaty tead.11 Depte th dg, humatara orgazato ucha the Save Darur Coalto cotue to ue the term whe reerrg to the cr Darur, etherbecaue they dagree wth the commo cocluo o a evdetary ba, or becaue theybeleve that the ue o th loaded label the mot eectve way to ecourage teratoal acto,regardle o how accurate t . Trough th trategc word choce, thee ad other propoet othe geocde le appeal to the collectve cocou o the teratoal commuty by vokg

    the codto o the Geocde Coveto, whch tate that cotractg parte are requred toudertake to prevet ad to puh geocde.12

    Sce Krto artcle appeared the New York me, the U.S. ad other govermet havebacked the decrpto o the cofct Darur a geocde or ther ow, ote more pragmatcreao. Te Buh admtrato partcular ha captalzed o the cr Darur a mea orurtherg t ow evagelcal ad poltcal ageda. I a addre to the Seate Foreg RelatoCommttee 2004, the Secretary o State Col Powell declared, We cocluded that geocdeha bee commtted ad that the Govermet o Suda ad the Jajaweed bear the repoblty.13Sce that tme, the repreetato o the volece Darur by th ad other propoet o thegeocde le ha become hged, ot oly o a decrpto o the volece a beg tate-poored,but moreover o a portrayal o the aget actg o behal o the govermet a Arab mlta thatare commttg atrocte agat the Arca populato o the rego.14, 15 Te polarzato o thecofct to oe that pt Arab agat Arca, though geealogcally problematc, ha bee ezedupo by the Buh admtrato ad may o t evagelcal upporter a urther jutcato ora moder cruade agat the Mulm world. Te Mulm commuty targeted by th at-Ilam-c etmet compred o the Arabc omad o orther Suda, who are portrayed a perecu-tor o Arca Chrta the outh.16 Whe polarzed th maer, the cofct erve a aproxy war or Buh oreg polcy tatve the Mddle Eat, becaue t demozato o theArab reoate wth the ethc cootato urroudg the War o error. Ideed, th maybe a reao why the Buh admtrato ha choe to label Darur a geocde, whle the cvlwar the Cogo, a cofct wth a much hgher death toll but lackg a apparet Arab-Arca

    dmeo, ha gotte very lttle atteto.17 At the ceter o th polarzato o the cofct le aareal o weepg geeralzato regardg the ethc ad relgou character o thee uppoed-ly coheve ad dtct group. I realty, uch geeralzato are vat over-mplcato o thecomplex realty o the groud Darur, where a gcat porto o the dgeou populato ot Chrta ad the vat majorty o the Mulm commuty o Mddle Eater decet doeot egage volece. 18

    the tribaL warFare LensAcro the bargag table rom the Uted State ad other propoet o the geocde

    le t Cha, deedg t ubcrpto to the ecod le, the trbal warare le. Alog wth

    Rua ad everal other member o the Securty Coucl, Cha ha cotually thwarted eortto tep-up the cale o the global terveto Darur by argug a o-tererece approach.19Te Chee govermet ha cotetly udertated the role o the Sudaee govermet the

    11 Mamdani, Mahmood. The Politics of Naming: Genocide, Civil War, Insurgency. London Review of Books(8 March 2007).

    12 Straus, 2005.

    13 Brennan, Robert Mark. The Complex Humanitarian Crisis in Sudan: Context and Options. Journal ofInternational Relations 8, (2006).

    14 De Walle, Alex. Who Are the Darfurians? Arab and African Identities, Violence and External Engagement.SSRC Contemporary Conicts (2004).

    15 Throughout the paper, the use of the terms Arab and African in any context should be considered somewhatproblematic, as Arabs from the Middle East regard the Northern Sudanese as only marginally Arab, and to theextent that they are Sudanese citizens, the Arab communities of Sudan are also Africans.

    16 Straus, 2005.

    17 Mamdani, 2007.

    18 OFahey, R.S. Conict in Darfur: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. In Environmental Degradationas a Cause of Conict in Darfur, 23-32. Switzerland: University for Peace, 2006.

    19 Taylor, Ian. Chinas Oil Diplomacy in Africa. International Affairs 82, no. 5 (2006): 937.

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    cofct, ad ha attrbuted the volece to warare betwee trbe Darur that, whle uortuate, a dometc ue that Suda a a overeg ato hould addre o t ow accord.20, 21 T le ueled by the tereotype that depct the Arca atve a ately warrg ad ucvlzed,ad coequetly ratoalze the reducto o the volece Darur to a type o cofct that thought o a commoplace o the Arca cotet. I a tervew publhed o the rotpage o Cha Daly 2007, Cha pecal evoy to Darur, Lu Guj, deeded the Suda-

    ee govermet ablty to deal wth th ue, tatg that the teratoal commuty houldremember that Khartoum a legtmate govermet that deerve repect.22 Propoet o thle argue that ay acto take Darur wthout the approval o the Sudaee govermetwould uderme the authorty o the curret admtrato at a tme whe t leaderhp moteeded.

    Tere o doubt, however, that the Chee admtrato ha a veted teret the ueo the trbal cofct le, whch dmhe the eed or global terveto to top the volece Darur, both by uggetg that th volece ot abormal ad by legtmzg the Sudaeegovermet ad t capablty to deal wth the tuato. Sce the 1960, Cha ha bee thema arm uppler or the Sudaee govermet, ad thu ha bee drectly armg the verymlta that are perpetratg the act o volece agat the cvla o Darur.23 Addtoally,Cha 3.5 bllo dollar vetmet Sudaee ol producto ha proved to be extremely lucra-tve.24 I 1999, a artcle the Wall Street Joural revealed that Cha ol dutry Suda ac-couted or $500 mllo o the $710 mllo that the Cha Petroleum Egeerg & Cotruc-to Corporato made prot that year.25 Cha vetmet Suda wll udoubtedly uer the evet that acto are placed o the govermet Khartoum. T cocer ha bee agcat motvator or the Chee govermet loyalty to the trbal warare le, depte co-derable teratoal preure to orce Khartoum had through tactc uch a dvetmet.

    demYstiFYingthe rootsoFthe ConFLiCt: the historiCaL FrameworkTe proce o complcatg both the geocde ad trbal warare lee volve a exama-

    to o the htorcal ramework rom whch the cofct ha emerged. T examato allow orthe demytcato o the complex caual etwork at the root o the volece, ad alo maetthe alure o both lee to adequately capture th etwork ther aaly o the cr.

    Sce the 14th cetury, the ethc ladcape o Suda wetermot provce, Darur, ha beea dvere a t phycal geography. Wth th rego, the ethc le dtguhg black Ar-ca trbe, atve Arab trbe, ad oreg Arab trbe rom oe aother are extremely ambguou,ad the relatohp betwee thee group are cotually fux.26 radtoally, the ortherpart o the coutry ha bee occuped by camel omad o varou ethc alato, cludgboth Arab ad o-Arab. Te outh habted maly by Arabc-peakg omadc cattleherder rom a plethora o trbe collectvely reerred to a the Baqqara. Te cetral part o the

    rego home to a heterogeeou populato o o-Arab edetary armer, cludg the Fur,Maalt, ama, Qmr, ad Mma.27, 28 Although ethc dvo are a tegral part o the modercofct th rego, the cocept o ethcty Darur ha htorcally bee more a matter operoal detcato wth a certa culture tha actual geealogy.29 I may cae, a amly

    20 Proponents of the tribal warfare lens use the term tribe to distinguish between small communities of differingethnic and cultural afliations, such as the Fur and the Masalit. However, many scholars have emphasized that thisterm has negative connotations of backwardness and primitiveness, and thus is sometimes considered derogatory.

    21 Large, Daniel. China and the Contraindication of Non-Interference in Sudan. Review of African PoliticalEconomy 135, no. 115 (March 2008): 93-106.

    22 Dickie, Mure. China Defends Its Stance on Darfur. Financial Times, 27 July 2007.

    23 Brennan, 2006.

    24 OFahey, 2006.

    25 Brennan, 2006.

    26 Ibid.

    27 This term can also be spelled Massalit.

    28 OFahey, 2006.

    29 Brennan, 2006.

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    alato wth a partcular ethc group acally motvated. For example, a Maalt armerrom the cetral rego chooe to vet cattle ad become ucceul, he may elect to becomeBaqqara, ad thu traorm h uture leage to oe that authetcally Arab, depte ho-Arab hertage.30

    I examg both the geocde ad trbal warare lee, t mportat to keep mdthat ay dcuo o dtct ethc or racal group Darur problematc. T doe ot mply,

    however, that ethc alato are ot codered a key elemet o the collectve detty o var-ou commute Darur, however htorcally accurate they may be. Ideed, thee alato,whether attached to the detty o a commuty by other or perceved by the commuty tel,have played a mportat role the cofct Darur, a both lee ugget. A key pot oaaly the category o dvo that each le chooe to hghlght ad eve exaggerate--theArab-Arca racal dvo the cae o the geocde le ad ethc dvo betwee dtctcommute or trbe the cae o the trbal warare le--ote to the complete excluo o theother category.

