Volume 2 Safe Working Near Water

Fire Service Manual

Volume 2Fire Service Operations

Safe Working near,on or in water

HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications SectionLondon: TSO

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Preface

The experience of recent years suggests that theincidence of problems due to river flooding maybe getting worse, both in frequency and in scale.This arises from changes in river hydrology due tohuman activity, changes in land management, vari-ations in the intensity of rainfall and the increase indevelopment in areas at risk. In addition, climatechange is expected to increase the risk of bothcoastal and river flooding as a result of sea-levelrise and more intense rainfall. On both a nationaland global scale, it is already the case that damagefrom flooding is greater than that from any othernatural disaster.1

“Approximately 10,000km2 (or 8% of the totalarea) of land in England is at risk from river flood-ing, including tidal rivers and estuaries.Approximately 30% of the coastline is developedand some 2,500km2 of land (1.5% of the total area)is at risk of direct flooding by the sea. As a result,about 1.7 million homes and 130,000 commercialproperties worth over £200 billion and 1.3M Ha ofagricultural land worth about £7 billion are at riskfrom flooding. This equates to about 10% of thepopulation and 12% of the agricultural land,including 61% of Grade 1 agricultural land".2

In view of the changing climatic conditions wenow encounter, the Water Working Group wastasked to develop a manual that would assistbrigades in the development of safe systems ofwork when dealing with water rescue incidents. Aswith all guidance documents, it is not definitive innature, and should not be viewed as a 'one stopshop' for all eventualities.

One of the most important factors in any water-based incident is pre-planning. This involves iden-tification of water stretches which possess thepotential to flood or freeze; canals where there isempirical evidence of road traffic incidents; lakeswhich seasonally attract large groups of people etc.All of which may require brigade assistance in aworst-case outcome.

The premise of this manual is to effectively man-age the health and safety of Fire Service personnelwhen dealing with water-related incidents. TheWater Working Group hopes that this documentwill go a long way in affording information andassisting in meeting this objective.

1 Environment Agency 2001 Report2 DTLR Planning Policy Guidance 25: Development and Flood Risk

Safe Working near: on or in water iii

HM Fire Service Inspectorate

Fire and Rescue Service Manual

Volume 2 Fire Service Operations -Safe Working near, on or in water

Large Animal Rescue

ISBN 011 341282 7

Please find enclosed a new Chapter 7 of the above. This chapter specifically deals with the rescue of large animals. Although it appears within this Manual, the general information can also be used for the generic response to this type of rescue, as many of the techniques that are employed are the same for whatever environment they are being deployed in. This guidance has been put together using the vast experience of those F&RS's that have been involved with these types of rescue for a considerable pefiod of time and with the help of experts from Plumpton Agricultural College.

Any questions regarding the chapter should, in the first instance, be directed to Assistant inspector Keith Ring on keith.ring @odpm.gsi.gov.uk

Published with the permission of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister on behalf of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

© Crown Copyright 2005

Copyright in the typographical arrangement and design rests with the Crown.

This is a value added publication, which falls outside the scope of the HMSO Licence.

Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to

HMSO, The Licensing Division, St Clements House, 2-16 Colgate. Norwich NR3 1BQ Fax: 01603 723000 or email: copyright®hmso,gov.uk

Printed in Great Britain on material containing 75% post-consumer waste and 25% EGF pulp.

www.tso.co.uk

This new section is being issued free of charge to all known recipients of 0 11 341268 1.

This section cannot be purchased as a separate item.

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Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction and Service Aim 1.1 Introduction

1.2 Service Aim

Chapter 2 - Water/Incident types 2.1 General 2.2 Hazards associated with incidents near, on or in water 2.3 Health Issues

Chapter 3 - Operational Procedures 3.1 Actions on Arrival 3.2 Rescue Options 3.3 Preparatory Work 3.4 General Health and Safety Rules 3.5 Survival Techniques 3.6 Vehicles in Water 3.7 Casualties With a Canal Lock 3.8 Rescues From Ice 3.9 Rescues From Mud 3.10 Animal Rescues 3.11 Body Recovery

Chapter 4 - Personal Health Considerations 4.1 General 4.2 Weils Disease - Leptospirosis 4.3 Blue Green Algae 4.4 Hepatitis A 4.5 Gastrointestinal 4.6 Man-made Pollution

Chapter 5 - Training Courses 5.1 Awareness Level 5.2 Water Safety and Rescue Initial Operational Response 5.3 Water Rescue Specialist Level 5.4 Water Safety and Rescue Instructor/Assessor

Glossary of terms

References

Acknowledgements

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Introduction and Service Aim

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 GeneralWorking near, on or in water is inherently haz-ardous, and is an area where fire brigade experi-ence is currently limited to pumping operationsand infrequent rescues therefore training is essen-tial. Where Brigades wish to have a deeperinvolvement in water rescues they should seekappropriate specialist training in this field, prior toimplementing policy and purchase of equipment.

This guidance is provided to highlight the commonhazards and risks that brigades may need toaddress at operational incidents involving water. Itis not intended to be a replacement for specific riskassessments or operational procedures thatbrigades are required to have in place in order tocomply with their duties under health and safetylegislation, or training documents.

It is not the purpose of this document toencompass any form of subsurface search andrescue. This is a very specialised area, whichmost brigades are not equipped or trained toundertake.

Two particular issues are worthy of further atten-tion. These are issues surrounding national andstrategic response to water safety and the use ofvolunteer rescuers.

1.1.2 Strategic issuesIn assessing their operational procedures and levelof commitment brigades should take into accountthe range of services that may be available in theirarea, including the RNLI and other specialistteams.

The role of the fire service in water emergencieswill probably be a developing one in the context ofan overall national strategy. hire Authorities needto be aware of this national strategy and makeclear decisions regarding the level of activity thewish their brigades to undertake in this respect.They will also need to determine the level of finan-cial and other support they a willing to provideto enable brigades to do this on their behalf.

Brigades should consider developing and main-taining a hazard log of known water 3 e.g.lakes, locks, weirs etc. This should 1 containinformation such as access/egress points, steepembankments etc. Visual aids such as picturesshould also be included as this will afford greatercrew familiarisation, as would site visits.

The command role at water rescue incidentsshould be pre-planned in liaison with the police,particularly with respect to command protocolsand the provision and available of resources.

1.1.3 VolunteersIn any rescue scenario members of the public aswell as "volunteers" from organisations maybecome involved. Brigade procedures should pro-vide clear guidance for incident commanders onwhat to expect and do in such situations.Organised volunteer rescuers may not be familiarwith fire brigade operational management proce-dures at incidents and may well impede rescueefforts. However, in some situations such volun-teers may have skills and expertise, which will beof value to the incident commander.

The pre-planning for operational incidentsinvolving water rescues should include appropriate

Safe Working near, on or in water 1

liaison with organised volunteer groups wherever

their assistance is likely to be offered.

It is recommended that good communication links

and agreed protocols are established based on this

guidance and the Brigade Incident Command

System.

1.2 Service Aim

1.2 1 GeneralThe public perceive the Fire Service as the primerescue service across a wide range of hazardoussituations including water related incidents.

The Fire Service recognises this moral responsibil-ity and endeavours to provide an appropriate levelof response to all distress calls it receives.

'Water related incidents' is in itself a generic termand can encompass fast flowing water, still ponds,canals, weirs and areas of mud and slurry.Potential variables can be added to these basicwater types, for example geographic factors suchas remote locations, steep banking and restrictedaccess.

Climatic extremes can add further to the complex-ity of these incidents and significantly change theapproach required to particular problems, i.e.extreme cold resulting in water courses formingice and presenting a new set of hazards to crews.

These physical scenarios confronting rescuers canthen be exacerbated by the nature of the emer-gency and what is involved. Some examples mightbe; submerged cars, boats, aircraft; people or ani-mals requiring rescue or recovery; or environmen-tal protection issues, such as chemical spillages.

1.2.2 The response to water related incidentsprovided by brigades could be described as havingthree sequential levels.

(i) AwarenessTo make personnel, who may be expected to worknear water as part of their service role, aware ofthe hazards associated with working in such vicini-ties.

(ii) Initial Operational ResponseFirst attendance crews, with knowledge, experi-ence, training, and safe working practices and pro-cedures for attempting those rescues advised uponin this document.

(iii) Specialist crewsSpecially trained crews with appropriate knowl-edge and experience, and a range of specialistequipment to facilitate more complex rescue oper-ations.

The provision of specialist crews and equipmentwill of course be dependent on a brigadeidentifying a need to provide this resource.

Fire Service Manual2


Water/Incident Types

2.1 General

Water can be broadly defined under two headings,Still and Flowing:

2.1.1 Still

• Swimming Pools• Ponds• Lakes• Reservoirs• Urban Rural floodwater• Unstable ground

2.1.2 Flowing

• Canals• Rivers, tidal and non-tidal• Urban/Rural floodwater• Coastal waters and sea lochs

Water related incidents involving people oranimals could occur at any of the watercoursesshown above and will fall under the category ofRescue or Recovery.

Listed below are the most common types ofincident:

Rescues from rivers/canalsRescues from vehicles in waterRescues from iceRescues from mudAnimal rescuesFloodwater situationsBody recovery

2.2 Hazards associated withincidents near, on or in water

Firefighters as part of their duties may be involvedin activities working with and alongside water.Normally, this involve pumping from ponds,lakes and rivers, but on occasions they will becalled upon to rescue persons and animals fromwater, sometimes in hazardous, time-criticalsituations.

It is essential that personnelappreciate the hazards associatedwith working near, on or in water.

These may include:• Current, flow, undertow eddies, whirlpools,

weirs, stoppers• Force of water• Temperature• Depth• Water clarity• Pollution/Contamination Biological risks• Mud, silt, roots, weeds ad rocks• Entrapment, debris, trees fencing, cars, shop-

ping trolleys - strainers• Panic of drowning person• Riverbank quay-side conditions (slips, trips

and falls)• Surface vessel movement and water borne

debris• Impacts from casualties and animals• Muscular skeletal injuries caused by over-

reaching, pulling and lifting• Drowning/Fatigue• Danger from action of bystanders• Equipment falling in• Electrical hazards overhead powerlines etc• Inadequate lighting• Helicopters (noise, downdraft etc.)


This list is not exhaustive.

The Operational Procedures Section of thisdocument outlines the actions to be takenby crews to minimise the risk posed as aconsequence of the above hazards. However,special consideration should be given to thefollowing:

2.2.1 Flood water

• Flooding may occur in natural or unnaturalconditions and may result in still or flowingwater. Although the approach to flooding willbe the same as any other still or flowing waterincident, Brigades need to be aware of thespecific nature of spate conditions in theirarea.

• Extreme care must be taken when walking inareas covered by water. Items such as man-hole covers may have been displaced byfloodwater. A flooded area of roadway,which may appear to be only inches deep,may have a large number of deep hazardsbelow the surface. Basements may containvery deep water, which may not be immedi-ately evident. As water levels recede there isstill a potential risk from mud and depositeddebris e.g. trees leaning on houses etc.

