Vol ume 1, N ber 2 0 ISSN 2229-7839 JJCCEE - Welcome to …repository.um.edu.my/21939/1/Effect of Seaweed Extract as... · of Goel summarises the concerns related to water management

Journal of Coastal Environment

COES

ISSN 2229-7839Volume 1, Number 2, 2010

JCEJCEJCE


JCE

Volume 1, Number 2, 2010

Centre for Ocean and Environmental StudiesA-2, East of Kailash (Basement), New Delhi 110 065; Tel/Fax: 91-11-46078340

E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];

Website: www.coes-india.org

This is the which completes Volume I

pertaining year and eight

papers. The first mine gives an of

contributing richness the 25

estuaries east the east

west coast of Bay and

respectively, on

zooplankton and fish of

fertile and

richness and

Malti

based on two policies years 1987 and

2002. It also includes the end of

action

development. Sankar

sandy of

developing

the

the growth

was

of

waves,

an

the

et.

23 corals.

intensive grazing

significantly and to

sea

second number the of the Journal of

Coastal Environment (JCE) to the 2010 contains

paper of account the role of estuaries

to the of coastal environment. The fertility of

of both the west coasts, 8 from coast and 17 from the

India, ending into the of Bengal the Arabian Sea

based the information on nutrients, phytoplankton,

production, indicate that practically all them are

ecologically productive. These collectively contribute to the

sustainability of the coastal environment. The second paper

of Goel summarises the concerns related to water management

the national water enunciated in the

results National Water Mission under the

plan of climate change, thus bringing out two important points

related to energy and industry sectors which lead to sustainable

The third paper of Yogamoorthi and Siva describes

the population characteristics of the brachyuran crab living along the

beaches Pondicherry The criterion is based on the relationship

between carapace length/width to wet (body) weight. The allometric

relationship between the two has been considered important for

conservation strategies. The fourth paper of Srijaya, et. al.

describes importance of organic fertilizer, using seaweed extract, on

of black mustard plant. The extract of Sargassum sp., with a

dilution of 1:100, found to be the most effective concentration.

The fifth paper Arun Kumar and co-authors indicates the variations

which the beaches show in their geometric form. These are based on the

response to the prevailing dynamic forces of tides and currents.

During storms, increase in water levels shifts the wave-attack higher on

profile, making the berms and dunes more vulnerable to erosion. The

sixth paper of J.K. Mishra, al. indicates the importance of conservation

of marine biodiversity in different marine ecosystems. They give an

example of the unique environment of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in

which the rock pools contain different phyla and Because of

in the rockpools, the plankton biomass becomes

low with the temperature salinity, almost similar the

adjoining water. The seventh paper of Ananya Roy provides an

Editorial

indication of the decline in biological diversity in the Sundarbans

because of erosion of coastal areas as a result of cyclones, leading to loss of

coastal plain which is greater than its rebuilding process.

The eighth and last paper of Kishore Kumar deals with the Fukushima

nuclear power plant accident in Japan caused by the earthquake of March

11, 2011 leading to giant tsunami waves. The explosions and radiation

leaks have compelled the Japanese government to review the safety of

their nuclear facilities. This disaster has provided clear evidence that

experts can neither give correct predictions of the extent of disaster nor

can they undertake proper safety measures during such a crisis. These

reactors are old boiling type in which sea water is being pumped for

cooling purposes. Similar situations existed in Three Mile Island and

Chernobyl accidents 25-30 years ago which now demand a serious rethink

in about power production the world over.

S.Z. Qasim

This publication has been supported by the Ministry of

Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India.

Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment 1

S.Z. Qasim

Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy 11

Malti Goel

Carapace Length/width-weight Relationship of Ocypode 23

macrocera Population from Pondicherry Sandy Beaches

A. Yogamoorthi and R. Siva Sankar

Effect of Seaweed Extract as Organic Fertilizer on the 31

Growth Enhancement of Black Mustard Plant

T.C. Srijaya, P.J. Pradeep and Anil Chatterji

Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying 45

Vulnerable Zones during Storm and Normal Events

S.V.V. Arun Kumar

Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive 53

Zonation along the Coasts of Port Blair

J.K. Mishra, Shesdev Patro,

D. Adhavan and Anita Mishra

Vulnerability of the Sundarbans Ecosystem 63

Ananya Roy

Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination 77

Kishore Kumar

C o n t e n t s

Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment

S.Z. Qasim*

A general survey of the fertility of 25 estuaries, based on their concentrations of

nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton assemblage and fish production in

each, as far as these are known, has been enumerated. In all, 25 estuaries, of

both the coasts 8 from the east coast which end up in the Bay of Bengal and

the rest which join the Arabian Sea have been covered. Almost all the estuaries

have been found to be biologically productive. It can therefore be concluded

that the sustainability of coastal waters is largely because of the productive

nature of estuarine waters which receive land drainage and large freshwater

influx during the monsoon months, and these are ultimately passed on to the

coastal environment.