    Sce t etablhmet a a tate aroud 1650, Darur ha bee both a Mulm ultaate ada Arca acral kghp aocated wth two o-Arab ethc group, the Daju ad the ujur,whch date back to the 12th cetury.31 Betwee 1650 ad 1916, the ultaate wa ruled by a eltebody compred o repreetatve rom all the major ethc group the rego. T complexorm o admtrato wa hghly ecet ad partcularly eectve at motorg gcatecologcal actor, uch a raall rom year to year ad rght to lad, water ad grazg.32 Durgth perod o ultaate rule, the admtratve body wa htorcally domated by the Fur, whodeeded the teret o the edetary, o-Arab armer o the cetral rego o Darur agatther omadc Arab eghbor the orther ad outher part o the rego.33 Te omadccommute were cotually orced o ther ormal grazg route a edetary armg commu-te, wth the backg o the ultaate rulg elte, lad clam to creagly large tract o lad.Tu, t clear that rom early o Darur htory, relatohp betwee the rego ethcgroup that aocate themelve wth ether a Arab or a Arca hertage have bee tee ad

    mbalaced. It upo th percepto o a volatle Arab-Arca relatohp that the geocdele ouded, though the le eglect to recogze that Darur early htory wa characterzedby a explotato o the Arab commute by Arca, ad ot the other way aroud.

    I 1916, Brth troop aaated the ttg ultaate ad etablhed Darur a a part othe Aglo-Egypta coloy o Suda.34 Uder th decetralzed orm o goverace, the tua-to Darur remaed largely uchaged. Te rulg cla remaed power ad the omadcotued to be orced o ther grazg route by ecroachg armg commute. Elewhere the coutry, however, the Brth coloal regme took a more had-o approach to goverace.I eater Suda, the Brth govermet promoted a ageda ocued o moderzato that ledto techologcal advacemet ad mproved educato ad healthcare Khartoum, but largely

    bypaed Darur.35

    Te reult wa the ormato o a well-deed herarchy whch coloalaget ad ther appotee rom the Sudaee elte caually overaw the actvte o the crea-gly margalzed populato o Darur.36

    Darur htory o Weter attempt to ethcally categorze t populato ad aocatethe categore wth dtct geographc area date back to the coloal perod. Although Brthpolcy largely gored Darur whle orgazg ocal program, attempt were made to poltcallyorgaze the rego by agg pecc ethc group to homelad called dar.37 T tedecytoward ethc categorzatoaccurate or otherwe maet both lee, whch, a prev-ouly tated, rely o racal ad ethc categore that are largely cotructed the terpretato

    30 OFahey, 2006.

    31 Ibid.

    32 Ibid.

    33 Ibid.

    34 Ibid.

    35 Brennan, 2006.

    36 Ibid.

    37 Ibid, 25.

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    ad repreetato o the cofct by varou takeholder.I the 1970, a group o youg pa-Arabt, commut ympathzer, ad tellectual took

    cotrol o Suda a mltary coup led by Jaar al-Numayr.38 Te ew regme ocued o mod-erzato, atoalzato, ad elmato o drect rule, trbalm, ad ectaram thecoutry. A Suda mot depedet provce ad the oly area tll govered by a ultaate y-tem that had bee place or ceture, the mplcato o th ageda or Darur were prooud.

    Te acet ytem o goverace, cludg Natve court ad chedom, that had htorcallypreveted cofct betwee ethc group the rego rom ecalatg to ull-cale volece, wereabolhed a the ew regme attempted to ute the coutry uder a ew, more cvlzed orm orule.39 Te eect o th uortuate attempt at ucato cotrbuted to the rapd pace at whchthe tuato Darur deterorated rom a cotaed cofct to a humatara cr o epc pro-porto everal decade later. Both the geocde ad the trbal warare lee have overlookedth pot, whch hghlght the role that the legacy o coloalm ha played the curret cr.

    I the md-1980, the tuato Darur woreed a deertcato the orther adouther rego exacerbated cofct over lmted water ad grazg reource.40 Durg thperod, the etre populato o the provce became creagly cocetrated t outherrego, ad dpute betwee ethc group teed. Toe who ubcrbe to the trbal wararele ote cte th perod o cofct over lmted reource a evdece that trbal warrg at theroot o the preet cr. Te hortcomg o th aaly that cofct over lmted reource by o mea a ew ue Darur.41 A wa dcued prevouly, ce the perod o ultaate rule Suda, Arabc omad ad Arca edetary armer have ved or acce to the bet grazglad or ther lvetock. Te tuato the 1980 wa uque that thee clahe were exacer-bated by other actor, cludg a collape o the acet ytem o order uder the al-Numayrregme, a geeral eglect o the rego o the part o the govermet Khartoum, ad a fuxo gu rom Chad ad Lbya.42 Itead o beg reolved through medato by Natve court ortradtoal dplay o mltary tregth a dagreemet had bee the pat, the clahe rapdlyevolved to the large-cale campag o volece that ca be ee today. Coequetly, though

    cofct betwee ethc group udoubtedly a compoet o the curret cr Darur, t problematc to expla away the volece by reducg t to a type o cofct that ha bee preet Darur throughout t htory. Tere are explaato or why Darur edemc problem haveoly recetly erupted to a humatara cr; t thee actor that the trbal warare leoverlook.

    A evrometal preure were takg ther toll Darur, the govermet Khartoum be-came egaged armed cofct agat the Suda People Lberato Army (SPLA) o outherSuda. T cvl war wa the clmax o decade o cofct betwee orther Suda, whch largely populated by Arab Ilamt, ad outher Suda, whch habted prmarly by ArcaChrta ad ollower o tradtoal Arca relgo.43, 44 I the md-1980, Prme Mter

    Sadq al-Mahd made a coloal mcalculato whe he choe to arm the Baqqara o outherDarur, who were largely Arabc-peakg, agat the SPLA, who were at-Arab oreta-to.45 Beore log, the weapo teded to protect the Baqqara rom the SPLA were beg ued cofct wth the Fur, the Maalt, ad the Baqqara other black Arca eghbor cetralDarur. It clear thereore that the trbal warare wth Darur ad the govermet-pooredArab-Arca clahe Suda are htorcally tercoected, partcularly to the extet that arm

    38 Ibid.

    39 Ibid.

    40 Ibid.

    41 Ibid.42 Ibid.

    43 Brennan, 2006.

    44 Do not confuse these divisions of Sudan in general with those in Darfur, where the southern part and, to a lesserextent, the northern part of the region are occupied nomadic Arabs and the central region is inhabited primarily byAfrican sedentary farmers. As is the case in Darfur, though the genealogical accuracy of these ethnic classica-tions is questionable, they are nevertheless important afliations for the communities that identify with them.

    45 OFahey, 2006.

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    o horeback, by ettg re to vllage, kllg uarmed me ad chldre, rapg wome, adwreakg havoc acro the rego. I 2008, more tha ve year ater the volece rt bega,Darur tll ubmered th bloodbath.

    Tough the Sudaee govermet ha categorcally deed ay alato wth the Jajaweed,a ubtatal body o evdece ugget otherwe. Perhap the mot damg evdece o Khar-toum volvemet the volece ha bee provded by Arbab Idre, the commader o the

    Jajaweed betwee 2003 ad 2007, who ha ce had a allg out wth the al-Bahr regmead hdg. I tervew, Idre ha clamed that he took h tructo a commader othe Jajaweed rom a eor govermet ocal ad ha provded a compellg accout o theal-Bahr regme let backg o the mlta campag o volece.55 I h tetmoy, Idredecrbe leadg attack o vllage o black Arca cvla, ad the tate, Tee tructocame rom Khartoum.56 T rulg a tetamet to the legtmate corertoe o the cae madeby propoet o the geocde le, whch hghlght the actve role o the Sudaee govermet the volece.

    the ConsequenCesoF misrePresentationIt very dcult to hare a bre htory o Darur, becaue the realty that there t oe.

    Darur a rego the ze o exa a coutry that lghtly larger tha a quarter o the U.S.,ad home to x mllo people rom a tremedou array o hertage that may or may ot relateto ther el-proclamed ethc alato.57 rbal cofct over acce to lmted reource ha u-doubtedly played a key role the curret cr Darur, a t ha throughout the rego htory.Regardle o the geealogcal accuracy o the Arab-Arca polarzato o the cofct, there oqueto that the volece that takg place Darur alo characterzed part by the toler-ace o thee two racal categore or oe aother. o th extet, the atthetcal repreetatoo the cofct by both the trbal warare ad the geocde lee are baed actualty. However, choog to hghlght oe o thee agle at the excluo o all other aalye, both lee alto apprecate the complexty o the cofct Darur--oe that ha root both the polce o

    the coloal era that eglected the rego ad exacerbated equalty Suda, ad oe that haroot the polce o the al-Numayr regme, whoe poorly plaed attempt at moderzatodetroyed the rego tradtoal veue or medato ad cofct reoluto. Tey gore thatroot o the cofct that exted a ar back a the advet o Ilam the rego the 14th cetury,whe the edetary, black Arca armer o cetral Darur oppreed ther omadc Arab egh-bor, ad thoe cotrbutg actor that have occurred a recetly a the 20th cetury, whe armrom the cvl war Chad fooded acro the Daura border. It th complex caual etworkthat both the geocde ad the trbal warare lee eglect, preerrg tead ther ow myopcad dtorted terpretato o the cofct.