• Watercourses which under normal circum-stances would be considered a relatively safeworking environment may present a serious-ly high safety risk i.e. a stream usually onlyinches deep now contains several feet of fastflowing flood water.

• Spate conditions are likely to give rise to ahigh volume of fast moving water, whichmay rapidly affect rescue operations.Consideration should be given to the speed atwhich a watercourse may rise.

• Due to the protracted nature of working infloods, consideration should be given tocrews' hygiene and welfare, especially rota-tion of crews, catering and provision of PPEfor oncoming crews and shift changes.

4 Fire Service Manual

2.2.2 River Current/Flow

There are two types of current generated as waterflows along a river: helical flow and laminar flow.

Helical Flow: The hazard provided by this currentis that an object in moving water will tend to beswept away from the bank into the centre of theriver.

Figure 2.I

Laminar Flow: the flow of water in the middle ofa river is generally the fastest, with the speeddecreasing towards the edges, as the water isaffected by friction from either the banks, theriverbed, or the air/wind on the surface. This doesnot provide a particular hazard in itself, but it isworth noting that it causes water near to the sur-face to move more quickly than water near theriverbed.

Figure 2.2

Helical Flow

LaminarFlow

Fast currentshifts to theoutsidecutting awayfrom the bank

Accumulated debriscollects on theinside of the bend

Figure 2.3

Furthermore, at a bend in the river, water on theoutside of the curve will travel faster than that onthe inside, possibly creating undercut banks on theoutside and shallows on the inside of bends.

Face

Tow Back

Weir

Route

Boil Line Outwash

2.2.3 Tidal Conditions

Some rivers, inlets and estuaries are influenced bytides often some distance from the coast. It isworth noting that the depth of water will some-times change very rapidly. Ground that has driedout following a falling tide can be rapidly floodedwhen the tide turns and care must be taken toavoid being cut off or isolated from exit points.

The rate of flow can change from nil to rapid andthe direction of the flow may reverse. Theseeffects may occur over a very short time interval atleast twice a day, and will vary from day to day.Brigades should consider local knowledge in pre-planning.

drawn upstream towards the face of the weir by thetow back then forced under the surface, to beflushed out further downstream. In many cases theperson or object is again caught by the tow backand circulated in a similar manner.

2.2.5 Force of Water

The force of water exerted against an object isdirectly related to the speed of the flow. A flow oflm per second exerts a force of almost 8kgs on aperson's legs (in a depth of approximately 1metre). If the flow doubles to 2m per second theforce quadruples to 32kgs.

Double the water speed = quadruple the forceThus, standing in fast flowing water is extremelydangerous.

2.2.6 Strainers

The main hazard associated with a strainer is thata person or object may be drawn against it andtrapped by the force of water passing through it.Examples of strainers are tree roots, fences, gates,cars, vegetation, urban debris.

2.2.4 Weirs/Stoppers

Weirs present a specific hazard. Weirs have fastflowing water, dangerous currents, erosion, chang-ing levels and possible undertows.

All personnel are advised to be especially cau-tious when working near a weir or stopper.

The hazards presented by these currents to aperson or object in the water is that they will be

2.2.7 Entrapment

A similar hazard to strainers exists where fastmoving water flows against a solid object, such asa bridge pillar. Although most objects will tend tobe flushed around the obstacle, a person or boat

Safe working near; on or in water 5

Escape Re-circulating Current

Escape Route

that hits side on can be pinned against it with con-siderable force. Rocks or other debris below thewater surface may cause entrapment hazards to per-sonnel in the water and entanglement of lines. Thisis particularly hazardous in flowing water where theweight of water may also cause a loss of balance.

2.2.8 Debris

All watercourses contain debris of some sort. Thisis the load carried by a river. This can be debrispicked up along the way and carried by the floweither on the surface or suspended in the water,such as, trees, driftwood, or the debris could bemanmade. Any of these could pose a threat to thecasualty and a danger to personnel.

Open water especially floodwater contains lots offine particles. These affect the clarity of the waterresulting in little or no visibility through the water.

2.2.9 Eddies

Where water flows around an obstacle such as aboulder or car, the area behind the obstacle isusually calm water, possibly flowing backupstream. This can provide a good area for aswimmer to rest or to bring a casualty ashore.However, in fast flowing rivers with a high volumeof water, the current in the eddy can be fastflowing and turbulent.

2.2.10 Temperature

The importance of water temperature cannotbe over-emphasised. In cold water a good strongswimmer can quickly be reduced to a non-swimmer because of the effects of immersionhypothermia.

Summer inland water temperatures are known toaverage between 10° and 15°C. Winter tempera-tures are substantially below this. The depth ofwater will affect the temperature, as the waterbecomes deeper it will be much colder.

In such temperatures, survival time may be aslittle as 2 minutes and death by drowning is alikely consequence.


For comparison purposes, swimming pool temper-atures are from 24-28° C.

N.B. Wearing a life jacket will not afford protectionagainst the effects of temperature - see section3.4.5.

2.3 Health issuesThere are three principal health issues to consider;

• Hypothermia• Drowning• Infection

2.3.1 Symptoms of Hypothermia

For example

• Shivering• Slurred speech• Lack of co-ordination• Cold to the touch

Personnel need to be familiarwith the symptoms ofhypothermia, which shouldbe included in Brigade firstaid courses.

Foil space blankets used alone do not raise bodytemperature. They will maintain existingtemperature if placed directly against the skin ofa coldwet casualty. Dry blankets or clothingshould be placed next to the casualty's skin withthe foil blankets placed over the top to provideinsulation, this may assist in raising the casualty'stemperature.

2.3.2 Drowning

Sudden immersion into cold water can cause asharp intake of breath, resulting in panic breathingand frequent submersion.

Respiratory distress and lack of buoyancy maycause a casualty to sink at the same time asswallowing large volumes of water.

In cold water even strong swimmers may not beable to co-ordinate their breathing and themuscular action of swimming.

Water is prevented from entering the lungs by acombination of repeated swallowing and laryngealspasm. This eventually leads to hypoxia [oxygenlack], loss of consciousness and ultimately death.Water usually enters the lungs only at the point ofdeath when the larynx becomes relaxed.

Where a drowning casualty is successfully rescuedand resuscitated, they may appear to have fullyrecovered. However, secondary drowning mayoccur if water has entered the body, death mayoccur up to seventy-two hours later.

Crews dealing with drowning casualties shouldundertake appropriate First Aid and always con-vey the casualty to hospital.

2.3.3 Water borne diseases

Polluted water can contain some of the followingdiseases;

All of which can be fatal. The one most commonlyassociated with water contact is Weils Disease.

N.B.• These issues should be dealt with by the

Brigade Medical Office r.• More information is given under Personal

health considerations - Chapter 5.

Safe working near; on or in water 7

• Salmonella

• Amoebic Dysentery• Tetanus• Typhoid• Polio• Hepatitis• Weils Disease (Leptospirosis)


Operational Procedures

3.1 Actions on Arrival

3.1.1 General

En route to an incident the primary task is to begina Risk Assessment of the location based onexisting knowledge.

The initial Incident Commander at a water incidentmay be faced with many difficult decisions. Thegreatest difficulty may be in stopping ill-conceivedand reckless rescue attempts being made by mem-bers of the public (where a rescuer may become acasualty). Brigade personnel may also occasional-ly require some restraint.

On arrival a Dynamic RiskAssessment is to be undertaken toidentify the requisite controlmeasures, to ensure the safety ofpersonnel.

The Incident Commander must endeavour to exer-cise firm control to ensure that members of thepublic, or volunteers unauthorised by them, do notventure into the water.

When a person has disappeared below the surfaceof the water it is extremely difficult to render assis-tance without specialist equipment or personnel.

3.1.2 Any witnesses should be interviewed toascertain what has happened, how many peopleare involved, where the casualty was last seen etc.A dynamic risk assessment should be carried outand a logical plan of action devised and initiated asquickly as possible, taking into account all identi-fied hazards.

3.2 Rescue options

A hierarchy of options, which may be considered(starting with the option offering the lowest risk tothe rescuer) is:



Important considerations for the firstattendance are :

• Crew safety

• Deployment of safety personnel.

• Stabilise the scene and make safe

• Prepare for oncoming Specialist crews

• Only the minimum number of personnelshould be used to undertake the task safelyas identified by the Dynamic RiskAssessment. (ALARP - As Low aReasonably Practicable)

• Weather conditions and the duration of theincident may increase the requirement torotate crews

• At night, lighting of the scene is a priority

• In flowing water incidents spotters shouldbe deployed upstream of the location of therescue operations. Ideally on both sides ofthe river, these spotters can alert other personne1 of approaching hazards.

• Consider alternative measures to colter for asudden change of situation i.e. prepare asecondary plan of action. It: may be neces-sary to consider several action plans toachieve a successful rescue.

-

Consideration should be given to the use of aSearch and Rescue Helicopter, and/or specialistteams.

3.2.1 Talk

Where possible it is important that quick contact ismade and maintained with the casualty. Keep talk-ing to them, explain what you are going to do, whatyou want them to do and keep encouraging them.

Figure 3.1

3.2.2 Reach

With equipment from the appliance - e.g. ceilinghook, chimney rods, inflated fire hose etc. pull thecasualty to the bank. The rescuer should bracethemselves for a possible major force pulling themtowards the water when contact is made with thecasualty.

Figure 3.2

3.2.3 Throw

A buoyant object may be thrown to the casualtyfor stabilisation or the casualty may be pulled tosafety by throwing out a floating line.


Figure 3.3

3.3 Preparatory workMake preparations for the arrival of the appropri-ate specialist assistance e.g. introduce a restrictedarea/risk zone and appropriate risk control mea-sures.

3.3.1 Row

Use of boats if available is safer than swimming.

Ideally these should be boats familiar to thecrews on which they have received specialisttraining.

Figure 3.4

3.3.2 Go

Only if all these fail and as a very last resort, enterthe water wearing the appropriate PPE with abuoyancy aid, specialised helmet and a safety line.This should only be undertaken if considered safe,on the basis of a dynamic risk assessment under-taken by the Incident Commander.

The use of fire kit in the water should be riskassessed. Whilst it may be buoyant and offer lim-ited thermal protection for a short period of time, itmay prove to be a hindrance and create drag. (Seealso section 3.4.3.)

• Talk

• Reach

• Throw

• Row

• Go

By entering the water the rescuermay be exposed to a number ofhazards, this option should only beundertaken after a dynamic riskassessment by the IncidentCommander taking account of allhe risks against the likelihood of a

successful rescue.

Summary• Start dynamic risk assessment on receipt

of call

• Use preplanning information/localknowledge

• Gather information

• Establish risk

• Consider specialist assistance

• Consider access

• Consider PPE and equipment requirements

• Formulate plan

• Initiate plan

• Implement appropriate level of incidentcommand

Review dynamic assessment

mount if sustained, effective assistance is tobe afforded to the casualty.