Introduction

Leaving aside small rivers of India which meet the sea through

interjection with land areas adjoining the sea, there are 25 well-

defined estuaries on the east and west coasts of India. Each of these

with its physical, chemical and biological characteristics has been

described by Qasim (2003). Altogether the 25 well-defined estuaries

include 8 on the east coast and 17 on the west coast. Those on the

east coast join the Bay of Bengal and the rest on the west coast join

the Arabian Sea (for details see Qasim, 2003). From the larger estuaries

such as Hooghly, backwaters of Kerala, Vellar and Mandovi-Zuari,

several thousand tonnes of edible varieties of fish, prawns, lobsters

etc. are caught annually. Fishery in most of the estuarine systems is

sustainable and lasts practically throughout the year. It is important to

* Former Secretary, Govt. of India and former Member (Science), Planning Commission, Govt. of India.

Jour. Coast. Env., Vol. 1, No. 2, 2010

Abstract

note that during the monsoon season, when fishing in coastal waters

gets partially or fully suspended, estuaries form the mainstay and

contribute to fish production significantly.

Major indices of sustainability are the concentration of nutrients (Po , 4

No , Sio ) phytoplankton density, zooplankton availability and its 3 3

biomass and fish production. These can be described in each estuary

as follows:

East Coast

Hooghly (Hugli)

Phosphates were high during the pre-monsoon months and low during

the monsoon season. Nitrates, on the other hand, were high during the

monsoon months and low during the pre-monsoon season. Silicates

were high during the monsoon season and low during the pre-

monsoon months.

Similarly, phytoplankton composition including diatoms, blue-green

algae, green algae, dinoflagellates and other holophytic flagellates were

quite abundant during different months of the year (Shetye et al.,

1962). Zooplankton organisms present included copepods (37 species),

tintinnids (5 species), chaetognaths (2 species) and several other

groups. Purely marine forms e.g. siphonophores, hydromedusae,

ctenophores etc. occurred when salinity in the estuary was high. The

estuary offers one of the richest grounds for fishery in the country.

Fishing activity goes on intensively practically throughout the year

and the total annual catch amounts to 8-10 thousand tonnes (Jhingran

& Gopalakrishnan, 1973). The composition of fish, prawns, crabs etc.

in the catch includes more than 120 species (Pillay, 1967).

Rushikulya

This estuary is located near Ganjam town of Orissa State. It becomes

saltwater-dominated during the pre-monsoon season (November to

May) and freshwater-dominated during the monsoon months (June to

October). Reliable studies on practically all components of the estuary

(hydrography, nutrients, phytoplankton, zooplankton, fishery, etc.)

Journal of Coastal Environment2

have been carried out by Gouda & Panigrahy form 1989 to 1995. It is

rich in nutrients including phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish

production.

Godavari

This estuary is formed by several rivers and covers a large area of

Andhra Pradesh and finally meets the Bay of Bengal forming Kakinada

Bay (Sarma & Ganapati, 1971). It has a lot of vegetation in its 2surroundings and covers 317 km of forest area with about 17 species

of mangroves. Hydrography of this estuary has been done by several

authors. It is rich in nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton.

Copepods forming a major component of zooplankton (Chandramohan

& Rao, 1972). It provides rich fishery of clupeoids, sciaenids, prawns,

prawn-seeds and several other commercially important species (Devi,

1988).

Ennore

The river Ennore passes through Chennai city and joins the Bay of

Bengal at Ennore located near the Madras Harbour. Sivaswamy (1990)

has studied its hydrography including nutrients, phytoplankton and

zooplankton fairly extensively. It is rich in phytoplankton and

zooplankton with a rich fishery of mullets, half beak, prawns and

crabs (Sridhar, 1982). Cooum

The river Cooum forms a narrow estuary at its junction with the Bay

of Bengal. Nutrients are high, phytoplankton and zooplankton

abundant (Raj and Valsaraj, 1984, Anantharaj et al., 1987). It formed a

rich fishery of fishes, prawns and crabs (Nammalwar, 1987).