    Te trbal warare le blame the vctm. It reurrect the mage o the warrg, uruly

    atve that uable to coduct tel wth dgty ad ugget that th type o cofct wllcotue to be commoplace Arca o log a the thrd world body hauted by t ucv-lzed pat. It allevate the oblgato o the teratoal commuty to volve tel the crby emphazg the eed or Arca govermet to d ther ow oluto to thee Arcaue, whle gorg etrely the role that uch govermet may be playg the volece. Teo-tererece approach advocated or by propoet o th le coveet or thoeteratoal player, uch a the Chee govermet, who are curretly beetg rom therrelatohp wth Khartoum, ad thu beg the queto whether t Suda overegty or therow eo-mperalt teret that they are tryg to protect.

    Te geocde le, o the other had, remove agecy rom Darura etrely by placg

    the blame or the volece olely o the Sudaee govermet. Whle t clear that the al-Bahradmtrato mut be held accoutable or t role the cofct, mply cuttg o the gover-met poorhp o the Jajaweed wll ot brg peace to Darur. Te dorder created by the

    55 Meo, 2008.

    56 Ibid.

    57 Straus, 2005.

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    collape o the tradtoal medato tructure Darur durg the reg o the al-Numayrregme mut be collaboratvely addreed by the Sudaee govermet ad the people o Darur,ad a ytem o order that doe ot requre eorcemet by armed mlta mut be agreed upo.58A commtmet to teral cooperato o the part o the rego ethc group eetal Dar-ura are ever gog to have ther collectve voce heard Suda poltcal area. I the abeceo th cooperato, competto or carce reource ad the geeral eglect o the rego by the

    Sudaee govermet wll cotue.Propoet o the geocde le mut recogze that vokg the Geocde Coveto haot produced t dered eect by trggerg mmedate teratoal acto, ad t cotue to beulkely that mply ttg back ad cryg geocde wll elct th repoe the uture.59 Fur-thermore, th bloc mut coder the act that, whle uquetoably atrocou, the UN SecurtyCoucl may have bee accurate t rulg that the cr Darur doe ot cottute geo-cde accordg to t deto the Geocde Coveto. T Coveto requre that thevolece that cottute geocde be targeted at wpg out a partcular ethc, racal, or relgougroup.60 I a place a geealogcally ad culturally mottled a Darur, provg that the dvdualtargeted by th campag o volece cottute a uorm makeup by ay deto extremelyproblematc, ot etrely mpoble. Ultmately, Darur dverty ad the extremely trcateethc, racal, ad cultural dmeo o t curret cr may actually uderme the eectveeo the argumet or labelg t geocde.

    Rather tha cotug to argue the cae or geocde, propoet o the th le may d tmore eectve to remd the teratoal commuty that crme agat humaty, whch the acommo appoted by the UN Securty Coucl ha determed cofct Darur to be, alluder the ramework or acto o the UN Repoblty to Protect alog wth geocde. TeGeeral Aembly 2005 World Summt Outcome Documet tate, Te teratoal com-muty, through the Uted Nato, alo ha the repoblty to ue approprate dplomatc,humatara, ad other peaceul mea to protect populato rom geocde, war crme,ethc cleag, ad crme agat humaty.61 Tu, the ue o the word geocde to provoke

    teratoal acto may be ueceary, becaue, although t may ot have a much hock value,the term crme agat humaty ecetate the ame level o oblgato rom the global com-muty.

    akg thee pot to coderato, the geocde le camp eed to rethk t pla ormotvatg the teratoal commuty to take a actve role the reoluto o the cr Dar-ur. I dog o, propoet o th le eed to put ome thought to claryg the type o ter-veto or whch they are advocatg. Tough the UN Repoblty to Protect claue allowcollectve acto hould peaceul mea be adequate ad atoal authorte maetly al toprotect ther populato, the War Iraq ha how jut how devatatg mltary terveto a coutry wth a complex htory ad poltcal tuato ca be.62, 63 Ue o the term geocde to

    ecourage th orm o terveto Darur ha the potetal to prove equally a devatatg. Atruly eectve reoluto to the volece mut be upported by the teratoal commuty, butmut be derved ad ttuted terally. Toe who bet udertad the cotext wth whchthe cofct bega mut be empowered to addre t.64

    Fally, propoet o the geocde le mut be cautou about the extet to whch the Arab-Arca polarzato o the cofct demoze the Arab populato o Suda a a whole, ad thumay exacerbate the redual teo betwee geeralzed ethc group, a oppoed to pecc m-

    58 By the Sudanese government, I am referring to the al-Bashir regimes successor. The current administration

    has already lost too much credibility in the eyes of those affected by the violence to make the formation of a mutu -ally respectful relationship between this regime and the generalized population of Darfur possible.

    59 Straus, 2005.

    60 Ibid.

    61 United Nations General Assembly. 2005. 2005 World Summit Outcome Document. Paragraph 139.

    62 Ibid.

    63 Mamdani, 2007.

    64 Ibid.

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    lta, that rema oce the volece ceae.65 For th ame reao, the role that the Darura rebelgroup have played the volece mut be recogzed by the teratoal commuty o thatthey ca be held accoutable, alog wth the Jajaweed ad the govermet, or the atrocte thathave bee commtted. Curretly, the geocde le largely overlook the tragreo o theerebel mlta, jut a the trbal warare le overlook thoe o the al-Bahr regme. Ultmately,however, the role o all parte volved the cofct mut be recogzed order to beg the

    proce o recoclato that udametal to the achevemet o utaable peace.Te complexte o the cr Darur are dcult or eve the mot atute cholar to com-prehed. It udertadable that, whe preetg the htory o the cofct to the publc, atakeholder uch a Amety Iteratoal or the Chee govermet mut be coce, ad thatthe ue o a le that brg oly the mot mportat elemet o the cofct to harper ocumay be juted by th eed or mplcty. Rather tha merely ummarzg the cofct, however,thee takeholder have actually recotructed t a maer more coducve to ther dvdualageda by exaggeratg certa apect whle gorg other etrely. Not abrdgg, but actuallymrepreetg the crcumtace urroudg the cofct perpetuate a ee o couo aboutthe act that urther myte the already complex htory o the curret cr. T mytcatocreate a ee o apathy amogt the elemet o the global populato that ha ot bee polarzedto ether the geocde or the trbal warare camp. It create the mpreo that the cr mply too complcated to be reolvable. Te reult that the majorty o the global populatothat payg atteto too overwhelmed by the cofct to become volved, ad thoe who arebeg proactve are too lmted ad accurate ther polarzed aaly to be eect ay potvechage.

    ConCLusionTe cofct Darur oe o the greatet humatara cre o our day. It ha clamed over

    300,000 lve ad dplaced mllo more rom ther home, orcg them to eek out the tarket ormo urvval ll-equpped ad overcrowded camp or reugee ad terally dplaced pero.66 De-

    pte beg labeled geocde by the U.S. govermet ad everal teratoal orgazato, thevolece Darur ha raged o or ve log year, provg the ew meaure that the teratoalcommuty ha compromed o mplemetg to protect the Darura eectual. I uta-able peace to come to Darur, the poltc o mrepreetato, cludg the ulteror motve otakeholder both the trbal warare ad the geocde le camp, mut be uraveled ad a de-mytcato o the complex htory urroudg t root mut be udertake. T traparecywll allow or a clearer vetgato o the opto avalable to the people o Darur, the Sudaeepopulato a a whole, ad the teratoal commuty. It clear that Darura mut play amajor role the reoluto o the cofct the ue at t root are to be eectvely addreed. It alo clear that the teratoal commuty ha a role to play the proce o empowerg Dar-

    ura to embrace a collectve agecy ad holdg the perpetrator o the volece accoutable.Te world phycal repoe to the cr Darur--be t ecoomc acto, mltary ter-veto, cotued acto, or otherwe- dctated by the way whch the global commutyperceve the cofct. Tu, t mperatve that the global commuty addree the vllaheret our ow dtorted ad myopc aalye o the cr, beore we ca addre the vlla Suda. It our repoblty to decotruct the poltc o mrepreetato urroudg thecurret humatara cr ad demyty the complex htorcal root o the cofct. It ourrepoblty to adopt a wder le.

    65 Ibid.

    66 CNN.com, 2008.

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    Brea, Robert Mark. Te Complex Humatara Cr Suda: Cotext ad Opto.Joural o Iteratoal Relato 8, (2006).

    CNN.com. U.N.: 100,000 More Dead Darur Ta Reported. 22 Aprl 2008.

    De Walle, Alex. Who Are the Darura? Arab ad Arca Idette, Volece ad ExteralEgagemet. SSRC Cotemporary Cofct (2004).

    Dcke, Mure. Cha Deed It Stace o Darur. Facal me, 27 July 2007.

    Dmore, Guy, Mark urer, ad Adrew Ward. U ghte U Sacto o Suda. Facalme, 29 May 2007.

    Fowler, Jerry , ad Joh Predergat. Keepg Our World: Fulllg the Madate to ProtectCvla Darur. ( Jue 2008).

    Krto, Nchola D. Wll We Say Never Aga yet Aga? New York me, 27 March 2004.

    Large, Dael. Cha ad the Cotradcato o No-Itererece Suda. Revew o ArcaPoltcal Ecoomy 135, o. 115 (March 2008): 93-106.

    Mamda, Mahmood. Te Poltc o Namg: Geocde, Cvl War, Iurgecy. Lodo Revewo Book (8 March 2007).

    Meo, Nck. Sudaee Govermet Backed Darur Attack, Say Jajaweed Commader.

    elegraph, 18 July 2008.OFahey, R.S. Cofct Darur: Htorcal ad Cotemporary Perpectve. I Evrometal

    Degradato a a Caue o Cofct Darur, 23-32. Swtzerlad: Uverty or Peace, 2006.