• Keep It Simple and Safe. Water rescue shouldnot be unnecessarily complicated.

• Always have a backup plan.• In moving water always deploy upstream

spotters and multiple downstream backups.• The 'Clean Rope Principle' should be

followed; i.e there are no knots or loops tiedin the line, which may create an entrapmenthazard.

• Once the casualty is spotted never lose sightof them.

• Never put your feet down if swept away• Never tie a rope around a rescuer. The only

method of attaching a rope to a rescuer in thewater is by a specialist quick release harness.

• Never tension the line at a right angle to or inthe current.

• When working near, on or in water, only uselines specified for that purpose (floatinglines)

• Never rely entirely on the casualty to help intheir own rescue

• Always be pro-active. Identify risks andwhere possible remove or reduce them.

3.4.2 Restricted Area/Risk Zone

(a) Wherever possible this should extend to a min-imum of 3m from the water's edge. Most acci-dents result in drowning after a casualty slips,trips, or falls from the bank from within 3m of thewater's edge.

(b) To reduce risk and provide a safer workingarea, all personnel that are required to work withinthe restricted area/risk zone must be dressedappropriately. The minimum standard being:

Full Firefighting Kit.

Life Jacket/buoyancy aid.

3.4 General Health and SafetyRules

3.4.1 The basic safety rules when attendingwater related incidents (WRI) are as follows:

• Always use the correct equipment as identi-fied by the risk assessment. e.g. PPE, fallrestraint, lines etc

• Wear appropriate Personal ProtectiveEquipment when within the risk zone.

• Always deploy safety personnel.• At the scene, the safety and security of the

rescuer and fellow team members is para-

N.B. A risk assessment should be used to determinethe need to wear a fire helmet when workingnear water. The fire helmet should BE removedunless there is a risk of falling debris (this is toprevent a neck injury in the event of personnelfalling in the water).

Safe Working near,; on or in water 11

t

•

Review plan•

(c) A safe route should be identified and markedfrom the nearest access point to the (restrictedarea) scene of operations (outside the risk zone).('Traffic tape' may be used to indicate this route).

Any significant hazards that may cause injury e.g.trip hazards, should be clearly marked and identi-fied to all personnel working in the vicinity.

The options for performing a rescue havebeen itemised earlier, these being: Talk,Reach, Throw, Row, Go and the considera-tion of a Helicopter and/or specialist teams.

Personnel should attempt low risk options first,talk, reach and throw. Should these proveunsuccessful the options to be considered byIncident commanders should balance the risksagainst possible success, only committing per-sonnel appropriately trained and equipped toenter the water.

3.4.3 Swimming Rescues

Where the Incident Commander is faced with arescue situation and (after considering all othercourses of action) it is determined that the onlypossible approach is to commit personnel to thewater to carry out a swimming rescue, thefollowing control measures must be put inplace:

• All personnel must be fully briefed regardingthe rescue procedure and the role of eachindividual.

• A separate Safety Officer should be appointedto supervise each individual in the water.

• Effective communications must be estab-lished and maintained between the IncidentCommander, the rescuer and all safetypersonnel.

• Anyone entering the water should be dressedappropriately, i.e. a lifejacket or buoyancyaid, dry suit and a specialised helmet. A float-ing line attached to a specialist quick releaseharness should be used to secure each res-cuer. The harness may be released by thewearer should the need arise (this should onlybe in the event of an emergency and therescuer should in any event immediately exit

the water). A separate Safety Officer shouldcontrol each line.

• Downstream (if flowing water), a boom ofinflated fire hose, a Brigade boat, or person-nel with throwing lines, should be positionedas a safety measure for any casualty or res-cuer who may be carried along with the flow.When using throwing lines, the number ofsafety personnel should reflect the number ofcasualties and rescuers in the danger area, butin any case must be a minimum of two.

• Personnel wearing appropriate PPE (e.g. lifejacket) and having communication with theIncident Commander should be deployed asspotters upstream of the rescue scene to giveadvance warning of any surface hazard head-ing towards the area of operations. Theirposition should be such as to allow adequatetime for any rescuers in the water to get clearof the rescue scene before the hazard arrives.

In situations where it has been determined that aswimming rescue will be attempted, aids to buoy-ancy such as inflated fire hose, may be used toassist with buoyancy of the casualty and therescuer.

3.4.4 Individual Safety Officer -Responsibilities

• The rescuer's safety.• Continuously monitor the condition of the

rescuer. ( e.g. exposure to climatic extremes,fatigue etc.)

• To have overall control of the rescuer's line.• Maintain visual and verbal contact with the

rescuer.• Before the rescuer enters the water, ensure

sufficient personnel are suitably equipped toundertake an emergency recovery of therescuer.

• Initiate emergency action if necessary.

The only tasks allocated to the IndividualSafety Officer (whilst the rescuer is in thewater) will be to ensure the safety of the rescuerand control the floating line.

Although it is not essential for the IndividualSafety Officer to have direct contact with the float-ing line, they must be in sole control of and be in


constant verbal and visual contact with the rescuerand personnel holding the floating line.

If either verbal or visual contact breaks down atany point during the rescue attempt, the IndividualSafety Officer must initiate emergency action bywithdraw ing the rescuer (if necessary by physicallyremoving).

Raising one hand directly abovethe head is a recognised methodfor a rescuer to indicate they arein difficulty and/or need removingfrom the water. All personnel mustunderstand this signal and theaction to take should it be given.

A signal from the shore to the rescuer to let themknow something has gone wrong and they mustcome out should be provided utilising the existingevacuation whistle or other appropriate device.

Entry into the water must be done slowly to min-imise cold-water shock and reduce the chance ofinjury. The person entering the water may use ameans of gauging the depth, e.g. ceiling hook.

ANY IMMERSION IN COLDWATER CAN COMPROMISEGOOD SWIMMERS ALMOSTIMMEDIATELY.

3.4.5 Cold Water Reflex

Sudden immersion in cold water will result in aninstant intake of breath. The inward gasp of breathis unavoidable due to the body demanding moreoxygen. (This is an automatic body response overwhich people have no control). Should this hap-pen under the water the consequences of a mouthor lung full of water are obvious.

When entering cold water, if there is a possibilityof your head accidentally submerging below thesurface, it is essential to clamp your nose andmouth shut with your hands. You may not preventthe reflex but you may stop water entering yourrespiratory system.

The Incident Commander must ensure continuousmonitoring of the condition of all personnel byregular verbal and visual assessment. Personnelshowing any signs of shivering, slurred speech orreductions in levels of response should beconsidered to be suffering from the initial signs ofhypothermia, and should be withdrawnimmediately.

3.4.6 Panic of a Drowning Person

A drowning person when physically contacted byan in-water rescuer may attempt to climb on top ofthe rescuer, overcoming the rescuer's buoyancyand submerging them both.

3.4.7 Control Measures

Physical contact with a struggling casualty shouldbe avoided whenever possible. Offer a buoyantaid, line, etc., tow casualty to safety.

3.4.8 Sub Surface Rescue/Recovery

The risks associated with many sub surface rescueattempts can be significant. It is often not possibleto reduce this risk to tolerable levels forFirefighters without the provision of specialistequipment and training to professional divingstandards.

Firefighters MUST NOT attemptsub surface rescues, which involvesthem placing their head under thesurface of the water

3.4.9 Breathing Apparatus (BA) for SubSurface Rescue

Fire Service BA must not be usedunder water. The equipment is notdesigned for such use.

3.5 Survival Techniques

Situations may occur when a firefighter uninten-tionally enters the water. The following advicemay assist personal survival:

Safe Working near; on or in water 13

3.5.1 Falling In

Personnel falling into water should:

• Tuck chin into chest, clamp nose and mouthshut, keep elbows close to the body, protecthead and face with hands and ensure legs aretucked together with knees bent (Tuck into aball).

• Once in the water personnel should orientatethemselves and locate the nearest bank orboat etc.

• In flowing water personnel should positionthemselves lying on their back, facing down-stream with the feet in front, near the surfacein order to fend off any entrapment hazard.

• Strainers present an extreme danger and arebest avoided. If contact with a strainer isunavoidable approach head first, make con-tact with outstretched arms, try to lift yourselfonto or over the strainer. If pinned against astrainer, attempt to keep the airway above thewater and if possible locate handholds toclimb over it. (The weight of water may makethis difficult).

• Swimming rapidly accelerates heat loss.Only swim if the bank or floating objects canbe reached.

3.5.2 Personnel requiring rescue should:

• Raise one hand above their head.

• Shout for help.

• Use the whistle attached to the life jacket toalert others.

• Try to stay calm.

3.5.3 Casualty Management

An ambulance must be requested as soon as possi-ble to all incidents where attempts are being madeto rescue someone from water. Where necessaryEvery effort should be made to resuscitate a casu-alty who has been rescued from water, prior to thearrival of the ambulance.


Immersion in cold water will quickly reduce thephysical and mental reserves of the strongest per-son, paralysing muscles and adversely affectingbreathing.

In addition to the risk from drowning, hypothermiawill quickly set in and can cause death. It isnecessary to obtain specialist medical care to treatnear drowning or hypothermia from cold waterimmersion.

A person rescued from water must be givenessential first aid treatment and both casualties andrescuers suffering from the possible effects ofhypothermia should be transported to hospital assoon as possible.

The casualty should be kept in a horizontalposition when recovered from the water andduring subsequent treatment to preventhypothermic shock.

3.6 Vehicles in Water

3.6.1 Introduction

Incidents involving vehicles in water presentextremely high risks to rescue personnel.

Therefore the following information is provided toassist the Incident Commander to make aninformed judgement on the appropriate actions totake and the control measures which will be nec-essary at incidents where vehicles are positionedin, or on water.

It may also be necessary to use additional skills andtechniques to deal with the incident, such as thoserelated to Road Traffic Accidents on a roadway.

This is not a definitive guide

3.6.2 Vehicle Behaviour

Initially, (even with all windows open) a car mayfloat and move from the point of entry. Theelectrical system (lights, wipers, radio and powerwindows) may still work even when a vehicle isfull of water.

• Once a vehicle is full of water other factorswill determine what happens next, such as the

nature of the riverbed, the surface current andweight and distribution of passengers or load

Figure 3.5

In flowing water, if the vehicle is side on tothe current on a solid riverbed, a roll is almostinevitable. Even in slow currents, a vehiclemay be rolled a considerable distance ifunimpeded (see 2.2.9 as the calmness ofeddies is not always guaranteed).

Figure 3.6

if the vehicle lands on its wheels, each tyrewill create an eddy, scooping mud, sand etcout so that the vehicle will settle onto its

Figure 3. 7

• If a vehicle comes to rest more or less straightin line with the current, water pressure willsink the upstream end of the vehicle deeperthan the downstream end.

• An eddy may be created on the downstreamside of the vehicle, which may appear torescue crews to provide a calm area of waterto work from. However, strict control mustbe exercised over crews working in this areaas there is the potential for the vehicle to rollin the direction of rescuers.

