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Agricultural Water Management, 23 (1993) 23-39 23 © 1993 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All fights reserved. 0378-3774/93/$06.00 Determination of infiltration characteristics by volume balance for border check irrigation lain H. Hume NSW Agriculture, Deniliquin, NSW, Australia (Accepted 20 November 1992) ABSTRACT Hume, I.H., 1993. Determination of infiltration characteristics by volume balance for border check irrigation. Agric. W ater Manage., 23: 23-39. The infiltration characteristics of a cracking clay soil were predicted by a regression approach to the volum e balance technique utilising automatic data gathering techniques. The study was conducted at Deniliquin, N.S.W. on a clay loam soil during the irrigation of millet and triticale and the pre-irriga- tion for a wheat crop. The analysis technique developed enables the fitting of any form of infiltration function by least squares regression. The param eters of three com mon infiltration equations could be predicted accu- rately from measured field data, and the best fitting equation identified, however, the parameters of the fitted equations were extremely sensitive to errors in measuring field data (inflow and surface storage). Accurately rated hydraulic water control structures are the preferred method of collecting inflow data, although syphons are suitable if entry and exit conditions can be controlled. In this case, large variations were measured in the rate of discharge of syphons operating under identical head condi- tions. The average depth of water flowing over an irrigation border was related to the water depth measured at the head of the border, the rate of inflow to the border and the slope of the border. This model of surface storage can be improved by the inclusion of further parameters (e.g. biomass den- sity) not measured in this experiment. Measurement of depth of flow at various points within an irrigation border should be made to determine with confidence the average depth of flow and surface storage of irrigation water. The volume balance technique assumes that water infiltrates only into the soil which is covered by the advancing irrigation water. This assum ption holds for soils in the "fully irrigated" state where soil moisture levels are high enough to prevent extensive cracks, it is invalid in dry soils where extensive shrinkage cracks develop. Under these co nditions the form of the infiltration characteristic is wrongly predicted leading to an overestimate in the amount of infiltration. Rates of irrigation advance approached a linear form and the rate of advance was more strongly influenced by inflow rates than by border slope or the stage of crop growth. Further experimental work with accurately measured rates of inflow is needed to define better the relationships between inflow rate and rate of advance. Correspondence to: I.H. Hume, NSW Agriculture, P.O. Box 736, Deniliquin, NSW 2710, Australia.

Volume Balance Infiltration

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Agricu ltura l Wa ter M anage me nt , 2 3 ( 1 9 9 3 ) 2 3 - 3 9 2 3

© 1 99 3 E l s e v ie r S c i e n c e P u b l i s h e r s B .V . A l l f i gh t s r e s e rv e d . 0 3 7 8 - 3 7 7 4 / 9 3 / $ 0 6 . 0 0

D eter m ina t ion o f in f il t ra tion character is ti cs byvo lum e b a lance for border check irr iga tion

l a i n H . H u m e

N S W Agriculture, Deniliquin, NS W , Australia

( A c c e p t e d 2 0 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 2 )

A B S T R A C T

H u m e , I . H . , 1 9 93 . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n f i l tr a t i o n c h a r a c te r i s ti c s b y v o l u m e b a la n c e f o r b o r d e r c h e c k

i r r ig a t io n . Agric. W ater Manage., 2 3 : 2 3 - 3 9 .

T h e i n f i l t ra t i o n c h a r a c t e r i st i c s o f a c r a c k i n g c l a y s o il w e r e p r e d i c t e d b y a r e g r e s s io n a p p r o a c h t o t h e

v o l u m e b a l a n c e t e c h n i q u e u t i l i s i n g a u t o m a t i c d a t a g a t h e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d a t

D e n i l i q u i n , N . S . W . o n a c l a y l o a m s o i l d u r i n g t h e i r r i g a t i o n o f m i l l e t a n d t r i t i c a l e a n d t h e p r e - ir r ig a -

t i o n f o r a w h e a t c r o p .T h e a n a l y s is t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p e d e n a b l e s t h e f i t t in g o f a n y f o r m o f i n f i l tr a t i o n f u n c t i o n b y l e a s t

s q u a r e s r e g re s s io n . T h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h r e e c o m m o n i n f i l t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n s c o u l d b e p r e d i c t e d a c c u -

r a t el y f r o m m e a s u r e d f i e l d d a t a , a n d t h e b e s t f i tt i n g e q u a t i o n i d e n t i f i e d , h o w e v e r , t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f

t h e f i t t e d e q u a t i o n s w e r e e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e t o e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g f i e l d d a t a ( i n f l o w a n d s u r f a c e

s t o r a g e ) .

A c c u r a t e l y r a te d h y d r a u l i c w a t e r c o n t r o l s t r u c t u re s a r e t h e p r e f e r r e d m e t h o d o f c o l le c t i n g i n f l o w

d a t a , a l t h o u g h s y p h o n s a r e s u i t a b le i f e n t r y a n d e x i t c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d . I n t h i s c a s e , la r g e

v a r i a t i o n s w e r e m e a s u r e d i n t h e r a t e o f d i s c h a r ge o f s y p h o n s o p e r a t i n g u n d e r i d e n t i c a l h e a d c o n d i -

t i o ns . T h e a v e r a g e d e p t h o f w a t e r f lo w i n g o v e r a n i r r i g a t i o n b o r d e r w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e w a t e r d e p t h

m e a s u r e d a t t h e h e a d o f t h e b o r d e r , t h e r a t e o f i n f l o w t o t h e b o r d e r a n d t h e s l o p e o f th e b o r d e r . T h i s

m o d e l o f s ur f a c e s to r a g e c a n b e i m p r o v e d b y t h e i n c l u s i o n o f f u r t h e r p a r a m e t e r s ( e .g . b i o m a s s d e n -

s i t y ) n o t m e a s u r e d i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t . M e a s u r e m e n t o f d e p t h o f f l o w a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s w i t h i n a ni r r ig a t i o n b o r d e r s h o u l d b e m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h c o n f i d e n c e t h e a v e ra g e d e p t h o f f lo w a n d s u r f a ce

s t o ra g e o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r.

T h e v o l u m e b a l a n c e t e c h n i q u e a s s u m e s t h a t w a t e r i n f i lt r a t e s o n l y i n t o t h e s o il w h i c h i s c o v e r e d b y

t h e a d v a n c i n g i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n h o l d s f o r s o i ls i n t h e " f u l l y i r r i g a t e d " s t a t e w h e r e s o i l

m o i s t u r e l e v e l s a r e h i g h e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t e x t e n s i v e cr a ck s , i t i s i n v a l i d i n d r y s o i ls w h e r e e x t e n s i v e

s h r in k a g e c r a c k s d e v e l o p . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e f o r m o f t h e i n f i l t r a t io n c h a r a c t e r i s t ic i s w r o n g l y

p r e d i c t e d l e a d i n g t o a n o v e r e s t i m a t e i n th e a m o u n t o f i n f i lt r a t io n .

R a t e s o f i rr i g a t i o n a d v a n c e a p p r o a c h e d a l i n e a r f o r m a n d t h e r a t e o f a d v a n c e w a s m o r e s t r o n gl y

i n f l u e n c e d b y i n f l o w r a t e s t h a n b y b o r d e r s l o p e o r t h e s t a ge o f c ro p g r o w t h . F u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l

w o r k w i t h a c c u r a t e l y m e a s u r e d r a t e s o f in f l o w i s n e e d e d t o d e f i n e b e t t e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n

i n f l o w r a t e a n d r a t e o f a d v a n c e .

Correspondence to: I . H . H u m e , N S W A g r i c u l t u r e , P . O . B o x 7 3 6 , D e n i l i q u i n , N S W 2 7 1 0 ,

A u s t r a l i a .