    Strau, Scott. Darur ad the Geocde Debate. Foreg Aar ( Ja 2005),http://www.oregaar.org/20050101aeay84111-p30/cott-trau/darur-ad-the-geocde-debate.html.

    aylor, Ia. Cha Ol Dplomacy Arca. Iteratoal Aar 82, o. 5 (2006): 937-59.

    Uted Nato Geeral Aembly. 2005 World Summt Outcome Documet. 2005.

    work Cited

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    clg to crpture ad ther ath a a way to oret themelve ad ther commuty the ace odater. Scholar requetly overlook the gcace o relgo ad t eect o Arca youthpercepto o developmet; everthele, churche ad church-baed orgazato clearly mpactdevelopmet eort wth the Sudaee reugee commuty o Caro.

    Not oly do thee orgazato ucto a key provder o ecular developmet reource,uch a job kll trag, educato, ad health care program, but they alo allow reugee leader

    to corporate ther relgou bele to uch program order to accomplh larger commutygoal. I act, margalzed but deeply relgou Chrta youth wth th commuty havebegu to ue church reource to lead ew developmet tatve, whch am to meet the phycal,tellectual, ad emotoal eed o the youg Arca reugee.

    Although uch program addre a varety o eed, ultmately ther am prtual. Relgouyouth deg uch tatve order to acltate dvdual ad commual recoclato wththe Chrta God. Secular developmet project, uch a educatoal opportute, become aorum or coectg wth other deeper ad more prtual way. Not oly are thee youthutlzg developmet program to meet what they perceve a relgou eed, however, but theyare, eect, redeg developmet tel. I other word, Chrta Sudaee youth Caroare ug o-relgou developmet program or what they coder a hgher amcoveyga Chrta evagelcal meagebecaue they vew the progre o ther commuty prmarlythrough t prtual health, rather tha through the advacemet o educato, phycal health, orother exteral dcator o commual growth. Tree cae tude o youth-led muc programreveal how the youth ue developmet reource to exerce leaderhp ad tate prtual chagewth Caro Sudaee populato.

    Peroal tervew ad tetmoe rom outher Sudaee Chrta orm the core ele-met o my reearch, alog wth my ow peroal obervato. I pet eleve moth, rom Sep-tember 2006 to July 2007, Egypt workg wth Sudaee reugee youth at a orgazato thatprovde ad to thouad o Sudaee reugee Caro. I bega tervewg youth toward theed o my tay Caro, ad I retured Jauary 2008 order to coduct more reearch ad to

    atta a wder ample o peroal tore ad refecto. Te tervew were geerally ope-ededad coveratoal. Mot o the tervewee poke Eglh, but I coducted everal tervew Arabc a well. All o the tervewee th paper have bee gve cttou ame.

    ChurChesand reFugee aidI Caro, churche ad Chrta NGO play a crucal role the lve o Sudaee youth by

    provdg reource ad ocal upport, whch eable youg reugee to tate ad lead programthat ecourage the peroal developmet o ther peer. Oe key reource that churche oerreugee th cotext phycal pace. Troughout the cty, church buldg ad compoudhave become prmary gatherg place or Arca reugee o multple relgou ad ethc

    backgroud. May reugee d church compoud deal or ocalzg, becaue they may aelygather wth the gate wthout payg or the veue or rag the cocer o wary Egyptaeghbor. Ote, thee buldg become atural gatherg pot becaue they alo houe m-portat ervce that ad adjutmet to le the cty ad eable reugee to ga crtcal kll oruture employmet. Tu, churche are a gcat part o daly le Caro or reugee, bothChrta ad o-Chrta alke.

    I term o o-relgou ad, there are a umber o Chrta NGO ad churche meetgreugee eed Caro, alog wth a umber o o-relgou NGO ad commuty aocato.I eekg to udertad churche role th cotext, t eceary to udertad the broadercotext o ad orgazato a a whole. Some o the larger ad better kow orgazato pro-

    vdg ad clude Arca ad Mddle Eat Reugee Atace (AMERA), Carta, Reuge Egyptat All Sat Cathedral, ad St. Adrew St. Adrew Uted Church educato program.2

    AMERA prmarly oer ree legal ervce to help aylum eeker a they deal wth theUNHCR, wherea Carta oer medcal ad ocal atace, cludg acal atace or

    2There are numerous other organizations and churches that could be listed here; I have chosen a few that werementioned frequently among the Sudanese community and serve large numbers of refugees

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    extremely vulerable pero, job placemet, a urery, ad kll trag. St. Adrew UtedChurch oer a adult educato program, a chldre educato ad breakat program, ad theArca Reugee Co-Op or teachg ad learg Arca hadcrat. Reuge Egypt at All SatCathedral hadle emergecy ood ad clothg, medcal care, kll trag, mall bue loa,a hadcrat ceter, couelg, ad a chool or reugee chldre. Furthermore, th orgazato oe o the ew NGO oerg a program that peccally cater to older teeager ad youg

    adult through prtually ocued coerece ad emar, a port program that gve reugeeacce to occer eld ad touramet, a Hp Hop muc program, ad two Eglh laguagechool.3

    All o thee major ervce provder ad Sudaee reugee regardle o ther relgou back-groud; however, the ultmate am o thee orgazato ad the pecc populato they ac-commodate may der. Eve wth the cope o Chrta ad church orgazato, approacheto reugee ervce ad the atmophere ad demographc makeup o thee program vary. Forexample, whle All Sat Cathedral oly erve Arca reugee, St. Adrew erve reugeeo other atoalte a well, cludg Iraq reugee. Although Reuge Egypt ervce are wderagg, t drect may o them, uch a ood ad clothg reource, toward adg ewer reu-gee durg ther rt two year Caro.4 O the other had, St. Adrew ocue t ervce olog term preparato or the purpoe o adg reugee uture retur to Suda.5 Neverthele,ew arrval ad loger term reugee requet both o thee locato, ad although Reuge Egyptlmt ome o ther ervce trctly to ewer reugee, other ervce rema ope to ayoe.

    I addto to derece polce ad the populato they erve, a key derece betweethee two church-baed orgazato le ther approache to mtry. Although thee orga-zato erve both Chrta ad Mulm reugee, Reuge Egypt ha a clear evageltc compo-et to may o t program.6 It , however, mportat to ote that although Reuge Egypt ervea large umber o Mulm, mot o them oly acce ervce uch a the caetera, the medcalclc, emergecy ood ad clothg upple, vocatoal trag, ad other program that doot clude a relgou teachg compoet. O the other had, the Reuge Egypt program that

    prmarly cater to the outher Sudaee reugee commuty whle amg to educate them aboutmportat ocal ue, partcularly the couelg ad youth program that hot emar, coer-ece, retreat, ad trag evet, clude a trog Chrta evageltc meage. Evet oteope ad cloe wth Chrta prae ad worhp og ad prayer, ad clude a key lecture thatgeerally ceter o the meage o alvato through Jeu Chrt or a apect o Chrta le.Furthermore, the work evromet, cludg daly devotoal ta meetg, coected deeplyto th Chrta meage ad prtual perpectve. Te Sudaee who atted thee Chrta-ocued evet geerally come rom a Chrta backgroud, ad church etwork are ued a aprmary method to adverte uch program.

    St. Adrew oer a deret model o Chrta mtry through developmet program. Ac-

    cordg to the curret drector o the Reugee Program, whom I tervewed at the church o July5, 2007, hal o the reugee utlzg church ervce are Mulm, ad ew o the reugee ervceoered at St. Adrew clude relgou tructo.6 Te drector urther emphazed that thechurch program could oly lead by example becaue o the legal repercuo o covertgrom Ilam to Chrtaty. Becaue Mulm reugee are tudet the program, commucatga meage that ecourage covero to Chrtaty llegal. Tereore, the St. Adrew pro-gram careul to repect th etve ue ad ot clude Chrta teachg a a compoeto t clae. Te drector alo dcated a peroal preerece or th orm o mtry a a way to

    3

    I am Musa: An Introduction to Cairo for Refugees (Africa and Middle East Refugee Assistance, 2007).

    4 According to a handout entitled: Emergency Policy Changes at RE: Effective as of 1st Aug. 2006, the RefugeEgypt card is valid for two years, and newcomers can only register for a card within one year of their arrival inEgypt. After two years they may still access certain programs but no longer have emergency resources.

    5Refugee Ministry in St Andrews United Church (2006), 4.6Evangelism in this context refers to activity that attempts to convey the message that salvation may only beobtained by following the Christian God through Jesus Christ. Evangelism may aim to convert non-Christians toChristianity, or to encourage nominal Christians (those who identify as Christians externally but may not have apersonal commitment to the Christian God) to commit fully to following Jesus Christ.

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    create a welcomg evromet or reugee o all ath.Clearly, dvdual orgazato vary mmeely ther am, approache, ad workg atmo-

    phere, eve wth the Chrta church commuty. All Sat Cathedral ad St. Adrew aremerely two example o churche oerg geeral ervce to reugee, ad everal other churcheoer ad o a more lmted cale. Numerou reugee ad teratoal churche alo provdeprtual teachg ad developmet through church meetg, mall group, ad Bble tude. Te

    role o churche thee more tradtoal orm, a oppoed to t related NGO or reugee adprogram, gcat the cotext o may Sudaee reugee experece Caro a well.

    the roLeoF musiC ProgramsSeveral churche ad Chrta NGO oerg developmet reource to the Arca reugee

    commuty cater to youth through muc program. Whe I aked the Sudaee youth leader oMaad Commuty Church why they thought muc wa mportat, Chol, a ger, poke abouthow he vewed muc a a catalyt or chage amog Sudaee reugee. He repoded: Peoplealway have thg to ay, ad [whe you g og], people lte ad g wth you. I Sudaeeculture, people lke muc, ad every home you d a lot o Arca muc vdeo clp, but theSudaee dot have [ther ow muc clp] o we thought th wa oe way to reach peoplehome [wth the meage].