Figure 3.8

• Anchoring a line to each side of a vehiclemay reduce the risk of it rolling.

• If the vehicle is wedged against an obstacle,the area of eddy may appear a safer area forcrews to work from. However, theobject/condition causing the vehicle to bewedged may move or change, thus allowingthe vehicle to move whilst rescue operationsare in progress.

Figure 3.9

Safe working near ; on or in water 15

On a soft bottom, (mud, sand or small rocks).

3.6.3 Associated Hazards

• Sudden uncontrollable movement of the

vehicle.

• Entrapment of rescuers inside vehicle.

• Snags and sharp edges.

• Once the body panels of a vehicle are wet,they may be extremely slippery and difficultfor personnel to stand on or attempt to placeequipment on.

• Even in still water, movement of the load(e.g. passengers' etc) or rescuers clamberingonto it may cause the vehicle to move.

• In flowing water, careful considerationshould be given before breaking an upstreamor downstream window as this may dramati-cally change the integrity of the remainingwindows creating the possibility of theoccupants and rescuers being flushed down-stream.

• Personnel should not attempt to enter a sub-merged or partially submerged vehicle as theweight of water or vehicle fittings may causeentrapment inside the vehicle.

3.6.4 Rescue Considerations

• Effective and continuous communicationswill play an essential part in the success ofthe actions taken. Firefighters must be fullybriefed on the tasks they are to perform,including the aims and any control measurewhich will be in place. In addition to beingadvised of the activities being undertaken byFirefighters to rescue them, casualties need tobe reassured and instructed on what to do toassist with any rescue attempt.

• Where the incident involves a vehicle sub-merged below the surface of the water and itis not possible to render assistance withoutpersonnel going sub-surface, the IncidentCommander should await the arrival of thePolice Underwater Unit or other underwaterunit.


3.7 Casualties Within a CanalLock

Vessels that have capsized or sunk below the sur-face of the water may contain casualties trapped inair pockets.

• Crews should be aware that any work under-taken near a lock or its associated mecha-nisms is extremely dangerous, particularly topersons in the water.

• If the lock is full and the casualty is below thewater line, it is recommended that the lock beemptied. However extreme care should betaken to ensure that the casualty is nottrapped in the sluice gates.

• Personnel must not attempt to enter a sub-merged or partially submerged vessel, as therisk associated with this type of rescue maybe considered to be excessive, unless aneffective dynamic risk assessment has beenundertaken that determines a different courseof action.

Figure 3.I0

3.8 Rescues From IceThe Fire Service may be called upon to rescuepeople or animals from water covered in ice. Ifinflatable rescue paths (IRP) or boats, specificallydesigned for ice rescue are available, they shouldbe considered as the primary equipment for thistype of incident.

CanalBank

CanalBank

Plan View ofCanal Lock

Safety of personnel is paramount.Firefighters or bystanders shouldbe restrained from venturing ontothe ice.

• The IRP boat should be used in allinstances where it is necessary to cross ice torescue a casualty.

• Where a casualty is on the surface of the iceand visible from the bank, inflated fire hoseor throwing lines should be used to stabilisethe casualty's situation.

• Where the casualty is not visible on the sur-face from the waters edge, attempts should bemade to mark the last known position of thecasualty using features on the bank as a refer-ence point. This will assist the Police in therecovery operation

• Where a casualty is trapped directly under theice, carefully break the ice around the casual-ty, and remove them from the water as soonas possible.

• Where casualties or rescuers are sufferingfrom the effects of hypothermia, their bodytemperature needs to be raised. This can beachieved by providing protection from theelements, placing in warm dry clothing andtransporting to hospital as soon as possible.

3.9 Rescues From Mud

People or animals may find themselves trapped inmud either when the surface is so soft that theysimply sink to a point where movement becomesimpossible, or they break through a layer of a rel-atively from surface into a soft solution.

IN ANY EVENT, THE SURFACEPRESENTED TO A RESCUETEAM WLL BE POTENTIALLYTREACHEROUS.

• Time spent on reconnaissance is neverwasted. Consider the most effective route tothe casualty. The route the casualty tookmight not be the best route for access andrecovery. Adverse conditions or difficult ter-rain may require additional personnel orequipment.

• All rescue activities should be controlled andco-ordinated by the Incident Commanderfrom a safe working area on firm ground.Only the minimum number of personnel thatare required to complete the task successfullyshould be committed to the immediate areaaround the casualty. Access to a casualty maybe difficult due to the soft surface of the mud,making walking impossible. The only effec-tive method of travelling across mud is tospread the weight as widely as possibleacross the surface.

• Inflatable rescue paths should be used formud rescue. However, in some circum-stances, there may be a requirement to impro-vise using ladders, inflated fire hose, salvagesheets and boarding to provide a safe workingplatform around the casualty. Improvisationshould be supported by a risk assessment. Aboat may also be of value if the mud isadjacent to water.

• Initial activities should be directed towardsstabilisation of the casualty using lines, andpreparation for extrication.

3.9.1 Extrication

There are only two principal methods available forextrication from mud - water/air injection or dig-ging.

(a) Water/Air Injection

An IRP, or a salvage sheet and an extension ladderincorporating inflated fire hose should be laid outon the surface adjacent to the casualty to provide astable working platform for the rescuers.

• A line and/or strops should be passed aroundthe casualty (under the arms where possible)to give support and prevent further sinking.

down the sides of the casualty and moved


around the body in a circular motion, thisloosens the clinging muds and and breaks thesuction effect.

• As the mud lance/jet is being used, othermembers, working from the platform, shouldattempt to pull the casualty clear onto theplatform itself or firm ground.

(b) Digging

The term "Digging" is self-explanatory. However,considerable care should be exercised whenworking close to the casualty. It is likely that thecasualty will be partially numbed by the mud andmay not feel any contact with the spade. Seriousinjury may be caused that would not becomeapparent until the condition of the casualtyabruptly worsens, or they are evacuated andcleaned up.

Casualty Recovery

In all but the most minor cases the casualty shouldnot be allowed to walk out with the rescue team.Sudden release and attempts to stand may inducepost rescue collapse with possible fatal results.For this reason the casualty should be evacuated inas near a horizontal position as possible and con-veyed to hospital for medical attention.

3.10 Animal RescuesThe majority of incidents will involve farm ani-mals e.g. the release of a cow that has fallen into aslurry pit or a horse that has stumbled into a river.This type of rescue is potentially one of the mosthazardous tasks that firefighters perform and theIncident Commander must put strict control mea-sures in place on arrival at the scene.

In many instances animals manage to get to safetyunaided after falling into water. However, whilstthis should be taken into consideration, providedthe lives of Firefighters are not put at risk, attemptscan be made to rescue animals.

N.B. Animals in a distressed statemay act in an unpredictable way.Extreme care must be taken wherepersonnel are working close to ani-mals. Large animals may suddenlyfall or collapse onto rescuers possi-bly trapping them below water oron unstable ground. Care mustalso be taken to avoid injuriescaused by the animal kicking outat or biting the rescuers.

3.11 Body RecoveryThe recovery of bodies from water is not the roleof the Fire Service.

Apart from the risks normally associated with thiskind of operation the removal of a body from thewater presents the further risk to Firefighters ofcontamination from decaying body matter.

Requests to assist at this type of incident usuallyoriginate from the Police, who are responsible forall aspects associated with the discovery of a body,including recovery, documentation and notifica-tion to the Coroner/Procurator Fiscal.

Any incident where a body is discovered shouldinitially be treated as a crime scene requiringthe area to be disturbed as little as possible.

It is essential that a full assessment of the situationis carried out by the initial Incident Commander,which may result in no action by the Fire Servicebeing necessary.

The only situations where it may be necessary forthe Fire Service to consider taking some form ofaction to assist with the recovery of a body fromthe water are:


• In moving water where the body may beswept away and lost.

• Where, due to the location, the Police areunable to secure the area and by not removingthe body would cause unnecessary distress torelatives, residents or passers by.

Only in exceptional circumstances should crewsremove a body from water. This is a high risk andin most cases an unnecessary option.



Personal Health Considerations

4.1 GeneralPersonal hygiene is important where crews havebeen in contact with open water, mud or similar.All personnel must decontaminate as soon aspracticable and all equipment should be cleaned,tested and serviced in accordance with the periodicmaintenance schedule.

Infection control issues should be covered in aBrigade's infection control policy and procedures.The following information is provided to assist.

4.2 Weils Disease - Leptospirosis

4.2.1 Introduction

This information aims to give guidance inreducing the risk to personnel from Weils Diseaseand to recognise signs and symptoms for an earlyand effective treatment.

The infection is caused when Leptospires (minutebacteria) enter the human host through a skinabrasion or through the lining of the mouth, throat,or eyes, after contact with an infected animal'surine or contaminated water. There are manydifferent types of this organism each associatedwith different animals. The most commonly foundstrain in this country is Leptospira Hardjo, whichis associated with cattle. LeptospiraIcterohaemorrhagiae also occurs here and isassociated with rats.

Advice should be obtained from the brigademedical officer regarding the issue ofLeptospirosis risk cards.



4.2.2 Prevention

• Cover all cuts and broken skin withwaterproof plasters before and during work.

• Do not touch rats with unprotected hands

• Wear appropriate protective clothing.

• Wash hands after handling any animal or anycontaminated clothing or or materials andalways wash before eating drinking orsmoking.

• Avoid contact with stagnant or slow movingwater.

• Decontaminate after becoming immersed inopen water.

• Use footwear to avoid cutting feet.

4.2.3 Signs and symptoms

The first sign of Weil’s Disease is a flu-like illnesswithin about 3-4 days of the infection. After 6-7days a severe headache and conjunctivitis with thepossibility of meningitis follows. At 8-10 days,kidney failure and the beginnings of jaundice willbecome obvious. If no treatment is given thensevere kidney failure and the spreading of theorganism to other major organs such as liver,pancreas and intestines can occur, resulting inheart failure.

If any of the symptoms develop - inform yourGeneral Practitioner of the symptoms and that youare at risk from Leptospirosis.

4.3 Blue Green Algae 4.4 Hepatitis A

4.3.1 Introduction

Cyanobacteria - Blue Green algae frequentlyfound in fresh water. During extended periods ofwarm settled weather they multiply and form abloom on the surface of the water. The bloomsmay be flocculent or look like jelly or paint and arenormally blue green in colour, though othercolourants, red, brown, black can occur. Theblooms can appear and disappear with changingweather and the majority of blooms produceallergens and or toxins;

4.3.2 Signs and symptoms

• Dermatitis

• Eye irritation

• Gastro-enteritis

• Joint and muscle pain

• Pneumonia

• Liver damage

• Neurological conditions

The types and potency of toxins produced varyconsiderably, although ingestion of smallquantities of concentrated bloom could be fatal,human deaths are extremely rare. There have beennumerous cases of animal deaths.