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24 I.H. HUME

I N T R O D U C T I O N

T o e f f e c ti v e l y d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t e s u r f a c e ir r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n

b e h a v i o u r o f t h e s o i l m u s t b e a c c u r a t e ly q u a n t i fi e d . I n f i l t ra t i o n b e h a v i o u r iss u b j e c t t o b o t h t e m p o r a l a n d s p a t i a l v a r ia b i l it y . S o i l t e x t u r e h a s a m a j o r in f l u -

e n c e o n t h e f o r m o f t h e i n f i l t ra t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t ic a n d s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n i n te x -

t u r e c a n b e l ar ge . T h e a m o u n t a n d r a t e o f i n f il t ra t i o n h a s b e e n s h o w n t o v a r y

w i t h a n t e c e d e n t s o il m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t p r i o r t o ir r i g a t io n ( T i s d a l l, 1 9 5 0 ) , a

p a r a m e t e r s u b j e c t t o t e m p o r a l v a r i a t io n . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a s oi l's i nf il -

t r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b y t r a d i t i o n a l p o i n t m e a s u r e m e n t s ( r i n g i n f i l t r o m e -

t e r s ) t o a c c o u n t f or t h e s e v a r i a ti o n s i s l a b o r io u s a n d t i m e c o n s u m i n g , a n d i n

c r a c k i n g c l a y s o il s p r e f e r e n t i a l f l o w w i t h i n c r a c k s c a n c a u s e a n o v e r e s t i m a t e

o f i n fi lt r a ti o n . T o o v e r c o m e t h e s e p r o b l e m s , e n g i n e e r i n g r e s e a rc h h a s f o c u s e do n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f i n f i lt r a t i o n o v e r l a rg e a r e a s to o b t a i n a s p a t i a ll y i n te -

g r a t e d m e a s u r e o f i n f 'd t r a ti o n . M o s t c o m m o n l y th e s e a n a l y se s i n v o lv e t h e c o l-

l e c t io n o f d a t a d u r i n g a n i r ri g a t io n e v e n t . D a t a c o l le c t e d i n t h is w a y , w h i l e

l es s d e s ir a b le t h a n f ir st h a n d k n o w l e d g e o f in f i lt r a ti o n , m a y i m p r o v e t h e e a se

w i t h w h i c h i n f il t ra t i o n c a n b e p r e d i c t e d a n d i n d i c a t e w h e r e c h a n g e s i n i r ri -

g a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t c a n i n c r ea s e i r r ig a t i o n e f fi c ie n c y .

T h r e e c a t e g o ri e s o f h y d r a u l i c m o d e l h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d i n o r d e r t o c h a r a c -

t e ri s e i n fi l tr a t io n f r o m i r ri g a t io n e v e n t d a t a ; v o l u m e b a l a n c e , k i n e m a t i c w a v e

( W a l k e r a n d H u m p h r e y s , 1 98 5 ) a n d z e r o i n e r t ia ( S t r e lk o f f a n d K a t a p o d e s ,1 9 7 7 ; R a y e j a n d W a l l e n d e r , 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s a r e a l l b a s e d o n t h e

p r i n c i p le o f m a s s b a l a n c e b u t d i ff e r in t h e w a y e n e rg y o r m o m e n t u m i s c o n -

s e r v e d . V o l u m e b a l a n c e m e t h o d s a r e t h e s i m p l e s t a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e m o s t

w i d e l y u s e d . T h e v o l u m e b a l a n c e m o d e l r e l ie s o n t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f m a s s o r

v o l u m e ; d u r i n g t h e a d v a n c e p h a s e o f i rr i g a ti o n t h e s u m o f s u rf a c e st o ra g e a n d

i n f d t r a t e d v o l u m e s m u s t e q u a l t h e i n f lo w v o l u m e . I f t h e r e c e s s io n p h a s e i s

a ls o i n c l u d e d th e t a i l w a t e r d r a i n a g e v o l u m e m u s t a l s o b e i n c lu d e d .

T h e v o l u m e b a l a n c e c a n b e e x p r e ss e d s im p l y as :

Q = I - S ( 1 )

w h e r e Q i s t h e v o l u m e o f i n fl o w p e r u n i t w i d t h o f b o r d e r ( m 3 / m ) ; I i s t h e

v o l u m e o f i n fi lt ra t io n p e r u n i t w i d t h o f b o r d e r ( m 3 / m ) ; a n d S is t h e v o l u m e

o f su r fa c e s to r a ge p e r u n i t w i d t h o f b o r d e r ( m 3 / m ) .T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r v o l u m e b a l a n c e r e l a t io n s h i p s . T h e f ir st

i n d i r e c t m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s w h i c h , f r o m k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s o il 's i n fi lt ra -

t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s a ll o w t h e o p t i m i s a t i o n o f i rr i g a t i o n d e s i g n b y a l t e r a t i o n

t o t h e b o r d e r w i d t h o r s lo p e o r r a t e o f i n f l o w w h e n t h e s o i l 's i n f i l tr a t i o n c h a r -

a c t er is ti c s a re k n o w n . T h e s e c o n d i s t h e a p p l i c a t io n o f in v e r s e m a t h e m a t i c a l

m o d e l s t o e s t i m a t e s o il in f i l tr a t i o n c h a r a c t e ri s ti c s f r o m k n o w n i n f lo w a n d a d -v a n c e d a t a .

M a n y v o l u m e b a l a n c e a p p r o a c h e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d e a ch w i t h d i f fe r e n t

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VOLUMEBALANCEFOR BORDERCHECK RRIGATION 2 5

a s s u m p t i o n s a n d d a t a r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e s e m o d e l s c a n b e c a te g o r i se d b y t h e

w a y i n w h i c h s u r f a c e s t o r a g e i s d e t e r m i n e d . S u r f a c e s t o r a g e m a y b e d e t e r -

m i n e d e i t h e r f r o m e a si ly m e a s u r e d p a r a m e t e r s ( C h r i s t ia n s e n e t al., 1 96 6; R e -d e l l , 1 98 1 ; B u r t e t al ., 1 9 8 2 ; E l l i o t t a n d W a l k e r , 1 9 8 2 ) o r f ro m i n t e n s i v e m e a -s u r e m e n t a t m a n y p o i n t s w i t h i n th e t es t b o r d e r ( F i n k l e a n d N i r , 1 96 0;C l e m m e n s , 1 98 2 ) . T h e i n v e r s e m o d e l ha s b e e n s o l v e d b y g r a p h ic a l ( F i n k l ea n d N i r , 1 9 6 0 ) , n u m e r i c a l ( E l l io t t a n d W a lk e r, 1 9 8 2 ) a n d o p t i m i s a t i o n a p -

p r o a c h e s ( M a h e s h w a r i e t a l., 1 9 88 ) .T h i s s t u d y a i m e d t o i d e n t i fy t h e m i n i m u m d a t a s e t n e e d e d to p r e d i c t in f il -

t r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r is t ic s f r o m i r r i g a t io n d a t a ; d e v i s e p r a c ti c a l f i e ld te c h n i q u e sf o r d a t a c o l l e c ti o n ; d e v e l o p a s i m p l e r e g r e s s io n b a s e d a p p r o a c h t o t h e s o lu -t i o n o f t h e v o l u m e b a la n c e e q u a t i o n a n d a p p l y th e t e c h n i q u e o n a f i e ld s ca le .

METHODS

A f i e l d e x p e r i m e n t w a s e s ta b l is h e d a t D e n i l i q u i n R e s e a r c h a n d A d v i s o r yS t a t io n , N . S . W . o n a r e d b r o w n e a r t h t y p i c a l o f t h e c r o p p i n g s of ts o f t h e M u r -r a y V a l le y i r r i g a t io n d i s t r ic t s , c l a s s if i e d a s B i r g a n b i d g i l C l a y L o a m ( S m i t h ,1 94 5 ) . A s h a l lo w ( 0 - 1 0 e r a ) c l ay lo a m A h o r i z o n o v e r l a i d a m e d i u m c l a y Bh o r i z o n w h i c h e x t e n d e d t o 5 0 - 5 5 c m , a s a n d y c l ay C h o r i z o n e x t e n d e d t od e p t h . D u r i n g F e b r u a r y 1 98 8 , a n 8 h a p a d d o c k w a s l a n d f o r m e d a n d s e t o u t

w i t h t e n 3 0 × 2 4 0 m i r r i g a t i o n b o rd e r s . T h e r e w e re f i v e d i f f e r e n t s u r fa c e s l o p e s( 1 : 1 7 0 0 , 1 : 1 4 0 0 , 1 : 1 2 5 0 , 1 : 1 0 0 0 a n d 1 : 7 5 0 ) e a c h r e p re s e n t e d i n t w o o f t h eb o rd e rs . D u r i n g l a n d fo r m i n g , th e v o l u m e o f e a r th w o r k s w a s m i n i m i s e d to

p r e v e n t r e m o v a l o f t h e s h a l lo w t o p s o il .A v o l u n t e e r c r o p o f ry e g ra s s w a s a l lo w e d t o g r o w o n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l si te

d u r i n g th e w i n te r o f 1 98 8. E x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m a d e d u r i n g th ei r ri g a ti o n o f m i l le t ( s u m m e r 1 9 8 8 / 8 9 ) a n d t r it ic a l e ( w i n t e r 1 9 8 9 ) a n d t h ep r e - ir r ig a t io n fo r a w h e a t c r o p ( a u t u m n 1 9 9 0 ) .