    Chol expreed the dculty o beg heard the Sudaee commuty, ad he empha-zed the poblty o obtag people atteto ad agreemet through muc. He wet oto expla that h youth group wa workg o a album called God Good, whch theycombed Chrta lyrc ad Sudaee og, wth each og a deret trbe laguage. Tproject am to reach out to the wder Sudaee commuty wth the meage that God good[eve] ater the war. For the youth, th group alo makg a Chrta CD wth muc that wllappeal to the Sudaee tereted hp hop.7 Tu, the Maad Commuty Church youth are try-g to ue th orum to ed a potve meage about God love ad athule to a commutytrugglg uder the preure o ther crcumtace.

    Ideed, amog Sudaee youth, muc talored to ut pecc audece ha become a popularorm o evagelm. Accordg to Maad Commuty Church youth leader, the majorty o therpeer the wder Sudaee populato are ot volved church or the gag, ad mot othem preer ecular Arca muc ad hp hop. Te Sudaee reugee youth who are volved wththe gag geerally dety wth Weter rap culture ad may have choe to model themelveo o Weter rapper, mot popularly upac. Tereore, ome Chrta youth, cludg thoeat Maad Commuty Church, are ug hp hop ad rap muc to commucate evagelcal me-age to reugee who have embraced thee Weter orm.

    Evagelcal mucal expreo alo ha a trog htorcal ba wth the Sudaee Dkacommuty.8 Te rt moary o the Gordo Memoral Suda Mo, Archbald Shaw,

    recogzed the Dka people ablty to ue tradtoal og to covey prooud meage. Ih work, Shaw ot oly tralated hym to the Dka laguage, but alo upported Chrtacovert a they wrote ther ow Chrta og. Tee og evetually became amou wthChrta commute. Moreover, whe food the1960 puhed may Sudaee youth orth earch o work, Chrta club, whch the mgrat could g uch og ther atveDka laguage, became a popular way to arm ther detty a Dka a well a to arm therath.9 Although the cotemporary crcumtace o Sudaee youth are qute deret, mucreta the ame role a a vehcle or el expreo ad commucatg relgou meage.

    Te Maad Commuty Church group ue muc mlarly, a t attempt to ad Sudaeeprtual growth wth th ew Egypta cotext. Lkewe, examg other muc program

    Caro reveal how margalzed Chrta reugee youth ue reource at church baed NGO toru ther ow developmet tatve, whch are alo baed o commucatg through Chrta

    7 This meeting with Maadi Community Church youth leaders took place at a KFC restaurant in Maadi, Cairo onJanuary 15th, 2008.

    8 The Dinka comprise the largest tribe in Sudan, and many of the Sudanese refugees in Cairo come from this tribe.

    9 Marc R. Nikkel, Aspects of Contemporary Religious Change among the Dinka, Journal of Religion in Africa,22, no.3 (1992): 80.

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    rap or hp hop. Tee program, whch attract youg artt derg to hoe ther kll, vew pr-tual growth a a prmary goal ad tadard or gaugg commual developmet.

    Oe example o th type o tatve Reuge Egypt Hp Hop Muc Program. I thprogram, youth receve a room at the cathedral, peaker, mcrophoe, a keyboard, a gutar, ada oud ytem or everal hour. Te youth play varou hp hop beat through the peaker, adthey take tur rappg to the muc wth ther ow created lyrc. Oe teeager, Akech, lead

    the program ad eure that lyrc expre a pot o vew le wth the Chrta perpectve.For example, the program prohbt vulgar laguage, og gloryg volece, etc. Some o thepartcpat create og meat or the group to g together a a whole, but mot o the tmedvdual rap ther ow lyrc. Te program beet the youth pychologcally ad emotoallyby oerg them a outlet or creatve expreo, ocal teracto, ad verbalzato o traumatcexperece. It alo erve a a opportuty to develop ad practce rappg kll.

    Te rappg a key part o the hp hop program, but equally mportat the Bble teach-g that udergrd ad gude the ormato o lyrc. Each week, a Amerca pator workgprmarly wth the Sudaee commuty Caro come to the hp hop program ad reada chapter o the Bble. Durg the leo I oberved, he taught rom Gee, the rt book othe Bble, ug three to our mute log tore that ollow chroologcal order. Te patorrepeated the tory everal tme Eglh, ad a blgual youth tralated t to Arabc. Temoary the aked the group to partcpate rememberg each part order. H am tohelp buld a prtual oudato or people o oral culture, ad the program mmedate goal tocreate a oral Bble rap. Each week, he ak rapper to thk about thee arratve ad createlyrc ug them a a ba.

    Here a example o oe og lyrc, whch Akech created or the group to g together:

    Our God the Prce o Peace, or the Holy Bble ayAd the peace o God wll urpa all udertadgWll gude your heart ad md the love o Jeu Chrt

    I love you, Jeu Chrt ay, I love you, Jeu Chrt ayWhe I remember you are the kg,I wll ever retur back aga.Whe I remember you are the Lord,I wll ever retur back aga. (repeat)Kg o Kg, I love you,Lord o Lord, I love you.Kg o Kg, I love you,Lord o Lord, I love you.Dot worry or othg, ad everythg by prayer,

    Supplcato, ad thakgvg, preet all your eed to the LordRejoce the Lord alway ad I wll ay,Rejoce the Lord o Lord.Rejoce the Kg alway ad I wll ay,Rejoce the Kg o Kg.10

    T og orgate rom a crpture paage Phlppa: Rejoce the Lord alway.Aga, I wll ay, rejoce! Let your getlee be kow to all me. Te Lord at had. Be axouor othg, but everythg by prayer ad upplcato, wth thakgvg, let your requet bemade kow to God. Ad the peace o God, whch urpae all udertadg, wll guard your

    heart ad md through Chrt Jeu. Te Bblcal ature o th og demotrate how theyouth rug th program are utlzg developmet reource to ecourage Chrta prtualdevelopmet. Ultmately, uch og are meat to teach ad etablh a pecc relgou perpec-tve. Rather tha requrg a elmato o ecular goal rom the program, however, uch ta-

    10 This example of lyrics from the Hip Hop Music Program were recorded in January 2008 at a number ofFriday night meetings held at Refuge Egypt.

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    tve allow the youth to egage both prtual ad ecular am multaeouly. Te muc programeable youg reugee to develop muc kll, expre ther creatvty, verbalze ther emoto,ad releae eergy, whle t alo teache Chrta prcple. Trough th relgou kowledge, theleader o th program hope to advace the developmet o the Sudaee commuty.

    Reuge Egypt Hp Hop program oly oe example o how Sudaee belever youth Caro are ug muc a a method o evagelm ad a a way to mpact Sudaee youth lve

    wth crpture ad Chrta cocept. Aother example the Arca Uted Drama Socety(AUDS), led by a tee amed Samuel who grew up a Chrta amly ad talk o the mraclethat God perormg daly h le. Oe example Samuel gve o God mracle AUDS,whch prmarly a muc group upported by Maad Commuty Church, although they havealo created a port program. T a excerpt rom h tervew about the group:

    We jut wat to compete wth each other dog good, ot bad. T the goal o mygroup. How ca we chage people? We have to do what they lke or accept. We [real-zed] that [the Sudaee youth] lke the black Amerca muc lke 50 Cet. So we haveto take that muc ad thoe beat ad take word o ecouragemet rom the Bble adput t to the ame tue. Te rt church we were preetg wa the RedeemedChurch Maad, ad ater that umber o people who wated to jo u were crea-g. Nothg could be doe wthout 2 exe: boy ad grl. Whe we got thoe grl,they were a celebrato Vctora. Whe we preeted there we let people kowthat we eed grl our group ad ow there are 10 grl ad 15 guy. Ad ater 5 or 7moth (two moth ago) we aw that there aother way to brg people . We awthat boy lke to play ootball or baketball. So we [made] a pla ad [came] together adprayed:Lord, come to help u. It ot eay becaue the Lot Boy or Outlaw wll come ad detroy t they d out that happeg ad the ma wll kck u out. So weprayed that God would gve u a place a locato where they would ot get to u adhe gave a placeI omeoe thkg o dog bad our group they wll prevet them

    or dog bad. Oce the devl tempted guy who came to the practcg place to ght. Ichaed them away ad ad o oe wll be beat here a log a I am here. Tey came tothe church o Suday ad beat me. Tey toed me hereI tll have a car. Te theytold me orry ad I orgve them. But I told them we are to be red pleae dotcome to the practcg place ad they promed me ad to th day o oe come there.11

    We jut wat to compete wth each other dog good, ot bad. T the goal o my group.How ca we chage people? We have to do what they lke or accept. We [realzed] that [theSudaee youth] lke the black Amerca muc lke 50 Cet. So we have to take that muc adthoe beat ad take word o ecouragemet rom the Bble ad put t to the ame tue. Te rt

    church we were preetg wa the Redeemed Church Maad, ad ater that umber opeople who wated to jo u were creag. Nothg could be doe wthout 2 exe: boy adgrl. Whe we got thoe grl, they were a celebrato Vctora. Whe we preeted therewe let people kow that we eed grl our group ad ow there are 10 grl ad 15 guy. Adater 5 or 7 moth (two moth ago) we aw that there aother way to brg people . Weaw that boy lke to play ootball or baketball. So we [made] a pla ad [came] together adprayed:Lord, come to help u. It ot eay becaue the Lot Boy or Outlaw wll come addetroy t they d out that happeg ad the ma wll kck u out. So we prayed that Godwould gve u a place a locato where they would ot get to u ad he gave a placeI ome-oe thkg o dog bad our group they wll prevet them or dog bad. Oce the devl

    tempted guy who came to the practcg place to ght. I chaed them away ad ad o oe wllbe beat here a log a I am here. Tey came to the church o Suday ad beat me. Tey toedme hereI tll have a car. Te they told me orry ad I orgve them. But I told them we areto be red pleae dot come to the practcg place ad they promed me ad to th day ooe come there.