Adyar

It runs into the city of Chennai (Madras) and is rich in nutrients,

phytoplankton and zooplankton: At one time it had a rich fishery

(Daniel, 1987) but because of dumping garbage and pollutants from

neighbouring towns, its fishery has become depleted.

Vellar

It is situated near Parangipettai, a small town formerly known as Port

Novo and ends up within Pichavaram mangroves which occupies an

3Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment

area of about 800 hectares. Because of its proximity with Marine

Biological Station of Annamalai University (presently known as the

Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology), it has been studied

well. It is extremely rich in nutrients (Po -P, No -N, Sio -S) [Chandran 4 3 3

& Ramamoorthi (1984)]. Its phytoplankton rich population includes

diatoms (47 species), dinoflagellates (4 species), blue-green algae

(including Trichodesmium) abundantly found. Zooplankton population

largely included invertebrate larvae, fish eggs and larvae (Thangaraja,

1995).

The estuary provides a productive environment for fishery. Around

the estuary, there are 5 villages with a total population of about 640

fishermen and the total fish landing during the period December 1973

to November 1974 was 3,801,51 kg and included 12 categories of fish,

rays, prawns, crabs and clam (Thangaraja, 1984). Prawns kept in cages

and immersed into the estuary grew well when fed on pelleted food

(Shanmugam et al., 1995).

Cauvery (Kaveri)

The Cauvery River originates in Karnataka and ends up in Tamil Nadu

forming a delta fringed with mangroves. There has been no detailed

investigation of the fertility of this estuary. However, from the analysis

of phosphatesphosphorus (Po -P), (Ramanathan et al., 1993), it can be 4

deduced that this estuary is just as fertile as the seven estuaries of east

coast described above.

West Coast

Ashtamudi

It is located in the southern part of Kerala State and covers an area of 2

32 km . It is formed by Kallada River which is the main river and

several smaller rivers, it branches off into eight zones. The estuary

opens into the Arabian Sea through a 200 metre wide month. It is rich

in nutrients and its phytoplankton community includes 52 species

belonging to 38 genera. Primary production measured using light and 3dark bottle showed high values (average 196.56 mgC/m /h) from July

3to October and low values (average 91.93 mgC/m /h) from November

to February (Nair et al., 1983). Composition and abundance of

4 Journal of Coastal Environment

zooplankton varied from season to season and there was a

combination of brackishwater, marine and freshwater forms. The most

dominant component of zooplankton were copepods (Nair & Azis,

1987). The estuary provides a sizeable fishery. Mullets, pearl spot and

prawns are the most abundant forms from August to October (Nair &

Azis, 1987).

Cochin Backwaters and Vembanad

They form a complex system of shallow estuarine network spread over

more than 325 km running parallel to the coastline of Kerala. They

have two permanent openings to the Arabian Sea one at Cochin

(renamed as Kochi) and the other at Azhikode. The Cochin connection

is about 450 m wide and forms the main entrance to Cochin Harbour.

The other connection at Azhikode in the north is much smaller in

width. The backwater system has been the most intensively studied

for more than four decades and form one of the most productive

ecosystems among the estuarine environments. It is rich in

phosphorus, nitrogen and silicates. It has a high primary production

and relatively low zooplankton biomass. The rate of consumption by

the zooplankton works out to be only 10% of the primary production

leaving behind a large surplus of basic food in the environment. This

food sinks to the bottom and is utilised by sedentary animal

communities. Therefore, it is not surprising to find primary

production in the estuary, far exceeding the rate of consumption by

zooplankton harbivores. The backwaters terminate into a large

reservoir called the Vemband Lake. Studies conducted on the lake

separately indicate that is has a high fertility and provides rich fishery

grounds.

Kali

It is formed by the river kali one of the important rivers of Karnataka

which opens into the Arabian Sea forming the Kali Estuary. Its

freshwater regime is controlled by the monsoon season and saltwater

incursion by the tidal flow. It is rich in nutrients, phytoplankton,

zooplankton and fishery at Karwar (Shetye et al., 1993).