Volume o f inflowW a t er w a s s u p p li e d t o e a ch t es t b o r d e r b y a n u m b e r o f 1 50 m m d i a m e t e r

P .V . C . s y p h o n s o p e r a t i n g u n d e r a k n o w n o r m e a s u r e d h e a d . W a t e r l e v e ls w e r e

m e a s u r e d a u t o m a t ic a l l y o n t h e s u p p l y a n d d i s ch a r g e s i d e o f t h e s y p h o n b ys e l f - c o n t a i n e d d a t a l o g g in g e le c t r o n i c w a t e r l e v e l se n s or s .* T h e s e s e n s o r s h a da s e n s i t i v i ty o f _+ 1 m m a n d w e r e s e t t o s c a n t h e w a t e r l e v e l e v e r y 2 m i n . Ac o n s t a n t w a t e r l ev e l w a s m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e s u p p ly c h a n n e l b y s p i ll in g w a t e ro v e r a c o n t r o l s tr u c tu r e w i t h i n th e c h a n n e l . S y p h o n c a l i b r a ti o n w a s a c h i e v e db y m e a s u r i n g d i s c h a r g e t h r o u g h a lo n g t h r o a t e d f l u m e ( C l e m m e n s e t al., 1 9 8 4 )

w h i l e v a ry i n g t h e o p e r a t i n g h e a d . T h e v o l u m e o f in f l o w w a s o b t a i n e d b y i n -t e g r at in g t h e i n f lo w h y d r o g r a p h .

*Wesdata, P.O. Box 1064, 11 Milford Street, West Victor ia Park, WA, 6101, Australia .

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26 I .H. HUM E

1 0 , 0

7 . 5

5 , 0

2 . 5

E

"6

t: D

1 5 2 0

0 . 0 I i

5 1 0

E l a p s e d t i m e ( h )

F i g. 1 . T y p i c a l h y d r o g r a p h o f w a t e r d e p t h a t a s t a t i o n 2 0 m f r o m t h e h e a d o f a n i r r i g a t i o n

b o r d e r . E l a p s e d t i m e i s m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e s t ar t o f t h e i r r i g a t io n e v e n t .

Advance a nd recessionT h e a d v a n c i n g w a t e r f r o n t w a s d e t e c t e d b y e l e c tr o n i c w a t e r l e ve l r e-

c o rd e rs .* W e lls m a d e f r o m P . V .C . p l u m b i n g f i tt in g s w e r e u s e d t o m o u n t w a t e r

l e v e l s e n s o r s a t 1 0 s t a t i o n s l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e t e s t b o r d e r ; 1 0, 2 0 , 3 0 ,

6 0 , 9 0 , 1 2 0 , 1 5 0, 1 8 0, 21 0 , a n d 2 4 0 m f r o m t h e h e a d o f t h e b o r d e r . W a t e r

l ev e ls r e c o r d e d a t e a c h s t a t i o n w e r e n o r m a l i s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e w a t e r le v e l

r e l a ti v e to t h e m e a n o f f iv e le v e ls t a k e n i n a t r a n s e c t a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r a t t h a t

s ta t io n . T h e t i m e o f a d v a n c e w a s d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e t im e w h e n t h e h y d r o -

g r a p h f o r t h a t s t a t io n b e g a n a n d r e c e ss io n w h e n t h e h y d r o g r a p h r e t u r n e d t o

z e ro . F i g u r e 1 s h o w s a t y p i c a l h y d r o g r a p h .

Volume o f surface storageT h e v o l u m e o f s u rf a c e s to r a ge i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d e p t h o f fl o w o v e r t h e

b o r d e r .

T h e d e p t h o f w a t e r f l o w in g w a s d e t e r m i n e d a t 1 0 s t a ti o n s d o w n t h e l e n g tho f t h e b o r d e r b y t h e w a t e r l e v e l s e n s o r s u s e d t o d e t e c t i r r ig a t i o n a d v a n c e . T h e

d a t a l og g e rs w e r e s e t t o r e c o r d o n l y i n r e s p o n s e t o a c h a n g e i n w a t e r l e ve l o f

_+ 1 r a m . T h e a v e r a g e d e p t h o f f lo w a n d t o t a l s u r f ac e s t o ra g e w a s c a l c u l a t e d

f o l lo w i ng a m e t h o d d e v e l o p e d b y N . S .W . D e p a r t m e n t o f W a t e r R e s o u rc e s

( V . J o s e p h , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 1 9 8 9 ) .

Fitting infiltration equationsM a n y f o r m s o f e q u a t i o n h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d t o p r e d i c t c u m u l a t i v e in f il tr a -

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VOLUME BALANCEFOR BORDER CHECK IRRIGATION 27

t i o n a t o n e p o i n t o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e . T h e s e e q u a t i o n s e x p r es s c u m u l a t i v e

i n f i lt r a t io n ( z ) a t a p o i n t a s a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e ( t ) .

z = f ( t ) ( u n i ts o f d e p t h ) ( 2 )a n d t h e a v e r a g e d e p t h o f i n f i lt r a ti o n ( z ) a t a p o i n t o v e r t i m e ( t ) c a n b e e x -

p r e s s e d a s:

7.= 1 /t f f ( t ) dt . ( 3 )

T h r e e c o m m o n l y u se d f o rm s , t h e K o s t ia k o v , m o d i f i e d K o s t ia k o v a n d H o r t o n

( K o s t i a k o v , 1 9 32 ; L e w i s , 19 3 7; H o r t o n , 1 9 4 0 ) w e r e u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y . T h e s e

e q u a t i o n s a r e e x p r e s s e d in t h e i r c u m u l a t i v e a n d a v e r a g e f o r m s i n T a b l e 1.

T h e t o ta l d e p t h o f w a t e r i n f i lt r a t e d i n t o t h e te s t b o r d e r ( I ) a t a n y ti m e ( t )w a s c o m p u t e d f r o m e q n . ( 1 ) . T h e s e d a t a w e r e d e t e r m i n e d a t 10 o c c a si o ns

d u r i n g a n i r r ig a t i o n e v e n t , e a c h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t im e s w h e n a d v a n c e

r e a c h e d t h e 1 0 s t a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e i r r ig a t i o n b o r d e r . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e -

t w e e n a d v a n c e ( x ) a n d t i m e s i n c e i r ri g a t io n s t a r te d a n d t o t a l in f i l tr a t i o n ( I )

a n d t i m e s in c e i rr i g a ti o n s t a r t e d w e r e d e t e r m i n e d b y l e as t sq u a r e s r e g re s si o n.

T h e t i m e o v e r w h i c h f i e ld d a t a w e r e c o l l e c te d w a s d i v i d e d i n t o 1 0 e q u a l

t i m e s te p s (At ) . F r o m t h e r e g re s si o n e q u a t io n s t h e i n c r e m e n t a l a d v a n c e d u r -

i n g e a c h t i m e s te p (Ax ) a n d t h e t o ta l a m o u n t o f i n f i lt r a t io n a t t h e e n d o f e a c h

t i m e s t ep ( I ) w e r e d e t e r m i n e d .S o i l i n f i lt r a t io n p r o p e r t i e s a r e a s s u m e d t o b e h o m o g e n e o u s w i t h i n e a c h t e s t

b o r d e r . D u r i n g t h e f ir st t i m e s t ep d h , w a t e r a d v a n c e d t o p o i n t x = x l a n d t h e

a v e r ag e a m o u n t o f w a t e r w h i c h i n f il tr a te d i n t o t h e s o il b e t w e e n x = 0 a n d x = x i

i s g l ( F i g . 2 a ) w h i c h w a s c o m p u t e d f r o m :

7"1 " - I I / Z J X l . ( 4 )

D u r i n g t h e s e c o n d t i m e s te p , w a t e r a d v a n c e d f r o m p o i n t x = X l t o p o i n t x = x2 .