4.4.1 Introduction

A virus present in faeces, which therefore arepresent in water, contaminated by sewage. Allworkers in and around inland waterways includingemergency rescue service personal are exposed tothe disease.

4.4.2 Signs and Symptoms

It has a variable incubation period of 15-50 days.Onset is usually abrupt producing fever,abdominal discomfort followed by jaundice. Manyinfections are relatively mild but in some casesprogress to prolonged and severely disablingdisease.

4.5 GastrointestinalAnother significant risk is the ingestion of bacteriathat cause gastrointestinal infection. Sewagecontains large numbers of organisms, Salmonellainfection is probably the principle bacteria risk butCampylobacter, Shigella, E. Coli and Listeria mayalso be present.

4.6 Man-made PollutionConsideration should be given to industrial/agricultural pollutants, also the presence of man-made contaminants such as needles and glass.



Training Courses

The courses detailed within this document areintended to provide a framework of water rescuetraining.

At the present time there is no UK standard forwater safety training. This document is thereforean interim framework and provides a checklist forbrigades to assess their own training needs.

The training need is seen as progressing incremen-tally;

5.1 Awareness Level General water safety aware-ness training for any fire authority personnel whomay work near water, not necessarily justuniformed operational staff, e.g. marine craftengineers, brigade mechanics, video technician etc.

5 2 Initial operationa1 response To give to uni-formed operational personnel who may, as part oftheir duties, form the initial attendance at water,mud and ice incidents, the underpinning knowl-edge to deal with those rescues advised upon inthis document.

5.3 Specialist Level Specialist training of crewsrequired to deal with more complex or involvedrescues from water, mud and ice.

5.4 Instructor Level Instructors are required totrain and assess personnel and therefore experi-ence of working near, on or in water is an essentialpart of their qualifications.

In every case brigades should risk assess the haz-ards that staff are likely to encounter and theequipment to be made available and structure thetraining accordingly.

The syllabus is a basic list and may be added to as

5.1 Awareness Level

Scope

A lecture room based presentation aimed at all per-sonnel who may be expected to work near water aspart of their normal role. The session is notdesigned to train the student to be a rescuer, but tomake people aware of the hazards associated withwater.

The dangers of working near water are explainedand basic safety measures are introduced to thestudent.

The session includes awareness of water-relatedhazards, water hydrology, scene organisation, prin-ciples of water safety, varying rescue optionsincluding low to high risk options and introductionto basic water safety PPE.

The presentation covers in full the requirements ofDCOL 2/2001 (Item A).

Pre-requisiteNone.

Aim

To develop personnel to Water Awareness level inwater safety.

To educate personnel in the hazards to which theymight be exposed whilst working near water.

Objectives

1. State the hazards associated with workingnear water.

2. State safety measures to be put in place whenworking near water.


trevorc

operationa1

3. Describe use of throw lines4. Describe selection of and correct donning of

water safety PPE.5. Describe self protection/ rescue techniques.

Learning outcomes

• Be aware of the hazards associated withwatercourses

For example

Water temperatureCurrent /HowPollution contaminationPublic, bystanders, moral pressureTraining, equipmentLocksWeirsIce, mud, unstable groundAccessEntrapmentDebrisCasualty (human or animal)Noise, communicationsVisibilityTime of day/year

• Have knowledge of the brigade policy andoperational procedures

• Principles of risk assessment• Be aware of the physiological effects of entry

into cold water• Have an appreciation of the physiology of

drowning• Have an appreciation of the difficulties asso-

ciated with rescues from ice and mud• Be aware of the effect of wearing fire kit in

various water environments.• Have an understanding of swift water hydrol-

ogy• Be proficient in the correct procedure for the

donning of PPE• Have knowledge of the use of throw bags• Have knowledge of the use of inflated fire

hose• Define the hazards associated with localised

features.

The above will be applicable to localisedconditions and work criteria.

5.2 Water Safety and RescueInitial Operational Response

Scope

This is a course aimed at operational personnelwho are likely to attend water rescue incidents aspart of their operational role. These personnel willbe trained in initial incident response.

Pre-requisiteAppropriate water awareness course.

Aim

To give the student the necessary underpinningknowledge and skills to carry out a dynamic riskassessment, make an initial rescue response andwhere appropriate prepare the scene for theattendance of specialist crews.

Objectives

• Define the issues related to initial response• Understand basic hydrology• Identify and correctly don and remove appro-

priate PPE• Identify and explain the roles of incident

command at water rescue incidents• Identify the hazards associated with flood sit-

uations• Identify and correctly use water rescue equip-

ment available on first attendance.• Demonstrate water rescue scene management• Demonstrate an understanding of medical

considerations specific to water rescues• Determine and demonstrate low to high-risk

rescue techniques - talk, reach, throw, row, go• Recognise the needs of and prepare for

oncoming specialist crews• Demonstrate techniques for moving across

flood or shallow water• Demonstrate use of inflated fire hose• Demonstrate use of inflatable pathways• Have an understanding of hazards associated

with water, in particular locks, weirs and sluices

• Have an understanding of hazards associated with mud and ice

• Undertake a dynamic risk assessment of water based scenarios


5.3 Water Rescue Specialist LevelScope

A course aimed at selected operational personnel.The course introduces water rescue equipmentincluding its safe and effective use and progres-sively develops the student to be confident in andaround moving water. As well as learning how toread the water, the student will spend time swim-ming, practising self-rescue techniques and per-forming in-water rescues.

The syllabus also includes boat and pathwayhandling, rope rescue techniques and considera-tion of still water and unstable ground hazardssuch as mud and ice.

Pre-requisite

Appropriate water initial operational responselevel course.

Aim

To train students to safely use water rescue equip-ment, whilst operating near, on, or in water.To teach students to be able to carry-out a waterrescue safely and provide the underpinning skillsand knowledge to do an effective dynamic riskassessment.

Objectives

• Explain the principles of water rescue• Demonstrate water rescue scene management• Show an awareness of water hydrology• Don, remove and operate in-water rescue

PPE• Demonstrate swimming and manoeuvring in

still and moving water and an ability to negotiate hazards

• Explain low to high-risk rescue options & their importance in risk assessment

• Demonstrate rescue techniques - talk, reach,throw, row & go.

• Demonstrate boat handling by paddle & teth- er

• Demonstrate rigging & operating of rope systems in accordance with training note

• Demonstrate deep water crossing with &without lines

• Demonstrate techniques for moving acrossflood or shallow water

• Demonstrate techniques for dealing with entrapment

• Demonstrate use of inflatable pathways• Demonstrate C spine immobilisation in water• Demonstrate contact rescues and an aware-

ness of the hazards• Demonstrate an understanding of medical

considerations specific to water rescues

5.4 Water Safety and RescueInstructor/Assessor

ScopeThe instructor/ assessor qualification cannot bedefined as a pre-determined course, at the end ofwhich an individual is deemed to be an instructor.It is a progressive development of an individualthrough the various levels, to a stage where theyare able to draw on a range of related skills andknowledge, combined with proven instructionalskills to deliver a recognised course. Due to thehazardous and unique nature of the water environ-ment it is deemed necessary for an individual tohave a consolidation period between courses/levels to enable them to gain experience andcompetence.

Approved training providers will offer courses toreflect each level including an instructor trainingcourse, attendance at which does not deemcompetency, this will be gained by subsequentassessment.

Pre-requisite

Proven experience of the water environment.Current qualifications equivalent to Water RescueSpecialist Level.Appropriate trainer assessor qualification.

Aim

To develop an individual to a level where he/she isable to competently deliver and assess a range ofWater Safety and Rescue courses.


Chapter 6 – Not Yet Published

Safe Working near, on or in water

Large Animal Rescue

Chapter

7

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Purpose of Chapter

To provide guidance at strategic and tactical Levels tbr the rescue of large animals by the Fire and Rescue Services. It is intended to inform the deci-sion-making process when determining policy, response options. equipment, training require-ments and includes some practical applications.

7.1. 2 Application

Some large animals (e.g. horses) are not always considered by their owners as livestock, they are companions, pets and in some cases a source of income or investment. In certain circumstances. therefore, owners arc prepared to risk their lives to undertake a rescue attempt. Because of the possible actions of owners and of others, the operational decision-making process will have to capture and cater for the potential risk to human life.

It is not uncommon for large animals to he involved in an overturned trailer/vehicle following a Road Traffic Collision (RTC). Large animals may also he found trapped in mud, trenches, rivers. swimming pools, septic tanks etc. trapped in farm fires or hung in fencing or equipment. Whilst it is not possible to provide specific guidance on every large animal incident a lire and Rescue Service may be requested to assist with, each incident will produce its own unique circumstances which will require varied training needs, equipment, and personal protective equipment (PPE). Correct application of the risk assessment process will identify the risks and necessary measures required to produce a safe system of work.

Fire and Rescue Services policy and strategy for large animal rescue will provide the necessary

knowledge, skills and understanding to enable per-sonnel who may be exposed to the hazards of large animal reseues as part of their role. This should then allow the firefighter to undertake rescues of an unusual nature using the principles and proce-dures detailed within this chapter.

Attendance at incidents involving domestic ani-mals, exotic animals and wild animals will nor-mally be determined by strategic risk assessment. Organisations such as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) can offer specialist advice to the Incident Commander.

Attendance at incidents involving the rescue of research animals should only be considered when a company expert is in attendance and a safe rendezvous point is established prior to any actions being undertaken by the Fire and Rescue Service.

7.1. 3 Format

The chapter is sub-divided into units as follows:

• Identification of Need • Risk Analysis • Response Options • Operational Procedures • Equipment Provision • Training • Operational Considerations • Incident Command System • Methods of Rescue

Safe Working near, on or in water 1/7

7.2 Identification of Need

7.2.1 Historical Information

Fire Authorities/Fire Boards via the Integrated Risk Management Process (IRMP) will ultimately decide whether their Service attends incidents involving large animals.

The Integrated Risk Management Process will provide the necessary information for detailed resource analysis to be made. The ability to interro-gate operational data from past incidents, including the type of incident, duration, type of rescue, use of equipment, injuries or near misses to employees, will ultimately provide the Fire and Rescue Services with the necessary information to assist in the deci-sion making process. The operational area of each Fire and Rescue Service whether urban or rural will differ in terms of public expectation and service delivery. The level of provision in terms of equip-ment and training required for large animal rescues is high, and must be taken in to account when deter-mining policy.

7.2.2 Large Animals at Risk

Large animals include livestock, pigs, sheep, cows, bulls and horses. Visiting circuses or wild animal parks will contain unusual animals not normally native to this country such as elephants, rhino etc. Fire and Rescue Services must take these risks into account when determining policy.

7.2.3 Other Risks

Other risks include environmental dangers gener-ated by the incident location. Large animal rescues may be from water (still or fast flowing), RTCs and incidents which involve the use of lifting equip-ment. The owner of the animal may take irrational actions due to the plight of the animal.