Mandovi-Zuari System

It is formed by the two rivers Mandovi and Zuari. The former has

many tributaries as compared to the latter. A canal called the


Cumbarjua Canal connects the two rivers inland. Thus the two rivers

and the canal demarcate the island of Panaji (Panjim) at Goa. This

estuary also has been well studied. Qasim & Sen Gupta (1981) have

worked on the saltwater penetration into the two estuaries and have

given an account on nutrients and phytoplankton while Padmavati &

Goswami (1996) have given the zooplankton abundance in the

estuarine system. The annual fish catch in the two estuaries varies

from 150 to 350 tonnes (average 200 tonnes), annually.

Estuaries of Mumbai (Bombay) Region

The region includes three estuaries as follows:

(i) Bombay Harbour/Thana Creek; (ii) Mahim and (iii) AmbaThe information available on these estuaries is not adequate. However,

from the work on general hydrography, it can be deduced that these

are just as fertile and sustainable as the others on the west coast

described above.

Estuaries of Southern Gujarat

Southern Gujarat has been profusely endowed with perennial rivers.

About 16 rivers (large, medium and small) flow in the east-west

direction. Most of them end into shallow estuaries named after the

rivers which are as follows:

(1) Sabarmati; (2) Mahi; (3) Dhabar; (4) Narmada; (5) Kim; (6)

Tapti; (7) Mindhola; (8) Purna; (9) Ambika; (10) Kaveri; (11) Karera;

(12) Auranga; (13) Par; (14) Kolak; (15) Darmangana; (16) Varoli

Socio-economic development in Gujarat State and rapid

industrialization in southern part have led to the emergence of many

industries near rivers utilising freshwater according to their needs and

conveniently disposing off the wastewater either into the river or in

the estuary depending upon their location. As a result, many new

towns have come up and some of the older cities, which are several

kilometres in land areas e.g. Vapi, Bulsar, Surat, Navsari, Billimora,

Ankleswar, Bharuch, Baroda and Ahmedabad) have flourished at the

cost of the quality of their river water. It is also to be noted that since

ancient times, human population in India has grown along the rivers


and many villages and small towns located on the banks of rivers have

become dependent on the river water for their domestic needs.

Consequently, in many villages, there are few wells or hand-pumps

and these are largely used for taking potable water for drinking. For all

other needs such as washing clothes and utensils, bathing and even

for cooking food, the river water is normally used. Therefore, the

discharge of untreated or partially-treated wastes into the rivers will

provide a health hazard with the result that several owners of the

industries took the initiative themselves for investigating the

magnitude of pollutants going into the rivers and estuaries, and if

formed alarming, measures should be recommended to control the

situation (for details see Qasim, 2003).

Present state of coastal environment

The foregoing account on estuaries of India clearly indicates the

importance and fertility of estuarine ecosystems all terminating into

the coastal waters and making the environment sustainable for fish

production. The mechanised sector yielded 74%, motorised 22% and

artisanal 4% of fish production. From the shore upto a depth of 25

metres, the catches are largely from the non-mechanised boats,

(canoes, rowing and sail boats etc.), upto 50 m depth (small

mechanised boats, upto 100 m depth (trawlers) beyond 100 m depth

(rarely fished adequately).

Coastal environment presently forms the mainstay for the exploitation

of fishery resources. However, the yield obtained from coastal waters

does not remain steady and fluctuations have become evident showing

a declining trend year after year. Pelagic finfishes contributes about

52%, demersal 28%, crustacean 16% and molluscan 4% of the total

landings. Mechanised vessels yield 74%, motorized boats 22% and

artisanal 4% of the total along the coastal environment. Landings were

greater from the west coast as compared to the east. The oil sardine,

Sardinella longicep contributed 12.4% of the marine fish resources,

followed by penaeid shrimp 8.9%. Indian mackerel, catfishes,

threadfin etc. registered increased catches during the year 2009.

The sustainability of coastal waters is largely because of estuaries

opening into this zone.


References

Anantharaj, B., Bagyalakshmi, V. & Lakshmi, R., 1987. Limnology of

the river Cooum with special reference to sewage and heavy metal

pollution. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 96, pp.

141-149.

Chandramohan, P. & Rao, T.S.S., 1972. Tidal cycle studies in relation

to zooplankton distribution in the Godavari Estuary. Proceeding of the

Indian Academy of Sciences (B), Vo. 75, pp. 23-31.

Chandran, R. & Ramamoorthi, K., 1984c. Hydrobiological studies in

the gradient zone of the Vellar Estuary: 3. Heterotrophic bacteria.

Mahasagar Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography, Vol. 17,

pp. 197-201.

Daniel, A., 1987. Estuarine animals and their adaptations. Journal of

Marine Biological Association of India, Vol. 29, pp. 351-353.