T h e a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f w a t e r w h i c h i n f i l tr a t e d i n t o t h e s oi l f r o m t h e s ta r t o f

i r ri g a t io n b e t w e e n p o i n t s x =x ~ a n d x = x 2 i s a s s u m e d t o b e Z i a n d b e t w e e n

x = 0 a n d x =x ~ i s z2 ( F i g . 2 b ) , z2 w a s c o m p u t e d f r o m :

Z2 = (/ 2 -- Z l zfx2)/Z~Xl • (5 )

TABLEI

Cumulative and average forms of three co mmon infiltration equations

Equation Cumulative form Average form

Kostia kov z = k t ~ £ = k t ~ / ( a + 1 )

Modified Kostiakov z = k m t " + b t Z = k m t ' m / ( a m + 1 ) + b t / 2

Horton z = 7 ( l - e - " ) +J t Z = y - ( ~ ,/ rt ) ( l - e - ~ t) - J t / 2

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2 8 I .H . H U M E

a . F i r s t t i m e s t e p t = A t

x 0 X 1

Z2

b . S e c o n d t i m e s t e p t = 2 A t

x 0 x 1 x 2

Fig. 2. Surfaceand subsurfacewa ter profiles during the first two tim e steps of an irrigation.

F o r t h e i th t i m e s t e p t h e t o t a l a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f w a t e r i n f i lt r a t e d in t o t h e s o il

b e tw e e n p o i n t s x = 0 a n d x = x ~ , ~i w a s c o m p u t e d f ro m :

zi = (Ii -2 ~ A xi -752Ax(i_ 1) .. . z ( i - l ) d X 2 ) / A x ~ . ( 6 )

A p p l y i n g e q n . ( 6 ) t o a ll 10 t i m e s te p s d e v e l o p e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e

a v e r a g e d e p t h o f in f i l t r a ti o n w i t h i n t h e f ir st i n c r e m e n t o f a d v a n c e a n d t h e

t i m e o f ir r ig a t io n . T h e c o e f f i c ie n t s o f i n f i l t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n s w e r e o b t a i n e d b y

f i tt i n g t o t h e s e d a t a t h e a v e r a g e d e p t h f o r m o f th e e q u a t i o n s b y l e a s t s q u a r e s

r e g r e s s i o n .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

V ol um e o f i n fl owB e f o re u n d e r t a k i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a h e a d , d i s c h ar g e r e l a ti o n s h i p w a s d e-

v e l o p e d f o r t h e s y p h o n s u s e d . B e t w e e n t h e t r i t ic a le a n d a u t u m n p r e - i rr ig a t io n

p h a s e s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t th e d i s ch a r g e o f tw o s y p h o n s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e

s a m e b o r d e r w a s m e a s u r e d u n d e r i d e n t ic a l h e a d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e h e a d , d i s-

c h a r g e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e s e t w o s y p h o n s w e r e s i g n i fi c a n tl y d i f f e r e n t f r o m

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V O L U M E B A L A NC E F O R B O R D E R C H E C K I R R I G A T I O N 29

t h e o r i g i n a l c a l i b r a t io n ( F i g . 3 ) . F u r t h e r c a l i b r a t i o n w a s u n d e r t a k e n d u r i n g

t h e a u t u m n p r e - ir r ig a t i o n to d e t e r m i n e th e h e a d , d i s c h a rg e re l a t i o n s h ip f o r

t h e f o u r s y p h o n s o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n e a c h b o r d e r . T h e s e r e l a ti o n s h i p s w e r e u s e d

t o c a l c u l a t e i n f l o w f o r al l i r r i g a t i o n e v e n t s . V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e h y d r a u l i c e n t r ya n d e x i t c o n d i t i o n s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s y p h o n s a r e t h e m o s t l i k el y c a u s e o f

d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n p r e d i c t e d a n d a c t u a l f lo w r at e s. T e m p o r a l c h a n g e s i n th e s e

c o n d i t i o n s w o u l d a l so o c c u r w i t h v a r i a ti o n s i n t h e a m o u n t o f v e g e ta t io n b o t h

u p a n d d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e s y p h o n . A f u r t h e r s o u r c e o f e r r o r i n i n fl o w d a t a

m a y b e a i r e n t r a p m e n t w i t h i n th e s y p h o n . T h i s m a y o c c u r by t h e f o r m a t i o n

o f a n u p s t r e a m v o r te x , i n e f f e c ti v e p r i m i n g o r l e a k i n g p r i m i n g v a l v es . I n f lo w

c a l c u l a ti o n s a s s u m e d t h a t a ll d e l i v e r y s y p h o n s w e r e s t a r t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , i f

t h i s w a s n o t a c h i e v e d in f l o w a n d i n f i lt r a t io n w o u l d b e o v e r e s t i m a t e d d u r i n g

t h e e a r l y s ta g e s o f a n i r r ig a t i o n .A m o r e a c c u r a t e m e t h o d o f d e t e r m i n i n g i n f lo w c o n t i n u o u s l y is t o s u p pl y

i r ri g a t io n w a t e r t h r o u g h a c o n t r o l s t ru c t u r e o f k n o w n h y d r a u l i c p ro p e r ti e s .

L o n g t h r o a t e d f l u m e s ( C l e m m e n s e t al ., 1 9 8 4 ) w e r e f a b r ic a t e d lo c a l ly b y

s k il le d t r a d e s m e n . W h e n r a t e d a c c u r a t e ly in a n h y d r a u l i c s l a b o r a t o r y th e s e

w e r e f o u n d t o b e w i t h _+ 3 % o f t h e p u b l i s h e d r a ti n g . T h e c o s t o f m a n u f a c t u r e

a n d i n s t a ll a t io n o f t h e s e f l u m e s w a s c o m p a r a b l e t o o t h e r w a t e r d e l iv e r y a n dc o n t r o l d e v i c e s .

2 0

1 5

1 0

q=4.4481n(h) -5 .173 ( r2=0.938)

0 q =2.022h0"419 ( r2=0"986)

[ ] q= O . 263h0'751 (r2=0.832)

S7

I [ I

5 0 1 O 0 1 5 0

H e a d o n s y p h o n ( r a m )

Fig. 3. He ad, dischargerelationships for tw o syphons after the triticale phase of the experiment( ~7, [] ) and for the original calibration (O ).

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30 I .H. HUME

A dvan ce an d recession

A d v a n c e a n d r e c e s s i o n d a t a w e r e c o l l e c te d f o r b o r d e r s o f v a r y i n g s l o p e , f o r

t w o s p r i n g ir r i g a ti o n s o f a t r it ic a l e c r o p a n d a n a u t u m n p r e - ir r i ga t io n f o r a

f o l l o w i n g w h e a t c r op .

A n e q u a t i o n o f t h e fo r m :

A d v a n c e = a - t i m e b ( 7 )

w a s f it t e d t o th e a d v a n c e d a t a. T h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f th e f i tt e d e q u a t i o n s a re

g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . T h i s f o r m o f p o w e r f u n c t i o n f i tt e d th e d a t a w e l l ( h i g h r 2 ) .

M o s t p o o r l y f i t ti n g d a ta p o i n t s w e r e a t e a r ly s ta g e s o f a d v a n c e b e f o r e t h e d e -

v e l o p m e n t o f a u n i fo r m a d v a n c e f ro n t. T h e a d v a n c e t i m e r e l a ti o n s hi p s a p -

p r oac h e d a l in e ar f or m f or t h e m i l l e t an d t r i t i c a l e i r r iga t ion s . Var ia t ion s in

s o i l i n f il t r a t io n p r o p e r t i e s w i t h i n a t es t b o r d e r w i l l b e r e f le c t e d i n v a r i a t io n s

i n th e r a te o f i r r ig a t io n a d v a n c e , f o r a c o n s t a n t r a t e o f i n f l o w . N o s u c h v a r i a -

t i o n s w e r e f o u n d i n th e a d v a n c e d a t a o f t h is s t u d y , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t th e s o i l

w i t h i n e a ch t es t b o r d e r w a s h o m o g e n e o u s .

T h e r a t e o f a d v a n c e o v e r t h e 1 : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r w a s s i g n i f ic a n t l y l o w e r d u r i n g

t h e f ir s t s p r i n g i rr i g a ti o n t h a n o v e r t h e 1 : 1 4 0 0 a n d 1 : 1 7 0 0 b o r d e r s ( F i g . 4 a ) .