7.3 Risk Analysis

7.3.1 Hazard Identification

Health and Safety guidance document HS (G) 65 "Successful Health and Safety Management" determines and recommends the elements to pro-vide an effective safety management system as:

2/7 Fire Service Manual

• Policy • Organisation - equipment - funding • Planning and implementation • Measuring performance • Review • Audit

7.3.2 Crew Safety

The safety of firefighters is paramount, personnel must be aware of the hazards involved in the rescue of large animals. No personnel are to be deployed until the Incident Commander has completed a full dynamic risk assessment, and determined the appropriate safe system of work, including the use of fit for purpose personnel protective equipment.

Assistance at a large animal rescue must be gauged by Risk against Benefit. Dynamic Risk Assessment, if used correctly, will decide if a safe system of work is possible, and should identify all alternative means. There will be occa-sions when, due to the unacceptable level of risk, this is not possible and crews must be withdrawn from the scene of operations.

Note incorrect level of PPE and no protection or control of the 3m risk zone shown in Figures 7.1 and 7.2.

Figure 7.1 showing the hazards involved in the rescue of large animals

Figure 7.2 showing unsafe procedures at a large animal rescue.

7.3.3 Viral and Bacterial hazards

Zoonosis describes any of the many diseases that are transmitted to man from lower vertebrates. Animals that can transmit diseases are not restrict-ed to those found in remote and wild environ-ments; domestic animals and pets can also transmit dangerous medical conditions.

The following list of generic medical hazards should be considered present at all large animal rescues:

• Asthmagens - from cattle • Brucellous - from cattle • Cryptosporidiosis - from calves • Hardjo - from cattle • Leptospirosis - Weil's disease from rats • Lyme disease - deer-borne ticks • Orf - from sheep • Ovine enzootic abortion - from ewes • Q fever - from cattle or sheep • Rabies - from a rabid animal • Ringworm - from cattle or sheep • Streptococcus - from pigs • Infection by bacteria or by Tetanus from

spores in the soil

See Annex A - Summary of Zoonoses

Some types of Zoonoses can cause miscarriage in humans in the early stages of pregnancy.


• Identification of the type of incidents that the Fire and Rescue Service will attend.

• Identification of the potential roles for fire & rescue service personnel, including an appropriate risk assessment into the role(s).

• Identification through risk assessment of the mechanical and/or manual equipment that will be required.

Given the diversity of incidents, the risk assess-ment process must incorporate and take account of the following:

7.3.6 Assessment of Risk

Fire and Rescue Services that have reviewed their attendance at large animal rescues have, through risk assessment and safe systems of work, chosen dedicated trained personnel with specialist equip-ment and fit for the purpose Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

This has also increased the competency of the per-sonnel due to the number of incidents that they attend.

The work placement training has increased their awareness and ability to provide a safe system of work therefore reducing personal exposure to risk.

7.3.5 Predicted Frequency and Severity

• Bitten or stung by the animal • Trodden on by the animal • Struck by the animal • Impaled on animal appendages • Trapped by the animal rolling • Crushed between the animal and a structure • Exposure to biohazards • Environmental hazards • Manual handling of equipment or animal

The physical hazards of different categories of large animal will differ in terms of unpredictabili-ty; the following generic hazards should be con-sidered at all large animal rescues:

7.3.4 Physical hazards

• Identification of the training that personnel will require to meet the risk assessment outcome and service delivery policy of the service.

• If the risk cannot be engineered out, the identification of personal protective equipment required to reduce the risk to the lowest possible level must be undertaken and subsequently provided.

• The level and method of emergency mobilisation to a non life-threatening incident.

7.4 Response Options

7.4.1 Strategic Policy Options

Fire and Rescue Service policy in response to the rescue of large animals will be determined by iden-tification of need, role, and risk assessment. The level of response provided should be clearly derived from the above criteria.

The selection and use of operational personnel and equipment to safely undertake the task must fit within this overall strategic architecture of the Fire and Rescue Service.

7.4.2 Determining Levels of Provision

Subsequent to full analysis of any requirement, Fire Authorities/Fire Boards may ultimately decide to make:

• No provision. • Limited provision in support of other

agencies. • Limited provision, stand-alone. • Full provision, in conjunction with other

agencies. • Full provision, stand-alone.

7.5 Operational Procedures

Planning for the deployment of a large animal rescue can be carried out using the principles of Safe Person, Safe Place, and Safe Process.


As a general principle, planning should assume a worst-case scenario. Expect, and therefore plan, on the assumption that crews will need to operate with a very large animal, in a remote location, at night, in strong winds and heavy rain, in winter or sum-mer for prolonged periods of time.

7.5.1 Safe Person

A number of control measures can be established to assist the safe person concept:

• Establish a risk zone around the animal, minimum of 3 metres (which may move with the animal).

• Only accredited personnel trained and equipped to carry out animal rescues to enter the risk zone.

• Keep the number of personnel to a minimum in the risk zone but monitor continually to avoid lone working.

• Personnel within the risk zone understand the tactical plan to affect the rescue.

• Good communications should be maintained at all times.

• Generic risk assessment of the incident zone, slips, trips and falls, manual handling, lighting, crew welfare, hygiene.

• Analytical risk assessment depending on the duration of the incident.

Figure 7.3 Three metre risk area and approach area.

7.5.2 Safe Place

The following non-exhaustive list categorises pos-sible incident locations and conditions.

• Mud • Ice • Slurry • Still Water • Flowing water - normal and spate conditions • Flash Flooding - sudden downpours causing

flooding before entry into the drainage system. This represents the least predictable work environment, in that it may affect areas previously not recognised as being a risk.

• Fluvial Flooding • Steep or slippery banks • Road Traffic Collisions • Fires

7.5.3 Safe Process

Possible Large Animal Rescue tasks:

• Rescue of large animals from mud or slurry • Rescue of large animals from water - flowing

or still • Rescue of large animals physically trapped • Rescue of animals from burning structures • Rescue of animals from Road Traffic

Collisions • Rescue of animals from confined spaces

7.6 Equipment Provision

7.6.1 Fulfilling Statutory Requirements

Fire and Rescue Service activity will bring fire-fighters into contact with large animals. This may include farm buildings on fire, road traffic collisions involving vehicles transporting large animals, members of the public/owners attempting to rescue a large animal and, possibly, becoming a casualty.

Therefore, the Fire and Rescue Service statutory duty of care is to ensure that its personnel are ade-quately trained and properly equipped to safely undertake the duties expected of them.

7.6.2 Selection Criteria

Required Operational Capabilities

By following the systematic process outlined in preceding sections, the specific role requirements for large animal rescue appropriate to the needs of the Fire and Rescue Service should be clearly established.

Delivery Options

Resource requirements will need to be balanced by operational availability to ensure the means are available to get suitable trained and competent resources in position to safely effect a rescue, to meet the service delivery expectations of the Fire and Rescue Service.

7.6.3 Equipment Options

It is important to recognise that safe working requires the Incident Commander to have a realistic and accurate appreciation of the capabilities and limitations of the equipment in use, in the circumstances of the incident. In addition, the understanding of when not to deploy personnel in a potentially hazardous operating environment is a safety critical skill.

It is essential that Fire and Rescue Services identi-fy operational requirements and logistical con-straints before specification, and apply those design constraints throughout the acquisition process, therefore meeting the outcomes of the risk assessment process.

This chapter only provides limited information on a range of equipment, and aims to provide guidance which can be used to assist in the deci-sion making process.

7.6.4 Service Delivery Options

The process of risk assessment and Fire and Rescue Service policy should identify which deliv-ery systems are safe and practical for use when deploying to large animal rescue.

In a broad sense they are likely to fall into the fol-lowing categories:


• Officer only to conduct risk assessment • Specialist trained crews • Special appliance • Nearest appliance

Identification of access conditions to a large ani-mal rescue is of critical importance. Any appliance selected must be capable of being delivered to the incident within an appropriate time frame as determined by the Fire and Rescue Service, ser-vice delivery standards.

7.7 Training

7.7.1 Policy

Integrated Personal Development System (IPDS) reference: Unit 3 of the fire fighter role map (Applying their fire fighting and rescue skills at incidents) provides an output specification, estab-lishing what a fire fighter must be capable of doing, in order to comply with the requirements of HS(G)65.

Fire and Rescue Service training must focus on this end result, by producing firefighters who can demonstrate competence to work safely in the intended role.

Strategic policy must clearly establish the intended fire service role. It would appear appropriate, where specialist provision is agreed, that those personnel designated as specialists are capable of providing all available response options.

Figure 7.4 showing a large animal training mannequin.

Incident Commanders are then presented with a toolbox, from which the most appropriate response can be selected, rather than a single tool, which has to be pressed into service on all occasions.

For large animal incidents this may mean training for work on or in mud, slurry or water, fires and road traffic collisions. Such training must also address crew safety, by providing self-rescue skills for personnel as appropriate, when involved in risk critical situations i.e. water related rescues.

7.7.2 Crew Safety

This section deals with the safety of the individual crewmember. It does not apply to non-specialist personnel who may be attending an incident in a support function.

Personnel must be competent to recognise and deal with worst-case scenarios.

Figure 7.5 showing Personal Protective Equipment, Immersion suit and hoots, gloves, head and eye, inhalation protection


Figure 7.6 showing body armour and 150NM hydrostatic life jacket.

Whilst Fire and Rescue Services must carry out their own risk assessments, general guidance is provided below.

7.7.3 Personal Protective Equipment

• Body armour - chest, elbow, groin, and knee • Head and side head protection • Eye protection • Dry suits and foot protection • High visibility jackets • Buoyancy aids • Life jackets • Inhalation protection

7.7.4 Training

• Animal awareness • Animal husbandry • Water safety training • Unstable surface training • Manual handling • Animal rescues involving RTC • Animal rescues involving fires

Figure 7.7 showing body armour and 50NM personal floatation device.

• Risk assessment [generic, dynamic, analytical]

• Specialist vehicle on and off road • Equipment • Infectious diseases • Incident Command System • Veterinarian and RSPCA liaison • Welfare, hygiene and barrier protection • Support/Officer awareness

7.7.5 Equipment

All equipment used for the purpose of lifting and or raising must be compliant with the requirements of the Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 (SI: 1998 No.2307)

• Vehicle fit for purpose • Halters • Slings


• Lines • Throw lines • Harness • Nose clips • Inflatable rescue paths • Ground anchors • Winches • Trenching tools • Mattock • Air/Water lance • Threading needles • Lighting • Sheeting • Access tools

7.7.6 Safe Systems of work

• Fire and Rescue Service policy • Equipment fit for purpose • Competent trained personnel • Risk assessment • Incident Command System

7.7.7 Operational Capability

The operational capability will depend on the Fire and Rescue Services policy for a large animal rescue. Mobilisation of personnel and equipment to a


Figure 7.8 showing 2 x 2m Inflatable rescue paths being used as a safe working platform.

large animal rescue must reflect the level of train-ing and equipment to safely undertake the task. Incorrect assessment of these issues may lead to failure and injuries.