Devi, S.L., 1988. Observation on the fishery and biology of penaeid

prawns from Godavari Estuary. Indian Journal of Fisheries, Vol. 35, pp.

52-63.

Gouda, R. & Panigrahy, R.C., 1995. Seasonal distribution and behavior

of nitrate and phosphate in Rushikulya Estuary. Indian Journal of

Marine Sciences, Vol. 24, pp. 233-235.

Jhingran, C.G. & Gopalakrishnan, V., 1973. Estuarine fisheries

resources of India in relation to adjacent seas. Journal of Marine

Biological Association of India, Vol. 15, pp. 323-334.

Nair, N.B., Azis, P.K.A., Dharmaraj, K., Arunachalam, M.,

Krishnakumar, K. & Balasubramanian, N.K., 1983. Ecology of Indian

Estuaries. Part I Physico-chemical features of water and sediment-

nutrients of Ashtamudi Estuary. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences,

Vol. 12, pp. 143-150.

Nair, N.B. & Azis, P.K.A., 1987. Hydrobiology of Ashtamudi Estuary a

tropical backwater system in Kerala. Proceedings of National Seminar

on Estuarine Management (ed.) N.B. Nair, National Committee on

Science, Technology & Environment, Government of Kerala,

Trivandrum, pp. 268-280.

Nammalwar, P., 1987. Pollution impact and management of the coastal

estuaries around Madras, India. Proceedings of the National Seminar


on Estuarine Management (ed.) N.B. Nair, State Committee on Science,

Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, pp.

190-193.

Padmavati, G. & Goswami, S.C., 1996. Zooplankton ecology in the

Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system of Goa, west coast of India. Indian

Journal of Marine Sciences, Vol. 25, pp. 268-273.

Pillay, T.V.R., 1967. Estuarine fisheries of the Indian Ocean coastal

zone. In: Estuaries (ed.) G.H. Lauff. American Association for the

Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., pp. 647-657.

Qasim, S.Z., 2003. Indian Estuaries. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New

Delhi. 420 pp.

Qasim, S.Z. & SenGupta, R., 1981. Environmental characteristics of

the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system in Goa. Estuarine, Coastal and

Shelf Science, Vol. 13, pp. 557-578.

Rao, V.N.R. & Valsaraj, C.P., 1984. Hydrobiological studies in the

inshore waters of the Bay of Bengal. Journal of Marine Biological

Association of India, Vol. 26. pp. 58-65.

Sarma, D.V.R. & Ganapati, P.N., 1971. Hydrography of the Coringa

River of the Gautami-Godavari Estuarine System. Journal of Marine


Shanmugham, A., Rajamanickam, S. & Kannupandi, T., 1995. Cage

culture of Penaeus indicus in Vellar estuary. Journal of Marine


Shetty, H.P.C., Saha, S.B. & Ghosh, B.B., 1963. Observations on the

distribution and fluctuations of plankton in the Hooghly-Matlah

estuarine system, with notes on their relation to commercial fish

landings. Indian Journal of Fisheries, Vol.8, pp. 326-363.

Shetty, D.C., Reddy, C.R., Kusuma, M.S. & Neelakantan, B., 1993.

Fishing methods of Karwar waters. Journal of Marine Biological

Association of India, Vol. 35, pp. 95-104.

Sivaswamy, S.N., 1990. Plankton in relation to coastal pollution of

Ennore, Madras coast, Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, Vol. 19, pp.

115-119.


10

Sridhar, M. K.C., 1982. A field study of estuarine pollution in Madras,

India. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 12, pp. 233-236.

Thangaraja, M., 1986. Report on two types of leptocephalus eel from

Vellar estuary (Bay of Bengal). Journal of Indian Fisheries Association,

Vol. 16-17, pp. 11-15.

Thangaraja, M., 1995. Certain ecological impacts on the distribution

and abundance of fish eggs and larvae of Vellar estuary, Porto Novo

(Bay of Bengal). Journal of Marine Biological Association of India, Vol.

37, pp. 56-73.


Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy

Malti Goel*

This paper is about issues and concerns in water policy arising from energy

paradigms. It summarizes early water policy / acts and the two national policies

that have evolved in India in 1987 and 2002 as well as goals of National Water

Mission under climate change action plan. It highlights two important concerns

related to energy and industries sectors for addressing sustainable economic

development issues while enunciating the Water Policy.

Introduction"Every drop in the ocean counts.”