A v e r a g e r a te s o f i n f l o w p e r u n i t w i d t h f o r t h e 1 : 1 7 0 0 a n d 1 : 1 4 0 0 b o r d e r s

w e r e e s t im a t e d a s 0 . 1 0 a n d 0 . 0 9 m 2 / m i n , r e sp e c ti ve ly . H o w e v e r , t h e a v e ra g e

r ate o f in f l o w t o t h e 1 : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r w a s e s t im a t e d a s o n l y 0 . 0 5 m 2 / m i n . D u r -

i n g t h e s e c o n d s p r i n g i r ri g a ti o n a v e r a g e i n f l o w r a te s w e r e s i m i l a r f o r a ll bo r -

T A B L E 2

C o e f f ic i en t s o f a p o w e r a d v a n c e e q u a t i o n ( a d v a n c e = a - t i m e b ), m e a n r a te o f a d v a n c e a n d i n fl o w u n t i l

c e s s a t io n o f a d v a n c e f o r e i g h t i r ri g a t io n e v e n t s .

B or d e r I r r iga t i on a C o e f f i c i e n t a C oe f f i c i e n t b r 2b A d v a n c e I n f l o w rate

rate ( m / ( m 2 / m i n )

m i n )

1 : 1 7 0 0 M 2 . 4 2 4 ( 0 . 1 0 5 ) 0 . 8 5 3 ( 0 . 0 0 9 ) 1 .0 0 0 1 .1 6 0 0 . 1 2 4 0S I 2 . 5 1 0 ( 0 . 2 6 2 ) 0 . 7 8 7 ( 0 . 0 2 0 ) 0 . 9 9 8 0 . 7 4 7 0 . 0 9 6 4

$ 2 2 . 1 5 6 ( 0 . 3 3 2 ) 0 . 8 1 7 ( 0 . 0 3 2 ) 0 . 9 9 7 0 . 8 4 3 0 . 0 9 8 0

A 4 . 9 8 3 ( 0 . 6 3 4 ) 0 . 6 6 2 ( 0 . 0 2 4 ) 0 . 9 0 7 0 . 8 8 2 0 . 1 0 5 0

1 : 1 4 0 0 S I 2 . 2 0 8 ( 0 . 4 4 7 ) 0 . 8 0 9 ( 0 . 0 3 9 ) 0 . 9 9 .9 0 . 7 7 6 0 . 0 9 2 7

$ 2 1 .2 8 4 ( 0 . 2 8 8 ) 1 .0 1 3 ( 0 . 0 6 7 ) 0 . 9 8 4 0 . 8 6 4 0 . 0 9 9 0

A 3 . 3 7 9 ( 0 . 5 3 6 ) 0 . 7 4 4 ( 0 . 0 3 0 ) 0 . 9 5 5 0 . 8 3 3 0 . 0 8 6 0

1 : 1 0 0 0 M 2 . 6 58 ( 0 . 5 6 9 ) 0 . 8 0 2 ( 0 . 0 4 1 ) 0 . 9 9 6 0 . 9 4 3 0 . 1 0 3 7

S I 0 . 5 5 1 ( 0 . 0 4 3 ) 0 . 9 5 4 ( 0 . 0 1 1 ) 0 . 9 9 9 0 . 5 0 0 0 . 0 5 2 0

$ 2 1 .8 0 2 ( 0 . 4 9 8 ) 0 . 8 7 0 ( 0 . 0 5 5 ) 0 . 9 0 7 0 . 8 2 2 0 . 1 0 5 0

aM = i r r iga t i on o f m i l l e t ; S 1 = f i r s t sp r ing i r r i ga ti on o f a t r i t i c a l e c r op; $ 2 = s e c o n da tr i t i cale crop; A = a u t u m n p r e - ir r ig a t io n .

b A d j u s t e d c o r r e la t io n c o e f f i c ie n t o f t h e f i t te d a d v a n c e e q u a t i o n .

N u m b e r s i n p a r e n t h e s e s = s t a n d a r d er ro r o f t h e c o e f f i ci e n t .

s pr i n g i r r i ga t i on o f

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VOLUMEBALANCEFOR BORDER CHECK RRIGATION 31

2 0 0

1 5 0

8c

>~ lo o

5 0

O ~

a F i r s t S p r i n g I r r i g a t i o n

l I l l l

5 0 1 O 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 ,.3 00

T i m e ( r a i n )

2 0 0 • " "

, ~ E 1 5 0

8c

>o lo o- o

5 0

O I I I I I I t

0 5 0 1 O 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 , 50 0

T ~ m e ( r a i n )

F i g . 4 . R a t e o f a d v a n c e f o r t h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d s p r i n g i r r i g a t i o n s o f a t r i t ic a l e c r o p o n b o r d e r s

o f t h r e e d i f f e r en t s lo p es ( 1 : 1 7 0 0 , O ; 1 : 1 4 0 0 , ~ 7; 1 : 1 0 0 0 , [ ] ) .

d e r s ; 0 . 1 0 , 0 . 1 0 a n d 0 . 0 9 m 2 / m i n f o r b o r d e r s 1 : 1 7 0 0 , 1 : 1 4 0 0 a n d 1 : 1 0 0 0 ,

r e s p ec t iv e l y . A d v a n c e r a t e s o v e r a ll b o r d e r s w e r e i n cl o s e r a g r e e m e n t d u r i n g

t h i s s e c o n d i r r ig a t i o n e v e n t ( F i g . 4 b ) .

T h e s e d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t , f o r b o r d e r s l o p es b e t w e e n 1 : 7 5 0 a n d 1 : 1 7 0 0 av -

e ra g e i n fl o w r a te h a d m o r e i n f l u e n c e o v e r a d v a n c e r a te t h a n t h e g r a d e d s l o p e

o f t h e i r ri g a t i o n b o r d e r . T e m p o r a l v a r i a t io n i n a d v a n c e r a te w i t h i n b o r d e r s

w a s l o w s u g g e s t in g t h a t t h e r e i s l it t l e c h a n g e i n h y d r a u l i c r e s i s t a n c e d u e t o

e i t h e r d i f f e r e n t s t ag e s o f c r o p d e v e l o p m e n t o r t h e a b s e n c e o f a c r o p ( T a b l e

2 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a v e r a g e r a t e o f a d v a n c e a n d t h e a v e r a g e r a te o f

i n f l o w t o a b o r d e r w a s d e t e r m i n e d f o r a ll i r r ig a t i o n e v e n t s a s:

A d v a n c e ( m / m i n ) = 8 .7 3 i n f l o w ( m E / m i n ) ( r 2 = 0.9 9 ) . ( 8 )

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32 I.H. HUME

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p f i ts t h e f i e ld d a t a w e l l, h i g h r 2, h o w e v e r i t 's f it is i n f l u e n c e d

b y a f e w d a t a p o i n t s w h i c h e x e r t a h i g h d e g r e e o f le v e r a ge , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e

f i rs t s p r i n g i r r i g a t i o n o f t h e 1 : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r h a s a l o w a v e r a g e r a t e o f in f l o w

a n d a d v a n c e ( T a b l e 2 ) . T h e a c c u r a c y o f p r e d i c t i n g t h is r e l a t io n s h i p f r o m t h ed a t a i n T a b l e 2 w a s l i m i t e d n o t o n l y b y th e e r r o r i n m e a s u r e m e n t o f in f lo w

b u t a l s o b y th e p o o r s p r e a d o f in f lo w d a t a t h r o u g h o u t t h e r a ng e .

U n e v e n n e s s i n th e b o r d e r g r a d e g a v e ri se to a n u n e v e n r e c e ss io n a n d t h e

f o r m a t i o n o f lo c a l p o n d s o f w a t er . A l t h o u g h , w i t h in b o r d e r h y d r o g r a p h d a t a

g a v e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e n p o n d i n g c e a s e d a t a p a r t i c u l a r si te , t h e s e d a t a

c o u l d n o t b e i n t e g r a t e d t o y i e l d a d i s t i n c t r e c e s s io n f r o n t .