7.7.8 Assessment of Competence

Assessment of large animal rescue skills should be by direct observation at operational incidents and whilst training in realistic conditions, preferably on the type of sites identified as potential incident locations.

Underpinning knowledge and understanding should be measured by oral questioning during practical training.

This information requires recording and validating in line with the Integrated Personal Development System (IPDS)

7.7.9 Maintenance of Skills

Given the operating environments in which animal rescue crews may be required to work, it is impor-tant that a high standard of competence is main-tained. This can only be achieved through regular hands-on experience.

Formal reassessment should be carried out at not more than 6 monthly intervals, to allow coverage of both summer and winter conditions.

Whilst such assessments can be undertaken during normal on-going training sessions, it may be preferable to rotate assessors between stations, or indeed Fire and Rescue Services, when carrying out testing, and ensure that Fire Service policy and procedures are being fully implemented at all times.

This measure would ensure commonality, and pro-vide fresh perspectives for personnel.

7.7.10 Awareness - Fire and Rescue Service employees, and other agencies

In common with other specialist areas, there is a clear potential that other personnel within the organisation will be unaware of the capabilities or limitations of trained animal rescue personnel. A level of awareness training for large animal rescue outlining the expectations and limitations of the service should be undertaken.

The aforementioned awareness training should include practical demonstrations (where available) and include scene preparation, location of equip-ment on vehicles; manual-handling requirements when transporting equipment, and importantly, where the non-specialist response ends and the specialist takes over.

It is important that Incident Commanders are fully aware of the capabilities and limitations of special-ist crews. In the particular case of large animal res-cue, specialist trained crews have a high level of knowledge and although they may be working in conjunction with a Veterinarian must have absolute primacy of command of the animal and must have the final word in terms of what is or is not safe or practicable at the task level.

7.8 Operational Considerations

7.8.1 General Considerations

Any activity around a large animal does not have a calming effect. The basic principal of rescue is to


use the simplest, safest and lowest tech approach to an incident therefore reducing the risk of injury to the rescuer or the animal.

Rescuing a large animal can pose an immediate threat to life, cause irreversible adverse health effects, and interfere with the rescuer's ability to escape unaided from the rescue environment.

7.8.2 Additional Control Measures

Large animal rescues from water, fast flowing or still, will require safety procedures in accordance with national guidelines, which will have to be implemented before a firefighter enters the water.

Specialist personnel trained for water rescue may need to be deployed when undertaking a water related animal rescue.

Road Traffic Collisions (RTC) will pose many hazards, working on the highway, loose animals that may be roaming free, animals trapped within trailers or Large Goods Vehicles. Not only will knowledge, skills and understanding of large ani-mals be required, but also the competencies to use generic range of RTC equipment in unusual cir-cumstances.

The initial risk assessment process must firstly include all the generic hazards, slips trips and falls, manual handling, access, terrain, environmental, and PPE levels including personal hygiene and barrier protection before the rescue can commence.

Gather all intelligence before approaching the ani-mal, often the owner or veterinarian can provide useful information on how the incident occurred, level and severity of injuries, the emotional state of the animal, how the animal will react during the rescue, and rescue techniques that will be the safest for the rescuer and the animal.

7.8.3 Typical Animal Weights

Elephant 3000kgs to 5000kgs Cow 600kgs to lOOOkgs Horse 450kgs to lOOOkgs Donkey 150kgs to 250kgs Sheep 40kgs to 70kgs

The size of the animal, level of entrapment, sever-ity of injuries, the scene of operations must all be considered before approaching the animal.

Risk against benefit may decide that no rescue is possible due to the unacceptable level of risk to the firefighter, unsuitable provision of equipment, and lack of knowledge skills and understanding.

A mobile 3-metre risk zone must be established around the animal with only the minimum amount of trained personnel that are required to undertake the task should be present.

7.8.4 Animal Senses

Reading the senses of most large animals is an essential skill for the rescuer as most animals when trapped revert to their wild status very quickly.

Do not assume that animals think; they react, and a trapped animal will not move or assist with a res-cue unless it senses freedom, when it moves - it moves.

Stay calm and move slowly, fear in an animal is the main defensive mechanism, and the animal will also sense fear or panic behaviour in humans. Avoid direct eye-to-eye contact, as this will be sensed as threatening to the animal.

7.8.5 Vision

Animals have some of the largest eyes compared to body size and are very sensitive to movement; most have a 300-degree field of vision that requires very little head movement.

Figure 7.9 Field of vision of the horse


7.8.6 Hearing

Animals can hear sounds at frequencies above those of humans, with almost 360 degrees of audi-tion. They can usually detect the direction of a sound before it can visually detect its source. Horses for example are very sensitive to sound coming from above.

7.8.7 Touch

Animals are very sensitive and are responsive to touching, they communicate by rubbing and touch-ing each other, not patting. The rescuer can also transmit either confidence or nervousness to the animal through their fingers. A horse for example can feel a fly landing on its hair.

7.8.8 Smell

Animals use the sense of smell to aid them identi-fying each other and in locating and choosing for-age/food. Horses for example use their sense of smell for identification, smelling the owner and providing some forage will almost certainly calm a disturbed horse.

7.8.9 Veterinarian

The attendance of a veterinarian at a large animal rescue will provide the necessary medical skills and knowledge of the animal that the Incident Commander will need to provide a safe system of work.

The Veterinarian is best qualified to assess the con-dition of the animal; they will be equipped with emergency medication, sedatives and painkillers, but will not necessarily be trained in large animal extrication. The Incident Commander must liaise throughout the incident with the veterinarian who will monitor and advise on the condition of the animal.

Safe systems of work must be established with vet-erinarians when considering if the animal may have to be destroyed, or injected, given the quanti-ties and potency of the medication involved. The owner of the animal must be consulted especially if the animal is to be destroyed.

The horse needs its head and neck for balance during assisted rescue.

The torso is the best area for forward assist, backward drag, or vertical lift.

Whenever possible, do not use the head or legs as handles.

The lower legs are the most fragile part of the horse.

Figure 7.10 Lifting horses during assisted rescue.

This veterinarian service is not provided free, most veterinarians will require payment for their ser-vices and any medication provided. The owner of the animal should meet the request for the veteri-narian and any charges made.

Not every large animal will need to be sedated dur-ing rescue, sedatives will only last for a set period of time, and a sedated animal can still kick with great force and accuracy.

The veterinarian will be able to advise which areas of the animal can be used to support rescue equip-ment, the main torso being the best area depending on its injuries. Most large animals use their head and neck for balance; whenever possible do not use the head or legs as handles during the rescue process.

7.9 Incident Command

An appropriate level of the incident command structure will need to be established to facilitate the development of safe, effective and appropriate incident command; this will ensure a clear line of command and communication throughout the inci-dent. The success of the incident and safety of crew members will depend on the tactics of the Incident Commander.

7.9.1 Incident Commander

• Establish Command • Deploy a safe system of work • Assess incident priorities • Develop and implement the tactical plan • Develop a command structure • Coordinate all activities • Manage incident recourses

7.9.2 Crew Commander

• Implement the tactical plan • Determine the resources required • Request additional resources if required via

Incident Commander • Provide regular situation reports to the

Incident Commander

7.9.3 Safety Officer

• Monitor and assess safety hazards • Correct levels of PPE • Detect and stop unsafe situations • Regularly review all risk assessments • Account for all personnel • Monitor for lone working situations • Hygiene and barrier protection • Provide regular situation reports to the

Incident Commander

7.9.4 Logistics Officer

• Provide an equipment pool • Monitor personnel requirements • Provide regular situation reports to the

Incident Commander

7.10 Methods of Rescue

General

This section of the chapter is designed to give a brief overview of different methods of rescue. Human casualties of Road Traffic Collisions are not pulled out by the arms and legs. The scene and the casualty are stabilised and the same must apply where possible to large animal rescue.

Manual handling is a major hazard at large animal rescues; Fire and Rescue Services must consider


the use of mechanical lifting devices to reduce the hazards and injuries to personnel caused by manu-al handling and reduce the hazard to the lowest possible level.

Some of the rescue methods described involve the use of lifting equipment, if the lifting equipment is part of the rescue vehicle all equipment and plant must be tested, certificated, and used within its maximum working limits. Personnel who use this equipment must be fully trained and accredited in its use.

The use of mechanical plant and equipment not designed or tested for lifting purposes must not be used. If third party plant and equipment is to be considered for use it must conform to all legal requirements appropriate to its type and to the Fire and Rescue Services written Health and Safety policy.

7.10.1 Rescue Techniques

There are six basic procedures used in large animal rescue, as follows.

7.10.2 Containment

This is usually where the containment of one or a number of large animals maybe required following either an escape on to the highway following an RTC or the emergency release of animals follow-ing a barn or heath fire.

The use of lines or vehicles to provide a temporary containment pen may also be considered.

7.10.3 Forward Assistance

This method is used where the animal is capable of using its body to assist. A large animal down an embankment, or in water related incidents might only need slight assistance to negotiate the hazard.

A wide strop with sewn loops at each end is passed around the girth area of the animal with one loop passed through the other; the free end of the strop is pulled between the front legs and attached to a long line.


This enables personnel to gently pull on the line but stay far in front and prevent being charged by the animal once it senses freedom. A halter and long line are also deployed for guidance of the ani-mal once released.

7.10.4 Backward Drag

This technique is used to remove a laterally recum-bent animal that might be inside an overturned vehicle, collapsed structure or where the rescuer has only access to the rear end of the animal.

This method is the same as the forward assistance but the strop is passed around the pelvic bones and passed between the rear legs.

7.10.5 Hobbled Lift

This is the most difficult type of rescue that may only be undertaken on certain types of large ani-mal and only by fully trained personnel, with the assistance of specialist lifting equipment.

The hobbled lift is used to lift a large animal in dorsal recumbence, when trapped in a narrow trench or similar situation.

Rescue grade hobbles are secured around the fet-lock and hoof; all four hoofs are attached to a suit-able lifting frame that is attached to a suitable lifting device. Support must be provided to the head and neck of the animal during this rescue process. The animal will need to be fully sedated by a veterinarian during this rescue.

7.10.6 Vertical Lift

In the majority of rescues involving a large animal a vertical lift provides an easy and practical means of moving the animal onto safe ground. Given the weight of the animal a mechanical means to lift the beast must be used. (See Figure 7.11.)

Figure 7.11 shows fit for purpose vertical lifting equipment.

The genitalia of bulls and the udders of cows must not be damaged during any lifting process. These areas give the animal commercial value. Any potential or existing injury to these areas must be assessed before committing personnel to what may be an unviable rescue.

Many different lifting methods are available from strops to purpose made lifting slings. All use the torso of the animal leaving the legs head and neck free, care must be taken, as the lifting process will distress the animal, making sure that the animal cannot break free during the lift. (See Figure 7.12.)