    11 This interview took place at Refuge Egypts Teenagers Conference on July 16th, 2007.

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    Accordg to Samuel, AUDS reache out to ther peer by dreg mtato o Amercarapper mlarly to the gag youth. Tey alo take popular hp hop muc ad chage the lyrcto create Chrta ad bblcally baed og. I pte o ther mtato o gag culture, Samuelhold the member o the group to trct behavoral tadard ad doe ot allow group memberto atted parte. He value practcal relace o God, whch he how through h decrptoo how he ad h group came together ad prayed or ootball ad baketball actvte to become

    poble.T group orm o evagelm clearly relate to the Hp Hop Program at Reuge Egypt adthe Maad Commuty Church youth muc program, a all o them ue adapted hp hop or rapmuc to ga the atteto o ecular youth ad fuece them wth crpture. However, there aredtct derece the am o thee mtre ad the way they ucto.

    For example, the Maad Commuty Church youth, who are creatg hp hop prae og tomter to other youth, vew themelve a Chrta belever.12 Ter prmary am to reachout to obelever who lte to ther og through lyrc that ecourage the Sudaee to re-member God goode ad athule to h prome. O the other had, the Hp Hop MucProgram ot ocued o mucal qualty or the producto ad dtrbuto o a album. Rather,t ocued o gvg all youth, both belever ad obelever, a alteratve to gag-relatedactvte; the reource to expre themelve creatvely a potve way; ad creaed prtualgrowth ad Bblcal kowledge.

    I comparo, AUDS a Chrta group that prmarly work a a replacemet or gagvolvemet. Although producg muc that covey Chrta prcple through crpture amajor part o the group, whch am to commucate Chrta dea to the lteer mlarly to theMaad Commuty Church youth program, the group prmary ocu o brgg other youthto jo them. I dreg lke gag member ad ug hp hop muc, AUDS attract youth whoare gag or who are vulerable to gag volvemet. A a ocal group, t oer a commutywhch eek to ollow Chrta moralty, uch a avodg volece, exual promcuty, etc., whlealo allowg youth to egage popular cultural tred.

    All o thee program have relatohp wth churche Caro, ether through acal up-port, the ue o church poeo, or a more ormal te. For example, the youth at Maad Com-muty Church are member o the church. Oe major mpact o churche o thee program ther phycal reource, whch eable the program to ucto. I ome cae, uch a ReugeEgypt Hp Hop Program, a adult church member, uch a the Amerca moary, ha a g-cat role the coure o the meetg. Neverthele, all three o thee program the prmaryleaderhp come rom belever youth themelve.

    T llumate a crucal role that the churche play the cotext o the lve o Chrtareugee youth Caro: churche ucto a a ource o empowermet, eablg the youth totake tatve ad erve what they beleve are the prtual, ocal, ad pychologcal eed o other

    youth. By provdg the moey, the materal, the pace, ad, whe eceary, the adult upporteeded to purue uch program, the church oer youth a opportuty to egage actvtethat ad the developmet o ther commute ad allow them to exerce leaderhp kll. More-over, thee muc program how that the meag o developmet the md o youth leader ot lmted to tradtoal terpretato, but alo clude relgou ath a a mportat com-poet o ther commuty progre.

    other ChurCh-based oPPortunitiesMuc program are oly oe way whch Chrta youth acce reource through churche

    ad Chrta NGO order to perorm evagelm ad ad the prtual developmet o other

    belever. For example, youg Sudaee reugee have created educato ad port program otoly to ad the developmet tellectual or phycal kll, but alo to creae ther opportute

    12 For the purposes of this paper I use the term believer to describe the evangelical youth, because this is theterm I heard most often within the Sudanese Christian community itself. The term draws an important distinctionbetween youth who are nominally Christian (that is, they identify as Christians from a cultural perspective butmay not follow Christian beliefs or teachings) and the youth who have a strong religious and spiritual identica-tion with Christianity, regardless of the religion they were born into.

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    or buldg relatohp wth obelever ad ubequetly harg the Chrta meage wththem. Tu, Sudaee youth ue ecular developmet goal to egage ther commuty prtually.

    Tere are alo may church-baed opportute that Chrta youth do ot place wthlarger ecular developmet tatve. Akech metoed, or example, that churche oer pr-tual coerece or ed ther youth o evet, emar, or retreat hoted by other Chrtaorgazato ad churche. Reuge Egypt oe example o a NGO that requetly hot uch

    actvte through t youth program, whch prepare aual retreat or church youth a well acoerece. Tey vte approxmately oe hudred people to ther retreat, wth everal youthrepreetg each Sudaee church. Te rt major coerece, Extreme Lvg the 21t Ce-tury aw a attedace o approxmately eve hudred youth o October 13th, 2006.

    Mot uch evet clude muc the orm o more tradtoal prae ad worhp oga well a the orm o talet perormace, whch may clude Chrta rap. Lecture aboutChrta cocept relevat to youth, uch a ex, alure, ad addcto, tetmoe about what

    Jeu Chrt ha doe deret people lve, ad reewed commtmet to ollowg God arecommo compoet o thee program. I ther tervew, a ew youth metoed oe partcularReuge Egypt coerece called Never Aga a a partcularly ucceul evet. It aely broughtyouth rom major gag a well a youth rom the churche together, a eat that typcally caothappe wthout edg volece. Akech tated about th coerece: Oe [youth] ad theNever Aga coerece wa the bet our day he had Caro; both gag ad church youthcame together ad they tood a oe group. Smlarly to the muc program metoed, uchcoerece ot oly promote buldg relatohp wth the youth commuty, but they alooer Sudaee reugee youth a weeked actvty a a alteratve to volece, crmal behavor,roamg the treet, watchg V, or partyg. Furthermore, becaue the youth coduct much othe plag, thee actvte eable ome o them to take o leaderhp role Tey alo provde aoutlet or el-expreo through drama ad muc perormace, a well a a place or the dcu-o o mportat prtual ad ocal ue.

    O coure, Chrta orgazato ad churche oer other opportute or youth a well. I

    am mot amlar wth Reuge Egypt Youth Program, whch alo provde acce to occer eld ve area o Caro ad two Eglh laguage chool. Addtoally, the Youth Program devel-oped a model or a mall group program called Brother 2 Brother, whoe am to provde a up-portve alteratve commuty that wll help youth ucceully leave the gag, but Reuge Egyptha ot yet mplemeted the program.

    ConCLusion: sudanese Youthinthe gLobaL ContextIt clear that, although Sudaee youth ace umerou dculte Caro o a daly ba,

    churche ad Chrta NGO play a powerul role the youth experece through ther prov-o o a ae ocalzg pace, moey, reource, ad other orm o upport, cludg Chrta

    leader or teachg ad the edoremet o evet. I tur, Chrta youth utlze church re-ource to promote prtual growth ad evagelze ther peer. Ug thee tool, they have takeo leaderhp role ad have created program ad actvte that beet other Sudaee youthocally, pychologcally, ad, mot mportatly the md o belever youth, prtually.

    I the tudy o developmet Arca, oe mut ot gore the powerul terecto o rel-go ad NGO oerg developmet reource the lve o reugee youth. I Caro, relgouttuto are ote the prmary ource o uch program, ad Chrta youth take advatageo the opportute they have through thee orgazato to expad the meag o develop-met. I uch cae, relgou youth dee developmet prmarly prtually, whle educato,phycal health, kll trag, ad other tradtoal dcator o commual advacemet ad

    growth become ecodary.Chrtaty play a broader role ocally ad pychologcally amog other youg Arca reu-gee populato a well, uch a the Burud reugee commuty azaa. I act, the artcleYoug, Male, ad Petecotal: Urba Reugee Dar e Salaam, azaa, Marc Sommerdecrbe Petecotal teachg a a path to quet ucce or reugee, ad ote the mportaceo peroal ath ad Chrta ocal etwork or the moblty o Petecotal youth. Moreover, hetate, udertadg ad recogzg the dyamc role o reugee ad other aleated, moble ur-

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    ba youth a catalyt or traormato a eetal tep the developmet o peaceul, cvl,ad truly cluve potwar Arca ocete.18 My reearch, whch ha explored the dyamc roleo Sudaee belever youth who are catalyt or traormato ther ow cotext, very muchupport th tatemet.