Surface storage. A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e a v e r a g e d e p t h o f f l ow o v e r a b o r d e r is a

s i m p l e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e d e p t h a t t h e h e a d o f t h a t b o r d e r , s u rf a ce s to r a g e c anb e e x p r e s s e d a s:

S=k.hx.x ( 9 )

w h e r e x = a d v a n c e d i s t a n c e ( m ) ; S = s u rf a c e s to r a g e a t a d v a n c e x p e r m w i d t h

o f b o r d e r ( m 2 ) ; hx = d e p t h o f f lo w a t t h e h e a d o f t h e b o r d e r w h e n t h e w e t ti n g

f r o n t h a s a d v a n c e d t o x ( m ) ; a n d k = e m p i r ic a l c o n s t a n t .

P r e d i c t e d v a l u e s o f s u r fa c e s t o r a g e fi t te d t h e d a t a w e ll ( T a b l e 3 ) , th e v a l u e s

o f t h e c o n s t a n t k d i f f e r e d b e t w e e n b o r d e r s a n d i rr ig a t io n s . T h e s e d a t a w e r e

n o t o n ly v a r ia b l e b u t la y o u t s i d e t h e r a n g e ( 0 . 7 5 t o 0 . 8 0 ) f o u n d i n o t h e r w o r k( L e y , 1 9 7 8 ) . A m u l t i p l e l e a st s q u a r e s re g r e s s io n a p p r o a c h w a s a d o p t e d t o

e x a m i n e t h e v a r i a ti o n i n k b e t w e e n b o r d e r s a t th e s a m e t im e a n d w i t h i n b o r-

TABLE 3

Coefficients of a surface ~orage equation (storage = k- upstream head- advan ce ) for eight irrigation

events

Border Irrigation a Surfacest orage r 2b

coefficientk

1:1700 M 0.783 (0.036) 0.994

S1 0.905 (0.013) 0.998

$2 0.908 (0.031) 0.993

A 1.149 (0.019) 0.998

1:1400 S1 0.798 (0.010) 0.999

$2 0.756 (0.010) 0.998

A 0.735 (0.022) 0.993

1:1000 M 0.773 (0.017) 0.997

S1 0.981 (0.011) 0.999

$2 0.883 (0.028) 0.992

"M = irrigation of millet; S 1 = first spring irrigation o f a triticale crop; $2 = second spring irrigation of

a triticale crop; A = autumn pre-irrigation.

bAdjusted correlation coefficient of the f itted eq uation.

Number s in parent heses = standa rd error of the coefficient.

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V O L U M E B A L AN C E F O R B O R D E R C H E C K I R R I G A T I O N 3 3

2 0

g

0

0

m

E 5

. j . .

0 v

0 5 10 15 20

M e o s u r ed s u r f o c e s t o r o g e ( m 2 )

Fig. 5. Surfacestorageof irrigation water measured during advance and estimated by Eqn. (10).(The l ine has a slope of I. )

d e r s w i t h t im e . T h e d a t a f r o m a ll i r ri g a t i o n e v e n t s w e r e p o o l e d a n d t h e m o d e l

w h i c h b e s t f i t te d t h e d a t a w a s:

S = 0 . 8 4 h x - x - 3 .0 5 (~x + 2 . 5 3 S L ( r 2 = 0 . 9 9 ) ( 1 0 )

w h e r e S = s u r fa c e s to r a g e a t a d v a n c e x p e r m w i d t h o f b o r d e r ( m 2 ); h~ = d e p t h

o f f lo w a t t h e h e a d o f th e b o r d e r w h e n t h e w e t t in g f r o n t h a s a d v a n c e d t o x

( m ) ; x = a d v a n c e d i s t a n c e ( m ) ; Q ~ = a v e r a g e ra t e o f i n fl o w t o t h e b o r d e r o v e r

t h e t im e f r o m t h e s t a rt o f i r ri g a t i o n u n t il a d v a n c e r e a c h e s x ( m 2 / m i n ) ; a n d

S L = s lo p e o f b o r d e r ( % ) .

V a l u e s o f s u r f a c e s t o r a g e p r e d i c t e d b y e q n . ( 1 0 ) a r e i n c lo s e a g r e e m e n t f o r

t h e d a t a c o l le c t e d d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t ( F ig . 5 ) . H o w e v e r , th e s t a n d a r d e r -

r o r o f e s t i m a t e d s u r f a c e s t o r a g e is la r ge , 1 4% o f t h e m e a n . T h e i n c l u s i o n i n

t h e m o d e l o f a n i n d e x o f s u rf a c e r o u g h n e s s o r b i o m a s s d e n s i t y a t t h e t i m e o f

i r ri g a t i o n m a y i m p r o v e t h e a c c u r a c y o f e s t i m a t i n g s u r fa c e s t or a ge .

Fitting infil tration equationsR e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e d e r i v e d b e t w e e n t h e a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f i n f i l t r a t io n a n d

d u r a t i o n o f i r r ig a t i o n [ e q n . ( 6 ) ] f o r al l i r r ig a t i o n e v e n t s . F o r t w o i r r i g a t i o n

e v e n t s; t h e m i l l e t o n t h e 1 : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r a n d t h e a u t u m n p r e - ir r ig a t io n o f t h e

1 : 1 4 00 b o r d e r , t h e s e d a t a s h o w t h e a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f i n f i l t r a t io n d e c l i n i n g

w i t h t i m e ( F ig . 6 ) .

T h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h r e e i n f i l t r a t i o n e q u a t i o n s w e r e d e r i v e d f o r I 0 i r ri g a-

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34 I.H. HUME

,EE 275

u 2 5 0 /c

~ o oc

.c_

g 5oO

._cg0

g 0

~ ~ , ~ ..~ 0 0 00 ~7 ~ ' ~ _ _ ~ . _ _ ~ ,~.

I I I F I r

50 1O0 150 200 250 300

T ime ( ra i n )

F i g . 6 . A v e r a g e a m o u n t o f i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t h e f i r s t a d v a n c e i n c r e m e n t f o r t h r e e i r r i g a t i o n e v en t s .

T w o w i t h i n v a l i d i n p u t d a t a , m i l l e t o n t h e 1 : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r ( [ ] ) a n d t h e a u t u m n p r e - i r r i g a t i o n

o f t h e 1 : 1 4 0 0 b o r d e r ( V ) a n d o n e w i t h v a l i d i n p u t d a t a , f i r s t s p r i n g i r r i g a t i o n o f t h e 1 : 1 0 0 0

b o r de r ( O ) .

t i o n e v e n t s w i t h v a l i d i n p u t d a t a . T h e K o s t i a k o v e q u a t i o n f i t t e d t h e d a t a

s li gh tl y b e t t e r t h a n t h e m o d i f i e d K o s t i a k o v e q u a t i o n , t h e p a r a m e t e r s a a n d

a m a n d k a n d k m w e r e n o t s i g n if i c a n tl y d i f f e r e n t a n d t h e p a r a m e t e r b o f th e

m o d i f i e d K o s t i a k o v e q u a t i o n w a s e x t r e m e l y s m a l l su g g e s ti n g n o u n d e r l y i n g

l i n e a r t r e n d i n i n f il t r a t io n w i t h t im e ( T a b l e 4 ) .

T h e H o r t o n e q u a t i o n f i tt e d b e s t t h e f ie ld d a ta . A n a l y si s o f v a r ia n c e o f th e

r e g r e s si o n s s h o w e d f i t t i n g t h e H o r t o n e q u a t i o n g a v e t h e l o w e s t r e s i d u a l m e a n

s q u a r e d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e m e a n ( T a b l e 5 ) . T h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e H o r t o n

e q u a t i o n c a n b e u s e d t o e x a m i n e t h e p h y s ic a l p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d d u r i n g a n in -f i lt r a ti o n e v e n t , to e n a b l e c o m p a r i s o n o f ev e n t s. T h e p a r a m e t e r 7 r e p re s e n t s

a d e p t h o f w a t e r w h i c h i n f i l tr a t e s a t a d e c l i n i n g r a t e e a r l y in a n i r r ig a t i o n

e v e n t , a n d t h e p a r a m e t e r r t h e r a t e a t w h i c h t h e r a t e o f i n f i l t r a t i o n d e c a y s t oa s t e a d y v a l u e ~ . T h i s c h a n g e o f r a te t o o k p l a c e e a rl y i n a n i r r ig a t i o n e v e n t