7.10.7 Rescue Guide

The rescue guide is a practical method of moving a large animal on a special guide sheet adapted for a fully sedated animal to be transport-ed. (See Figure 7.13.)


Figure 7.12 (above) showing mechanical lifting equipment.

Figure 7.13 (left) showing a fit for purpose rescue guide


APPENDIX A Summary of Zoonoses

BRUCELLOSIS

Brucellosis (also known as Undulant Fever) is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria of the genus Brucella. These bacteria are primarily passed among animals, and they cause disease in many different vertebrates.

Various Brucella species affect:

• Sheep • Goats • Cattle • Deer • Elk • Pigs • Dogs

and several other animals. Humans become infected by coming into contact with animals or animal products that are contaminated with these bacteria.

In humans, brucellosis can cause a range of symptoms that are similar to Influenza and may include:

• Fever • Sweating • Headaches • Back Pains: and • Physical Weakness

Severe infections can affect the central nervous system or lining of the heart. Brucellosis can also cause long-lasting or chronic symptoms that include recurrent fevers, joint pains and fatigue.

Humans are generally infected in one of three ways: eating or drinking contaminated products, breathing in organism or having the bacteria enter the body through skin wounds.

Since the 1970's all dairy cattle are accredited and thus free of brucellosis.

Although the most common cause was through eating or drinking contaminated milk products, with accreditation and the current pasteurisation process, the risk of contraction is LOW.

CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS

Cryptosporidiosis is a parasitic infection caused by the protozoa Cryptosporidium parvum with wide-spread distribution in farm and wild animals.

In Humans, common clinical features are:

• Watery or mucoid diarrhoea • Nausea and vomiting: and • Abdominal pain with 'flu-like' symptoms.

Outbreaks have been associated with watercourses because of contamination with animal faeces or human sewage. Contaminated food is also a cause.

Seasonal outbreaks have been associated with farm visits to feed and handle lambs. Infection through swimming pools has also been reported.

In Humans the symptoms are normally self-limiting, lasting approximately two weeks in most instances.

In humans with a suppressed immune system the disease can be very severe and potentially fatal.

LEPTOSPIROSIS

Leptospirosis is an acute bacterial infection pri-marily hosted by rats and cattle1. Infection is trans-mitted with coming into contact with infected animal urine, or less frequently, from animal bites and contaminated water.

1 See L. Hardjo


Person-to-Person contamination is exceptionally rare.

Human symptoms of infection are wide ranging from showing no symptoms to suffering from:

• Fever • Vomiting • Headaches • Muscular pains • Conjunctivitis • Depression • Haemolytic anaemia • Meningitis • Pneumonia: and • Inflammation of the Kidneys

In cases where jaundice occurs, the illness is known as WEIL'S DISEASE, which is a serious and sometimes fatal infection.

Simple hygienic precautions and PPE can signifi-cantly reduce the risk of infection.

L. HARDJO (Cattle Leptospirosis)

Is a milder form of Leptospirosis caused by direct contact with the urinary tract shedding by cattle (the maintenance host) and is frequently an occu-pational disease of agricultural workers especially those involved in dairy farming and cattle in general.

LYME DISEASE

Caused by the spiral shaped bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tick (Ixodes ricinus). The host of the tick is normally Deer, but can be generalised as being found in the reservoir of wildlife.

Lyme disease is a multi-system disorder with con-siderable variations of symptoms including:


• A 'bulls-eye' rash where bitten accompanied by non-specific symptoms such as and affecting:

• Fever • Nervous system (facial palsy) • Malaise • Fatigue • Headaches • Muscle aches (myalgia): and • Joint aches (arthralgia)

Although Lyme disease is rarely fatal, and can be treated with antibiotics, the aforementioned symptoms or varying combinations of the symptoms can manifest themselves over a period of months to years.

ORF [Contagious Ecthyma (CE)]

ORF (or 'pustular dermatitis') is a skin disease most commonly encountered in sheep and goats. Manifesting particularly around the nose, lips and face (referred to as 'sore mouth') ORF can be encountered worldwide and is not parochial to any one breed or age although young animals are more susceptible.

It should be noted a live vaccine is used to control the disease in animals.

ORF has the ability to be spread normally to the hands and arms of people handling infected animals.

RABIES

Rabies is an acute viral infection of the central ner-vous system and although treatment is available, the disease is invariably fatal.

Contamination (albeit rarely) can be via broken skin and mucous membranes, however the most common cause is being bitten by an infected cat or dog.

Early symptoms of infection can include:

• Par aesthesia around the bitten area • Fever • Headache • Nausea and a sense of • Apprehension

Progression of the disease can result in:

• Paralysis • Hydrophobia • Delirium • Convulsions

Death resulting from respiratory and bulbar paralysis is almost inevitable once clinical symptoms have appeared.

In 2003 it was recognised that UK bats may carry a rabies-like virus [European Lyssavirus 2 (EBL2)]

RINGWORM

Categorised as one of the most common zoonotic infections, ringworm is caused by fungal infection with a number of species of fungi.

Ringworm is found to be fairly common in farm animals, particularly cattle, but may also occur in horses, cats and dogs.

Contact with an infected animal may not necessarily be the only cause as the fungi may survive on gateposts, fences and on farm buildings for long periods of time.

Infected cattle show signs of grey-white plaques on the skin of the head and neck, which over time may enlarge and spread to other parts of the body. On the other hand, cats (the most common carriers) may show no symptoms at all.

RINGWORM IS CONTAGIOUS and can be passed person-to-person by skin contact or by contact with contaminated items such as clothing, combs and even shower/pool surfaces.

Q FEVER

Q Fever (Coxiella burneti) can affect a range of wild and domestic animals. Transmission to humans is via inhalation of contaminated aerosols or by direct contact with infected animals.

Although common in ruminants, it has been reported that infection in dairy herds 2 may be as high as 20%.

Human manifestation of Q Fever indicate flu-like symptoms with:

Severe headache Chills and fever Endocarditis Hepatitis Muscle and Joint aches Pneumonia (50% of cases)

With treatment, illness lasts between 1 and 3 weeks. However, up to 30% of acute cases go on to develop a chronic post Q fever debility syndrome.

OVINE ENZOOTIC ABORTION (Chlamydophila abortus)

Susceptible species are Sheep and Goats and less commonly Cattle and Deer. The disease causes the animal to abort pregnancy and as a result to have further low fertility results (consequence of abortions).

Humans are also susceptible to this condition.

2 Source - DEFRA Zoonoses Report United Kingdom 2002


STREPTOCOCCUS SUIS

Streptococcus suis was first identified and isolated in pigs (S. suis serotype 14) in 1996. Most cases of human infection (S. suis type 2) occur in abattoir workers, meat handlers and occasionally in farm workers and vets.

The disease can be carried on the tonsils of clinically normal pigs.

The disease is a cause of:

• Meningitis • Polyarthritis • Septicaemia

The disease is rare in humans with 21 reports between 1991-2002 (averaging only 2 confirmed cases per year).3

ASTHMAGENS

There are numerous sources from which asthma may result. These are commonly referred to as asthmagens.

Humans who are exposed to the dust and dander from the hair of cattle may develop asthma of varying intensities. Medical assistance may be required.4

In addition, exposure to mites habituating in humid conditions, hay and grain5 may also cause asthma.

3 Source - DEFRA Zoonoses Report United Kingdom 2002

4 HSE Asthmagen Compendium Section C8

5 HSE Asthmagen Compendium Section C8


Notes

Help in the production of this chapter

Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service Kent Fire and Rescue Service HMFS1 Fire Brigades Union Dr Tomas Gimenez David Lamb, Plumpton Agricultural College

Pictures

Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service Kent Fire and Rescue Service Dr Gimenez


Glossary of terms

Life Jacket Provides extra buoyancy to assist a conscious or unconscious person in keeping afloat withtheir mouth and nose clear of the water. They are designed to self-right an unconsciousperson from a face down position.

Buoyancy Aid Provides extra buoyancy to assist a conscious person in keeping afloat with their mouth andnose clear of the water. They are not designed to self-right an unconscious person from aface down position.

Aid to Buoyancy An item that increases buoyancy in water but is not a life saving device.

Eddies Water flowing in the opposite direction to the main flow, occurring alongside or behindobjects.

Floating line A line which floats in water.

Flooding Where a water course and/or drainage system is not able to cope with the excess of watercausing urban or rural damage and threatening the lives of the public or animals.

Individual The person with the sole responsibility for the safety of the rescuer and control of theSafety Officer rescuers floating line, whilst they are in the water.

Rescue The process by which a person is removed from the water and brought to a place of safety.

Restricted Area/ An area which forms part of the safe system of work and should if possible extend aRisk Zone minimum of 3m from the water's edge.

Stopper Where water flowing over an object causes a vertical reversal of flow, as with a weir.

Strainer Any perforate object placed or trapped in flowing water such as a tree or metal grating

which allows the water to flow through it.

Sub surface Below water surface. (3.4.8.19.)

Weir A man made dam across a river over which water falls to a lower level.

Tow Back Water from downstream moves back against the flow towards the face of the weir.

Whitewater Churning water that contains up to 40 - 60% of air. Too thin to swim in, too thick to breathein.


Safe working near, on or in water 27

References

Lifejackets/ Buoyancy Aids

When selecting the correct personal buoyancy equipment, Brigades will need to consider a number of factors.Combined British and European Standards (BS Ens) exist for buoyancy equipment. Each standard is intendedto be suitable for different activities m various risk situations. Buoyancy equipment needs to be selected fromthe appropriate standard, taking into account factors such as frequency of use, size weight of the wearer, likelyweather/ water conditions at site and availability of help.

The standards include:

• BS EN 393:1994 - Lifejackets and personal buoyancy aids Buoyancy aids -50 N.• BS EN 3951995 - Lifejackets and personal buoyancy aids - Lifejackets - 100 N.• BS EN 396:1994 - Lifejackets and personal buoyancy aids - Lifejackets - 150 N.• BS EN 399:1994 - Lifejackets and personal buoyancy aids - Lifejackets 275 N.

Other reference information is included in:

Guidance to PPE r egulations - L25 - page 40 - paragraph 118.

PD 6636:1998 - CR 13033:1997- Personal protective equipment - Lifejackets and buoyancy aids Guide forselection and use.

Floating Lines

No specific legislation exists regarding the specification of floating lines. However, when purchasing new linesor using existing lines, Brigades need to contact the manufacturer and ensure that the line intended to be usedis fit for the specified purpose.


Safe Working near; on or in water 29

Acknowledgements

Chief and Assistant Chief Fire Officers Association

Fire Brigades Union

Fire Research and Development Group

Fire Service College

Health and Safety Executive

Local Government Association

Dumfries and Galloway Fire Brigade

Kent Fire Brigade

Greater Manchester County Fire Service

London Fire Brigade

Mid and West Wales Fire Brigade

Nottinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service

Outreach Organisation

Rescue 3 International


Safe Working near , on or in water 31

Documents

Volume 2 Safe Working Near Water