    I Caro, Arca youth are actvely chagg ther commute through ther egagemetwth developmet reource ad ath-baed etwork; however, the depth o the mpact o

    relgou dyamc o the greater Sudaee commuty yet ukow. May reugee belevethat Caro a place o commual ad dvdual chage, healg, ad growth, ad, or belevgChrta, relgo the cetral le through whch they perceve th. A creag umber oreugee coder returg to Suda, Caro latg legacy rema to be ee.

    work Cited

    I am Mua: A Itroducto to Caro or Reugee. Arca ad Mddle Eat ReugeeAtace, 2007.

    Mller, Norm. Pator, Chrta Rapper Reach Culture. Baptt Pre, Aprl 11, 2008,http://www.bpew.et/bpew.ap?ID=27819.

    Nkkel, Marc R. Apect o Cotemporary Relgou Chage amog the Dka. Joural oRelgo Arca 22, o.3 (1992): 78-84.

    Pardue, Derek. Hp Hop a Pedagogy: a Look to Heave ad Soul Sao Paulo, BrazlAthropologcal Quarterly (2007): 673-709.

    Reugee Mtry. I St Adrew Uted Church, 2006.

    Sommer, Marc. Youg, Male, ad Petecotal: Urba Reugee Dar e Salaam, azaa.Joural o Reugee Stude 14, o. 4 (2001): 347-367.

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    abstraCtAlthough South Arican women participated in the overthrow o the Apartheid regime, they seldom

    shared the same privileges as their male counterparts. Establishing the nations new constitution createda unique situation which guaranteed women rights. However, women still experience adverse afects odiscrimination on multiple levels due to high rates o unemployment, HIV/AIDS and poverty. Tisresearch seeks to better understand the current ability o grassroots women in challenging social injus-tices and inequalities in one rural community. Forty-one socially active rural women were interviewed,all o whom were members o Rural Womens Movement (RWM) and lived in the remote village oamaHlubi in the province o KwaZulu Natal. Te members lived experiences are analyzed emphasiz-ing two main points: (1) specic aspects o RWM womens experiences including a) education and un-employment, b) HIV/AIDS and HIV/AIDS orphans, and c) gender inequality; and (2) the efectso RWM on womens lives since joining the organization. Trough interview analysis, it is understood

    that RWM members are negatively impacted by decreased access to education and employment;they sufer rom high rates o HIV/AIDS, play a large role in the care o HIV/AIDS orphans, andexperience adverse efects o gender inequality. Teir membership with RWM, however, has positivelyafected their lives and others within the community, by providing them leadership roles in activism.

    introduCtionAlthough South Arca wome partcpated the overthrow o the Aparthed regme, they

    eldom hared the ame prvlege a ther male couterpart. Wome actvt ought or a role the mot promet (male domated) at-Aparthed orgazato, the Arca NatoalCogre (ANC). Eve though wome were actve every apect o revoluto, ther preecewa mot vble the emale-led At-Pa Law Movemet o the 1950. Ater a log adtreuou revoluto, South Arca etablhed a ew cottuto 1994 whch guarateedrght to all people, cludg wome. But the progreve chage uder the ew ANC-ledgovermet had lttle beet or poor wome, reultg equalte apparet today. SouthArca ha a clear teo betwee the oto o equal ctzehp ad the act that realty ct-zehp baed o power whch exerced through ocal, ecoomc, ad poltcal tructurethat perpetuate the excluo o member o certa group.1 For tace, wome tll exper-ece advere aect o dcrmato o multple level due to hgh rate o uemploymet,HIV/AIDS ad poverty uder South Arca ew democracy. Actvt have expoed the aleuveralm o ctzehp ad cotue to make ther rght a wome a realty.2

    oday, there are over 60 wome orgazato South Arca that eek to addre the

    year o dcrmato that Arca3 people have uered the publc ad prvate phere. Tepeople eed that wome addre are a repoe to the mot vble coequece o ocal

    1 Cheryl McEwan, Engendering Citizenship: Gendered Spaces of Democracy in South Africa, Political Geog-raphy 19 (2000): 627-657.

    2 Ibid., 639.

    3 In this paper I use the terms African and black interchangeably to refer to people of African descent withinSouth Africa.

    give womenthe Powerto

    FaCeand strategize about tomorrowExamining the Experiences o South Arican Women

    in Rural Womens Movement

    Ramya NaraharisettiMichigan State University

    Interdisciplinary Studies in Social Science: Health Studies

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    A llutrato o wome htorcal role larger at-Aparthed movemet the emale-led At-Pa Law Movemet, whch made great trde 1955 ater pa law were exteded towome. Te leglato, whch wa cooldated the Natve (Urba Area) Act, etrechedurba egregato ad cotrolled Arca moblty by mea o pa law. Pa law actoedcheap labor by derachg black Arca rom wage bargag ad houg them everely uder reourced area. Pae were the vehcle through whch the Aparthed gover-

    met ad buee S.A. mapulated the labor ad movemet o Arca people.11

    Kmblead Ulterhalter (1982) expla that wome clearly elt ahead o ther me the truggle.12 TeFederato o South Arca Wome (FSAW) oberved that wome awated wth patecethe actve etry o me to the at-pa campag.13 Durg the 1950, wome came togetherto ght agat the heret exm wth the at-Aparthed movemet, uch a de theANC. Lla Ngoy, Hele Joeph, Alberta Sulu, Sopha Wllam-De Bruy were amogmay other wome who created the FSAW. Ater the creato o the ANC wome league,wome orgazed a ma demotrato aga the pa law. I 1956, 20,000 wome marchedto the oce o the Prme Mter J.G. Strjdom wth a petto agat the troducto o ewpa law ad the Group Area Act No. 41 o 1950, whch allowed the removal o black peoplerom whte area ad eorced deret redetal area or deret race. Durg the marchwome chated a Arca proverb, whch tralate, You trke a woma, you trke a rock.Te petto wa evetually accepted by the PM ecretary.

    However, the pave movemet o the 1950 by both me ad wome were largely goredby the Aparthed govermet. Evetually volece rom the Aparthed regme erupted agatthe protet agat pa law the Sharpevlle Maacre o 1960. Pa law were ally re-pealed 1986. Te tregth ad relece o wome actvt durg th perod captured bythe phrae, Strke u ad you wll be cruhed, whch tll ued today upport o womemovemet.14

    Ater the all o the Aparthed regme 1994, Arca wome ought to etablh ther rght ther ow commute a South Arca ctze that had edured both ract ad ext

    oppreo. Wome actvt played a urprgly mportat role the egotato, the elec-to, ad the degg o the tate.15 Troughout South Arca, wome emerged yet aga a apowerul orce commuty level poltcal ue that tfed ther commuty growth.16 SouthArca ew Cottuto pvotal to the work o may wome orgazato. For the rttme, they were guarateed rght ad due proce a ctze regardle o geder or race.

    Te legal rght ad retructurg o the tate that wome ought or are o real gcace,but cultural barrer ad localzed patrarche have remaed largely utouched by the poltcalchage that have wept South Arca.17 A McEwa expla:

    Te rut o democracy have ot bee exteded to the majorty o wome who

    are black, poor, ubjected to prvate patrarche ad vulerable to volece. How-ever, t perhap ot to the tate, govermet polcy or ttutoal chagethat oe hould look or uture poblte o traormg prvate patrarche,but to thoe everyday retace home, commute ad eghborhood.18

    11 Kumba, M. Youve Struck a Rock: Comparing Gender, Social Movements, and Transformation in the UnitedStates and South Africa Gender and Society 16 (2002): 504-523.

    12 Kimble, J. and E. Unterhalter, We opened the road for you, you must go forward: ANC womens struggles,1912-1982. Feminist Review 12 (1982): 27.

    13

    Ibid.14 Tripp, A., I. Casimiro, J. Kwesiga and A. Mungwa, African womens movements: changing political land-scapes (London: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

    15 Seidman, G. Gendered Citizenship: South Africas Democratic Transition and the Construction of a Gen-dered State, Gender and Society 13, no.3 (1999): 287-307.

    16 Hassim, Shireen. Womens organizations and democracy in South Africa. Wisconsin: The University ofWisconsin Press, 2006.

    17 McEwan, 2000: 643.

    18 Ibid.

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    Ewa mea that more wome hould occupy the mddle ad upper echelo o tatetructure ad popular orgazato--but more mportatly that wome movemet aloeed to brdge the gap betwee the two.19 A emt elewhere have demotrated, homead commute are the place where cotetato over rght may be more eectve thatate polce.20 I the ollowg ecto, th paper wll exame how lke other prevou SouthArca wome movemet, the orgazato Rural Wome Movemet cotue to promote

    egaltaram South Arca by ocug o wome ad provdg ervce the commutyo amaHlub.