--Yoko OnoWater is the basis to human existence on earth. Water has been

fundamental infrastructure for early civilizations. In 2500 BC Indus

Valley Civilization around Indus River was highly developed. Although

water has been critical input for life and for agriculture, but in recent

times industries also consume enormous water and cause pollution. We

face a water crisis and water policies have evolved to have equitable

distribution and to resolve conflicts. In India total water resource is

estimated to be 4000 billion cum (bcum), through the annual rainfall,

snowfall and glacier melts. The utilizable resource is however, less than

30% of it, comprising 690 bcum of surface water and 433 bcum from

replenished ground water (MoWR, 2010). How to optimize in use of

water and how to maintain ecological balance for economic

development activities, are two vital concerns of current century?

* Former Adviser/Scientist 'G', Department of Science & Technology and Emeritus Scientist & Visiting Faculty, CSSP, JNU, New Delhi.


Abstract

Early Water Acts and PoliciesThe Laws of Manu in 200 BC also known as Hindu law of water

considered water indivisible. Diversion or obstruction of waters was

discouraged and the laws imposed a system of social reprimands and

punishments for those who polluted the water or who stole or diverted

it. Destruction of embankments was illegal (Mazumdar et. al., 1978).

The law encouraged the use and protection of water bodies as

boundaries between villages. However, water bodies of enemies were

destroyed in times of war. Subsequently, Islamic rulers from in India

(1200 AD) also considered water is a gift of God and the Islamic law

principles included that no individual or ruler can own water.British colonialism, which began in 1850s AD, began to change these

ethos and made certain regulations contrary to these. It emphasized

rights of landowners to access water. Early Act on control and rights

over water began with Indian Easements Act 1882. Introducing

Common Law Principles it provided a virtually unlimited right to

access ground water for landowners under their holdings. During the

same era, two regional level acts viz. Northern India Canal and

Drainage Act (1873) and the Madhya Pradesh Irrigation Act (1931)

regulated irrigation; navigation and drainage etc. were promulgated.

These recognized the right of the Government to use and control the

water of all rivers and streams flowing in natural channels for public

purposes. Laws which regulated canals for navigation purposes and

levying taxes on the users, river conservation, and rules on ferries and

fisheries came to be known as, Northern India Ferries Act 1878 and

Indian Fisheries Act 1897 (Siddiqui, 1992). The Indian Fisheries Act

1897 came to also safeguard fish fauna in coastal and inland waters.

This era was instrumental in causing division of responsibilities and

also conflicts between the Centre and the regional/States with regard to

water. The Government of India Act 1935 empowered the provinces to

take decisions on water supply and distribution. With the objective to

resolve inter-state water issues, The River Board Act was enunciated in

1956 after India achieved independence. Control of water pollution has

been addressed by Acts enacted in 1974, 1977 and 1978. These Acts are

summarized in Table 1.


13Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy

Table 1

S. No. Acts

1 The Easement Act 1882 allows private rights to use a resource i.e. Groundwater, by viewing it as an attachment to the land. It also states that all surface water belongs to the state and is a state property.

2 Indian Fisheries Act 1897 establishes two sets of penal offences whereby the government can sue any person who uses dynamite or other explosive substance in any way (whether coastal or inland) with intent to catch or destroy any fish or poisons fish in order to kill.

3 The Government of India Act 1935 empowered the provinces to take decisions on water supply, irrigation, canals, drainage and embankments, water storage and hydropower.

4 The River Boards Act 1956 enables the states to enroll the Central Government in setting up an Advisory River Board to resolve issues in inter state cooperation.

5 Merchant Shipping Act 1970 aims to deal with waste arising from ships along the coastal areas within a specified radius.

6 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 establishes an institutional structure for preventing and abating water pollution. It establishes standards for water quality and effluent. Polluting industries must seek permission to discharge waste into effluent bodies. The Pollution Control Board (CPCB) was constituted under this act.

7 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act 1977 provides for the levy and collection of cess or a fees on water consuming industries and local authorities.

8 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules 1978 contains the standard definitions and indicate the kind of and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to affix.

9 Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 1991 puts regulations on various activities, including construction, are regulated. It gives some protection to the backwaters and estuaries

10 Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011 puts regulation of permissible activities in CRZ taking into account the dangers of natural hazards in the coastal areas and sea level rise due to global warming.

Water related Acts and Laws enacted in India


National Water Policies

Keeping in view the vital importance of water for human and animal

life, development and management of this resource for its optimal,

economical and equitable use became a matter of the utmost urgency.