( F ig . 7 ) , s u g g e s ti n g t h a t m o s t w a t e r i s f il li n g c r a c k s a n d o n c e t h i s d e m a n d h a s

b e e n s a t is f ie d w a t e r e n t r y is g o v e r n e d b y t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s o i l

m a t r i x . F i t t e d i n f i l t r a ti o n d a t a a n d t h e l i n e a r it y o f a d v a n c e s u p p o r t t h e f i n d -

i ng s o f D e T e k a n d G r i s m e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) w h i c h s u gg e st t h a t l in e a r i rr ig a t io n a d -

v a n c e f o r c o n s t a n t i n f l o w ra t e , i s o n l y p o s s i b le w h e n t h e d e p t h o f in f i l t r a t io ni s c o n s t a n t a l o n g t h e f ie l d a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f i ll in g so i l c r ac k s . M o s t o f t h e

w a t e r i n f i l t ra t i n g d o e s s o i n t h e h i g h r a t e p e r i o d w h i c h a l s o s u g ge s ts t h a t t h e

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VOLUME BALANCEFOR BORDER CHECK IRRIGATION 35

TABLE 4

Coefficients of the Kostiakov (infiltration=k-timea) and modified Kostiakov equations (infiltra-

tio n= km- tim em+ b.t ime ) derived by volume balance during 10 irrigation events

Border Irrigation* Kostiakov Modified Kostiakov

k a km am b

1:1700 M 24.78 0.1914 24.782 0.1914 5.23X10 -~5

SI 34.70 0.0643 34.705 0.0643 2. 04 ×1 0 -~5

$2 34.90 0.1174 34.904 0.1174 2.69× 10 -~5

A 10.89 0.6389 8.355 0.5389 5.61X 10 -~4

1:1400 SI 23.86 0.2016 23.860 0.2015 6. 12 × 10 -16

A 4.91 0.5969 4.909 0.5968 6.36× 10 -~4

1:1200 M 30.41 0.0458 30.408 0.0458 1.59× 10 -15

1:1000 M 40.98 0.1069 40.985 0.1068 8.2 0× 10 -j5

S1 40.55 0.1067 40.550 0.1067 2.21 × 10 -~5

$2 47.95 0.1133 47.960 0.1132 3.5 7× 10 -~5

*M = irrigation of millet; S 1 = first spring irrigation of triticale; $2 = second spring irrigation of triti-

cale; A = autu mn pre-irrigation.

TABLE 5

Residual mean square of the regressions to derive the Kostiakov, modified Kostiakov and Hortoninfiltration equations

Border Irrigation* Residual mean square

Kostiakov Modified Kostiakov Horton

1:1700 M 0.339 0.381 0.075

$1 0.041 0.046 0.009

$2 0.187 0.211 0.039

A 1.560 1.755 0.260

1:1400 S1 0.423 0.476 0.100

A 1.204 1.354 0.017

1:1200 M 0.024 0.027 0.001

l:1000 M 0.324 0.365 0.022

S1 0.352 0.397 0.026

$2 0.393 0.442 0.056

*M = irrigation of millet; S 1 = first spring irrigation o f triticale; $2 = second spring irrigation of triti-

cale; A = autumn pre-irr igation.

s i z e o f a n i r ri g a ti o n e v e n t i s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e s o i l m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t a n d d e -

gree o f crack in g p r ior to i rr iga t ion .

T h e v a l u e o f r w a s l o w e r f or t h e a u t u m n ir r ig a ti on s ( m e a n 0 . 0 3 6 ) t h a n fo r

a l l o t h e r ir r ig a t io n s ( m e a n 0 . 2 1 4 ) s u g g e st in g t h at th e t i m e t a k e n t o r e ac h a

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36 I.H. HUME

steady rate of infi ltration w as longer (T able 6 ) . The stead y rate of infi l tration

( t~ ) measured for the autumn i rr iga t ions was h igher (m ean 0 .3 m m /m in )

than for a ll o ther i rr iga t ions (m ean 0 .0 6 m m /m in ) (Tab le 6 ) . These data

T A B L E 6

C o e f f i c ie n t s o f t h e H o r t o n e q u a t i o n ( i n f i l tr a t i o n = y ( 1 - e - " ) + 6 - t ) d e r i v e d b y v o l u m e b a l a n c e d u r -

i n g 1 0 ir r i g a ti o n e v e n t s a n d t h e s t a n d a r d e r r o rs o f p a r a m e t e r e s t i m a t e s

B o r d e r I r ri g a t io n * P a r a m e t e r

y r ,6

1 :1 7 0 0 M 4 5 .4 3 ( 0 .4 9 ) 0 .2 2 6 2 ( 0 .0 0 9 6 ) 0 .1 3 2 8 ( 0 .0 0 7 4 )

SI 4 4 .3 9 ( 0 .1 5 ) 0 .3 3 4 6 ( 0 .0 1 2 4 ) 0 .0 2 0 4 ( 0 .0 0 1 2 )

$ 2 51 .75 ( 0 .3 2 ) 0 .3 0 1 2 ( 0 .0 1 1 5) 0 .0 7 2 4 ( 0 .0 0 4 2 )

A 6 5 .2 5 ( 1 .7 5 ) 0 .0 4 2 0 ( 0 .0 0 2 1 ) 0 .2 9 8 8 ( 0 .0 1 0 9 )

1 :1 4 0 0 S1 4 9 .3 9 ( 0 .57 ) 0 .1 3 7 7 ( 0 .0 0 6 0 ) 0 .0 9 8 4 ( 0 .0 0 55)

A 4 7 .9 4 ( 0 .8 4 ) 0 .0 3 0 4 ( 0 .0 0 0 7 ) 0 .3 24 1 ( 0 .0 0 53 )

1 :1 2 0 0 M 3 5 .1 0 ( 0 .0 5 ) 0 .9 559 ( 0 .0 1 9 2 ) 0 .0 2 1 9 ( 0 .0 0 0 9 )

1 :1 0 0 0 M 6 0 .7 5 ( 0 .2 4 ) 0 .2 4 1 9 ( 0 .0 0 6 1 ) 0 .0 54 3 ( 0 .0 0 2 4 )

SI 6 4 .0 3 ( 0 .2 6 ) 0 .1 3 3 0 ( 0 .0 0 3 5) 0 .0 3 1 4 ( 0 .0 0 1 4 )

$ 2 54 .51 ( 0 .1 9 ) 0 .3 7 50 ( 0 .0 1 1 6 ) 0 .0 4 0 5 ( 0 .0 0 2 2 )

*M = i r r i g a t io n o f m i l l e t ; S 1 = f i r s t sp r in g i r r i g a t io n o f t r i t i c a l e ; $ 2 = seco n d sp r in g i r r i g a t io n o f t r i t i -

ca l e ; A = au tu m n p r e - i r r i g a t io n .N u m b e r s i n p a r e n t h e s e s = s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f t h e c o e f fi c i en t .

E

"6

c

"6

E

, 3

i 5 0

1 0 0

5 0

I I i I I I

0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0

T i m e ( r a i n )

F i g . 7. I n f i l t r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e s e c o n d s p r i n g i r r i g a t i o n ( .... . ) , a n d t h e

a u t u m n p r e - i r r i g a t i o n ( - - ) o f t h e 1 : 1 7 0 0 b o r d e r .

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V O L U M E B A L A NC E F O R B O R D E R C H E C K I R R I G A T I O N 37

s ug g es t t e m p o r a l c h a n g e s in t h e m e c h a n i s m o f w a t e r e n tr y ( F ig . 7 ) . T h e s p ri n g

i r r ig a t i o n s b e i n g c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y i n i t i a ll y h i g h r a t e s o f i n f i l t r a ti o n f o l l o w e d

b y a r a p i d f a ll i n i n f ' d t r a ti o n r a t e t o a l o w s t e a d y l e v e l.

U n d e r f u ll y i r ri g a t e d m a n a g e m e n t so il m o i s t u r e i s m a i n t a i n e d a t a l e ve l sw h i c h p r e v e n t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e x t en s iv e s o il cr ac k s. D u r i n g s u m m e r e x-

t e n s i v e c ra c k s d e v e l o p e d w h e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l b o r d e r s w e r e n o t i r r ig a t e d .