    Current ChaLLengeswithinamahLubiTe vllage amaHlub the provce o KwaZulu Natal, whch ha the hghet HIV/

    AIDS prevalece rate (16.5%) o all provce South Arca. Wome betwee the age25 ad 29 year old are almot 3 tme a lkely to be ected a me o the ame age, wthprevalece rate o 33.3% ad 12.1% repectvely. I addto, there were more tha 2,531,810orpha (14.2% o chldre betwee the age o 2-18) South Arca a o 2005. Te hghetrate o orphahood were rural ormal ector throughout the coutry. Furthermore, thehghet rate (19.8%) o orphahood were the provce o KwaZulu Natal.21, 22

    AmaHlub located 80 klometer outde o the cty o Petermartzburg, ad the trbethere oe o the larget KwaZulu Natal wth a populato o 20,000 people.23 Te lack oreource mmee the amaHlub commuty. May o the houe are olated, ad the lad barre. Tere lttle lad to cultvate the amaHlub area, epecally becaue o the lacko water. Tere a gle well, whch wome mut walk up to eve mle each day to etchwater.24 Tere alo oly oe medcal clc, ad vllager, uually wome, mut walk ve to xmle to take ther chldre or healthcare. I the people the vllage are ot ated wth theclc ervce, they mut travel to Petermartzburg. Te oly mode o traportato othertha peroal car a tax cab, whch eldom come de o the commuty ule requeted.For educatoal opportute, AmaHlub ha oly two elemetary chool ad oe hgh chool

    the area. Tere alo oe proeoal chool ear amaHlub where tudet ca purueeducato pat the 12th grade, but there are ew opto at th chool other tha blue-collaremploymet trag. I commuty member wat to purue hgher educato, they mut travelto Petermartzburg or Durba. Te locato o th olated rural area, however, doe ot allowcommuty member to ealy commute to ther place o employmet or college.

    Commuty percepto ugget that there a hgh degree o crme, rape, ad uemploy-met amaHlub compared to average or South Arca a a whole. Tee percepto, com-bed wth the lmted acce to reource, llutrate the eed that RWM ha amed to addrece t creato. RWM had awered to thee eed drectly ad drectly by matagteratoal upport, empowerg wome ad creatg aveue or leaderhp ad employmet.

    ruraL womens movement: a suPPort sYsteminamahLubiI 1998, Sza Ngubae ouded the etworkg orgazato, the Rural Wome Move-

    met (RWM) the large vllage o amaHlub.25 It ca be deed a a depedet move-met characterzed by depedet acto, where wome orgaze o the ba o el-actvty,et ther ow goal, ad decde ther ow orm o orgazato ad truggle.26 RWM help tobetter the lve o both me ad wome rural area ad orce South Arca to exame the

    19 Marais, H. South Africa, limits to change: the political economy of transition (London: Zed, 1998).

    20 McEwen, 2000: 641.

    21 Statistics South Africa, 2007.

    22 RWM serves locations throughout KwaZulu Natal, but this paper specically focuses on a branch of RWM inthe village of amaHlubi.

    23 This number is a very rough estimation of amaHlubis population. Due to the lack of census reports for spe-cic rural communities, it is difcult to get a population number for the amaHlubi village alone.

    24 Personal Communication, May 2007.

    25 AmaHlubi is closest to the established town of Escourt in the province of KwaZulu Natal.

    26 Molyneux, 1998: 226.

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    polce ad tructure that allow uch jutce. RWM peccally eek to prove that uveraljutce are gedered ad that a geder-oreted ocal work orgazato ha the potetalto erve the eed o the etre commuty. By upplyg the eceary tool to t member,RWM empower wome to ace the ue that aect them the mot by addreg geeral com-muty eed, wome rght ad uemploymet.

    Whe the orgazato tarted, the degree o rejecto rom the commuty wa vat becaue

    me dd ot allow ther wve to atted RWM mothly meetg. Ngubae ha memoreo me throwg rock at the ceter to demotrate ther oppoto to RWM, becaue t wathe rt wome orgazato ther commuty.27 A oe woma explaed, people thecommuty have ce reacted potvely becaue th orgazato gog to chage the lve owome ad the commuty, they kow that they are gog to ga more wth RWM.28

    Due to the expave ze o amaHlub, RWM et up two commuty ceter o both deo the vllage. Te two commuty ceter ad the area aroud them wll be reerred to aamaHlub Commuty Oe ad amaHlub Commuty wo.29 Te commuty ceter erve aa meetg place or RWM member ad a a commuty hall or all vllage member. Tey arethe te or mothly meetg ad a ood program or HIV/AIDS orpha..

    Mothly meetg are the te o mot o RWM actvm. Te tme ad volutary labor omember crtcal to RWM. Approxmately 100 a hudred wome atted the geeral mothlymeetg at each te. Other meetg ad workhop are coducted whe the eed are. Tereare te admtrator who ru the meetg ad tak member who accomplh pecc goalbetwee meetg. Tee meetg erve to rae awaree about crtcal ue the commu-ty, uch a the obtructo o partcular wome or chldre rght ad pla to mprove thelvg codto o member eed. For example, whe wome are ghtg or ther lad rghtater ther hubad have paed, they eek upport rom RWM member the orm o kowl-edge, ud ad emotoal upport. Meetg alo allow or coalto aroud log-term goaluch a educatg each other o cottutoal rght regard to geder relato, lad rghtad HIV/AIDS. For example, RWM tralated the etre South Arca cottuto to -

    Zulu becaue may wome the commuty dd ot read Eglh. Geder-ocued workhopalo have bee etablhed to empower wome o ue uch a HIV/AIDS, dometc volece,geder role ad patrarchy.

    Te ervce RWM provde to the commuty o amaHlub appear to be a vat a tmemberhp o wome ad etworked orgazato. RWM erve a the ole ocal workagecy or the amaHlub commuty. RWM upport educato or orphaed chldre byupplyg ood, chool ee, ad chool uorm. It alo gve legal atace regard to ladrght, commual meetg to allow wome to etwork, acce to kowledge uch a a tralatedvero o the South Arca Cottuto. It urther promote come geerato throughthe provo o book, computer trag or wome, job kll mprovemet through RWM

    admtratve work, ad atace come geeratg actvte. A commuty advocate,member o RWM upport amle ad chldre eed multple way. RWM wome cookmeal or chldre made vulerable by poverty ad HIV/AIDS whe ud are avalable. Teyalo provde chool uorm, clothe ad blaket to amle that caot aord to buy them.T become epecally mportat the wter, whe the dry cold eao create a harh lvgevromet. Tere a trog ee o amly amogt the member. Tey upport ad ecour-age each other daly. More tha aythg, the member buld a ee o commuty the vllage,allowg or mutual upport ad ecouragemet betwee people.

    RWM alo ha prortzed brgg techology ad commucato to amaHlub ordermake wome more employable. RWM ha mplemeted Iormato ad Commucato

    echology (IC) trag. Te doato o x reurbhed computer to the amaHlubcommuty ceter rom a local cell phoe compay, called MN, ha brought teret to thecommuty or the rt tme. Tee computer are avalable or the commute ue at a rate o

    27 Personal Communication, May 2007.

    28 Individual Interview 2e, May 2007.

    29 This is a distinction that is made by the people of amaHlubi themselves.

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    10 rada hour.30 I addto, a doated phoe booth rom MN, houed amaHlub Com-muty Oe a come geeratg aclty o RWM whle provdg a cheaper alteratve toexpeve cell phoe uage or commuty member.

    Although ace are a cotat cocer or RWM, the orgazato alway maage toecure eceary ud by covcg ellow group that ther ramework promg adlberatg to wome rural area. RWM ha receved acal ad rom orgazato uch

    a Dougherty Foudato, Global Fud or Wome, Mama Cah, Ope Network Group,ad the Frelght Foudato. May o thee orgazato provde grat or pecc projectad workhop. Whle thee group upport beecal, t alo mea that RWM doe otreceve cotet udg. Te South Arca govermet provde meager compeato orNgubae, the mot actve member ad oudg drector. Outde o Ngubae, o other mem-ber o RWM pad, o the orgazato mut be powered through the work o voluteer.

    o better udertad the mpact o RWM o wome actual experece amHlub, overorty member o RWM were tervewed. Te reearch methodology o th project ex-plaed the ext ecto.

    methodoLogYoF researChT reearch project wa coducted by two udergraduate tudet ( Je Flood ad I) rom

    Mchga State Uverty, oe alumu (Rachel Frak) ad oe aculty member (Dr. JeaeGazel). Te reearch wa ot uded by a partcular orgazato. Itead, t wa a collectveeort betwee the tudet.

    We coducted qualtatve eld tervew amaHlub Commuty Oe. Due to themlarte31 betwee the two commute, amaHlub Commuty Oe wa choe radomly,whch wa where we tervewed. Te peroal tervew ad ocu group qure deted 1)wome demographc, 2) ther lved experece ad to evaluate 3) RWM role ther lve.Te ocu group queto were detcal to the peroal tervew queto o the womewere able to urther dcu ther awer a group dcuo ormat acltated by the reearch

    team.Itervew were doe uder a commuty-baed acto reearch ramework that allowed our

    reearch team to develop a hoet dalogue wth the tervewee. Stger expla that actoreearch eek to chage the ocal ad peroal dyamc o the reearch tuato o that t o-compettve ad o-explotve ad ehace the lve o all o thoe who partcpate.32T orm o reearch allow the commuty to develop ther ow aaly o ther ocal adecoomc evromet ad the role o RWM ther commuty.

    Over two day, orty-oe wome partcpated ether tervew or ocu group, wthome partcpatg both. Tere were e dvdual tervew cotg o wome betwee24 ad 56 year o age. A large umber o the tervewed wome cotetly atteded the

    mothly meetg RWM amaHlub Commuty Oe. Focu Group A: cluded 15 womebetwee the age o 21 ad 37. Focu Group B: cluded 25 wome rom 41 to 67 yearold. Te youger wome were able to peak Eglh more fuetly ad thu placed