First National Water Policy was announced in 1987 for maintaining

ecological balance and pursuing economic developmental activities of

all kinds. This policy was later revised and updated by Ministry of

Water Resources (MoWR), and National Water Policy 2002 (NWP2002)

has been enunciated. No doubt premises for both policies have been

Water Availability and its Allocation Priorities, as can be seen from

priority allocation areas in two policies (Table 2). In NWP 2002,

ecology has been added as one of the priority areas and it received a

priority before industry, thereby increasing priority areas from five to

six. It also mentions that these priorities could be modified or added

it warranted by the area / region specific considerations.

In addition, a broad based Institutional mechanism to give focus to

multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary approach has also been proposed to

improve water planning and basin management. Besides, development

of an improved institutional framework, the other main difference in

2002 policy and 1987 policy; has been that NWP2002 focused on

enhancing the participation by private parties in water management

and ensuring that States share the waters of a joint river, with the

object of developing an effective monitoring system. It also proposed

that perspective plan for standardized training should be an integral

Table 2

Water Allocation Priorities

S.No. NWP 1987 NWP 2002

1. Drinking water Drinking water

2. Irrigation Irrigation

3. Hydro-power Hydro-power

4. Navigation Ecology

5. Industrial and other uses Agro Industry and

Non-agriculture industry

6. - Navigation and other uses

15

part of water resource development. It should cover training in

information system, sectoral planning, project planning &

management, operation of projects & their physical structure and

management of water distribution systems. A new emphasis to

research & development (R&D) was given and Science & Technology

Advisory Committee revitalized in the Ministry of Water Resources.

Department of Science & Technology (DST) through its Inter-sectoral

mechanism in place, in cooperation with the MoWR played a key role

in it. The R&D thrust areas and the training for all the categories of

personnel involved in these activities, as also the farmers were

emphasized and highlighted (DST, STAC Scan Plus, 2003).

These two policies have been quite exhaustive and supplemented by

State water policies from time to time such as, Rajasthan State Water

Policy 1999, Uttar Pradesh Water Policy 1999, Karnataka State Water

Policy 2002, Maharashtra State Water Policy 2003 among others. The

most recent is Punjab Preservation of Sub-Soil Water Act 2009, to

address the excess use of ground water in agriculture.

National Water MissionIndia has established in 2009 a National Water Mission under

'National Action Plan on Climate change 2008'. The Mission has

chartered a new path to address climate change concern and has

targeted a comprehensive water data base in the public domain for

assessment of its impact on water resource. The five identified goals of

the Mission have been identified as: (a) comprehensive water data

base in public domain and assessment of impact of climate change on

water resource; (b) promotion of citizen and state action for water

conservation, augmentation and preservation; (c) focused attention to

over-exploited areas; (d) increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and

(e) promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

Various strategies for achieving the mission goals have been identified

(NWM.2009), which can lead to integrated plan for sustainable

development and ensure basin level management to deal with

variability in rainfall and river flows due to climate change. This

would include enhanced storage both above and below ground,

rainwater harvesting, coupled with equitable and efficient

management structures. One of the important features of the mission


16

is to review existing National Water Policy to facilitate attainment of

mission goals.

Review of National Water Policy

Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) has recently reviewed National

Water Policy, and a Brainstorming Session and Consultation Meeting

was organized by under the overall guidance of Mr. U. Panjiyar, thSecretary, Government of India on 26 October 2010, participated by

the experts from across the country. Dr. S. Z. Qasim, Chairman, COES

was also invited. I had the opportunity to participate and was thus

benefitted by the views expressed. Several suggestions were made

about the need for making people aware about the scarcity of water in

our country and importance of water conservation as well as ecology

& efficiency in use of water. Issues of social justice, priority and basin

management were deliberated with the aim to harmonize the policy

with NWM.

It emerged that two mega problems India faces today are; shortage of

water and shortage of energy for its future generations. To minimize

the negative impacts of overuse and climate change, convergence of

water policies with energy issues and development of strategies which

can be monitored, are needed. In the following discussions, I have

made an effort to draw attention to the need for an inclusive water

policy to address sustainability issues related to energy demand and

industrial effluents.

Water and Energy

India's economy has been agriculture driven and irrigation has rightly

received the highest priority after drinking water in the National

policy, followed by hydroelectric energy (Table 2). However there are

issues arising out of water and energy consumption as follows.