A t t h e a u t u m n p r e - ir r ig a t i o n s l a rg e v o l u m e s o f w a t e r w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o f il l

t h e s e c r a c k s a n d w o u l d b e r e f le c t e d i n v e r y h i g h i n i t ia l i n f il t ra t i o n r a t e s a n d ?

v a lu e s ; h o w e v e r , t h is w a s n o t f o u n d i n t h e d a t a c o l le c t e d . E x t e n s i v e s u b su r -

f a ce c r a c k i n g m a y i n t r o d u c e f u r t h e r e r r o r i n t h e m e t h o d a s su b s u r fa c e f lo w ,

l a te r a ll y a n d i n f r o n t o f t h e m e a s u r e d a d v a n c e , is n o t a c c o u n t e d f o r a n d w i ll

c a u s e o v e r e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e t o ta l a m o u n t o f i n f il t ra t i o n . O b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e

o f t h e t i m e o f ir r ig a t i o n s u p p o r t t h i s v i e w .S i gn i fi ca n t d i ff e re n c e s w e r e f o u n d ( p = 0 . 0 1 ) b e t w e e n t h e p a r a m e t e r ? o f

t h e H o r t o n e q u a t i o n s d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e m i l l e t a n d s p r in g ir r ig a t io n s o f t h e

1 : 1 7 0 0 b o r d e r ( y = 4 7 r a m ) a n d t h e m i l l e t a n d s p r in g i r ri g a t io n s o f th e 1 : 1 0 00

b o r d e r ( ? = 6 0 m m ) .

N o s i g n if i ca n t d i f fe r e n c e s w e r e f o u n d i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s r a n d d b e t w e e n

e i t h e r b o r d e r s o r i r r i g a t io n s . T h i s s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n i n ~, s u g g es ts t h a t t h e p h y s -

i c a l p r o c e s s e s g o v e r n i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n a r e d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o b o r d e r s , t h e

1 : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r w a s e i t h e r b e i n g d r i e r b e f o r e i r r i g a t i o n o r s u b j e c t t o m o r e

s h r in k a g e a n d c r a c k i n g o n d r y in g . T h e p a r a m e t e r 7 h a s b e e n s h o w n t o v a r yw i t h s o i l w a t e r c o n t e n t p r i o r t o i r r i g a t i o n , a t h i g h e r m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s t h e

c a p a c i t y o f t h e s o il t o a b s o r b w a t e r is r e d u c e d a n d ? is lo w e r ( M a h e s h w a r i ,

1 9 8 8 ) . N o m o d e l c o u l d b e f it t e d t o t h e l i m i t e d so il m o i s t u r e d a t a w h i c h d e -

s c r ib e d a d e q u a t e l y t h e v a r i a t i o n f o u n d i n ?. H a n d t e x t u r in g o f so il pr o fi le s

s h o w e d a m o r e p r o n o u n c e d a n d h e a v i e r c la y B h o r i z o n i n t h e 1 : 1 00 0 b o r d e r

w h i c h m a y a c c o u n t f o r i t' s g re a t e r s h ri n k a g e a n d c r a c k i n g o n d r y in g .

Sensitivity analysis. T h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e H o r t o n e q u a t i o n w e r e p r e d i c te d

a c c u r a t e l y f r o m t h e f i el d d a t a , t h e s t a n d a r d e r r o r s o f t h e p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s b e i n gl o w ( T a b l e 6 ) . A n a l y s is o f t h e s e n s i ti v i ty o f t h e m e t h o d t o e r r o r s i n t h e i n p u t

d a t a ( in f l o w a n d s u r fa c e s to r a g e ) w a s u n d e r t a k e n . O n e i n p u t p a r a m e t e r o n ly

w a s v a r i e d w h i ls t t h e o t h e r w a s h e l d s ta b le . T h e a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f ir r ig a t i o n

p r e d i c t e d b y e q n . ( 6 ) v a r i e d p r o p o r t i o n a l l y w i t h t h e e r r o r in i n fl o w a n d i n-

v e r s e l y w i t h t h e e r r o r i n s u r f a c e s t o r ag e . L a r g e n e g a t i v e e r r o r s i n i n f l o w a n d

p o s i t i v e e r r o r s i n s u r f a c e s t o r a g e c a u s e d a d e c l i n e i n a v e r a g e i n f i l t r a t i o n w i t h

t i m e e x p l a i n i n g fi e ld d a t a c o l l e c te d d u r i n g t w o i r ri g a t io n e v e n t s ( m i l l e t o n

t h e 1 : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r a n d t r i t i c a l e o n t h e 1 : 1 4 0 0 b o r d e r ) . T h e s e d a t a s u g g e st ad i s c h a r g e o f w a t e r f r o m t h e s o i l s u r fa c e ( a n e g a t i v e i n f il t r a t io n ) .

T h e s e n s i ti v i ty o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e H o r t o n e q u a t i o n t o e r r o r s i n m e a -

s u r e m e n t o f i n fl o w a n d s u r fa c e s t o ra g e w a s i n v e s t ig a t e d u s in g t h e f ie l d d a t a

f r o m t h e s e c o n d s p r in g i r r i g a t i o n o f th e I : 1 0 0 0 b o r d e r .

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38 LH. HUME

E r r o r s o f ___ 1 0 % i n m e a s u r e d i n f l o w c a u s e d e r r o r s i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s , y, r

a n d ~ o f _+ 2 4 . 6 9 m m , _+ 0 . 7 6 a n d _+ 0 . 0 2 8 m m / m i n , r e s p e c t i v e l y , w h i l e e r r o r s

i n m e a s u r e d s u r f a c e s t o r a g e o f + 1 0 % c a u s e d e r r o r s i n 7, r a n d t$ o f + 1 5 . 89

m m , + 0 . 56 a n d + 0 . 0 2 4 m m , r e sp e c ti ve ly . T h e p o t e n t i a l e r r o r in t h e p a r a m -e t e r e s t i m a t e s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s p a t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s d e t e r -

m i n e d d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h e a c c u r a c y w i t h w h i c h i n f lo w c o u l d b e m e a -

su re d i n p r ac t i ce i s ___3 % , w h i c h w o u l d l e a d t o e r r o r s o f _ 7 m m i n ~, a n d

_+ 0 . 0 0 8 m m / m i n i n ~ . F o r a n i n f i l tr a t i o n e v e n t l a s ti n g 6 h t h e e r r o r i n e s ti -

m a t i n g t h e d e p t h o f w a t e r i n f i l t r a t io n w o u l d b e _+ 1 0 m m .

I n a p p l y i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e i ts s e n s i t i v it y t o t h e l e ve l o f e r r o r s i n i n p u t d a t a

m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d . W i t h k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s iz e o f t h e s e e r r o r s t h e s ig n if i-

c a n c e o f te m p o r a l a n d s p a ti a l tr e n d s i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h d e s c r ib e i nf il -

t r a t io n c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d .M o s t v o l u m e b a la n c e t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r f u rr o w i rr i g at io n

w h e r e t h e r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e v o l u m e s o f s u r f a c e s to r a g e a n d i n f i l tr a t i o n is l es s

t h a n u n d e r b o r d e r c h e c k i r r ig a t io n . I n a p p l y i n g t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s to b o r d e r

c h e c k i r r i g a ti o n t h e s e n s i t i v it y o f t h e t e c h n i q u e t o e r r o r s i n m e a s u r i n g s u r fa c e

s t o r a g e i s i n c r e a s e d .

CONCLUSIONS

S o i l i n f i l t r a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c r a c k i n g c l a y s o il s c a n b e d e r i v e d b y v o l -u m e b a l a n ce w i t h c o n f i d e n c e o n ly w h e n :

( 1 ) T h e s o il is i n t h e s w o l l e n , n o n - c r a c k e d s t a te .

( 2 ) C u m u l a t i v e i r ri g a ti o n in f l o w is m e a s u r e d c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d w i t h a n a c -

cu ra cy o f ___3 % o r b e t t e r .

( 3 ) S u r f a c e s t o ra g e o f i r r ig a t i o n w a t e r is m e a s u r e d a c c u r a t e ly b y d e t e r m i n i n g

w a t e r d e p t h a t a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s ( 1 0 ) w i t h i n th e t es t b o r d e r .

G i v e n a c c u r a t e i n p u t d a t a t h e r e g r e s s i o n a p p r o a c h t o f i tt i n g i n f i l tr a t i o n fu n c -t io n s b y v o l u m e b a la n c e e n a b le s t h e s e le c t io n o f t h e f o r m o f f u n c t i o n w h i c h

b e s t f i t s th e d a t a a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e p h y s i c a l p ro c e s s e s g o v e r n i n g in f i l tr a t io n .

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