Ground Water Irrigation — To meet the irrigation needs from

underground water India has 15 million electrified tube wells and 10

million Diesel operated shallow tube wells. Use of electricity for

ground water irrigation is subsidized and free in some States. This has

led to increasing stress on agriculture those States and excessive use

of ground water. Enormous electricity is thus being consumed in

pumping water for agriculture. By one estimate, groundwater


17

irrigation accounts for 4 to 6 percent of India's total carbon emissions.

A one percent increase in groundwater irrigated area increases

greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from coal based electricity use in

pumping by 2.2 percent. Under Climate Change impacts on

hydrological cycle and river flows, there will be still larger stress on

the ground water resources. Hence for efficient water management not

only to control the carbon footprint of irrigation, the policy must have

guidelines to minimize or reduce groundwater draft and to encourage

use of store surface water.

Trans-boundary Co-operation for Hydroelectric Generation — Trans-

boundary Co-operation in river water for hydroelectricity has emerged

as another critical issue for meeting energy targets. The 'water energy'

being source of hydroelectric power generation, it is dependent on the

water flow rate, besides other parameters. Dam reservoir, run-of-river

flow, pumped storage and river diversion systems are utilized for high

efficiency power generation as the case may be. Creation of hydraulic

channels leads to diversion of water and hydroelectric encroachment

on river beds. Trans-boundary treatises with Pakistan for Indus River

on western side and with China for Brahmaputra River on Eastern side

are having dampening effects on water availability and hydroelectric

generation. Brahmaputra River for example is having 30% of India's

water resources and has over 40% share in total hydroelectric

generation potential for the country. Brahmaputra covers different type

of climatic zones and part of its basin is located in high seismic zone.

Being a huge source of water availability, rich in fish fauna and

aquatic biodiversity, the energy generation is yet to start. Projects have

been conceptualized, but are facing hurdles in terms of environmental

concerns. Other hurdles are availability of adequate hydrological data

and project information guidelines. On the other hand, Chinese side of

the river has already lined up two dozen hydroelectric power projects.

As a result, the problems may arise for India from diversion of water

resources. Fears are already expressed that the expected energy

potential may not be realized. This situation demands quick and

appropriate guidelines for a policy on trans-boundary cooperation so

that economic development is not affected.

Adapting to Climate Change — There is another concern about

adaptation to climate change. Being threat to all, climate change as a



means to look at trans-boundary issues as well as in achieving

hydroelectric energy generation is requires use of appropriate

technologies. The changes in hydrological cycle and other parameters

predicted as a result of climate change may lead to appreciable

changes in water availability especially for those who obtain water

from melting of glaciers and snow peaks. Need for a micro-watershed

level database has been suggested the main component of an

alternative water policy for India in 2020 (Kathpalia et al, 2002). To

understand the impact of climate change on water sources, reliable

data collection on scientific basis would be an important tool. It

would also be in harmony with goals of National Water Mission.

As regards to hydropower generation, which has almost nil GHG

emissions, policy incentives on use of alternate technologies is

suggested. It is well known that a system with less storage capacity is

more vulnerable to climate change whereas a larger storage capacity

can provide greater flexibilities to operate. Creation of pump storage

hydropower generation systems can be a safeguard against

vulnerability of climate change. In a pumped storage system power is

consumed in pumping (at times of low electrical demand, pumping is

done) water in a higher reservoir for storage. When there is peak

demand for electricity the stored water is released through a turbine

for generation of electricity. Therefore, redefining hydropower project

priorities and incentivizing development of pump storage power

generation should be considered for adapting to climate change.

Water and IndustriesThe other important issue is dealing with policy on water use by

industries. Although agriculture driven, our economy is growing or

expected to grow at 8-9% per annum. In the coming decades, industry

would become significant user of water in the coming decades. In

water allocation, industries are fifth in priority (NWP2002). Industrial

effluents are greater source of water pollution. Energy industries like

thermal and nuclear have huge water needs for cooling purpose.

Proximity of a water source is essential for many other industries.

Though deliberated in many forums, here we address the concerns of

industry related water issues through following means.

19

Bureau of Water Conservation (BWC) — Efficient use of water is

becoming important for both agriculture and industry. With increasing

role of industries in future economic growth, it would also require

policy measures to ensure recycling and reuse of treated effluents on

large-scale for resource conservation and augmentation. Policies of

zero water waste are proposed. The draft report by Planning

Commission (Parikh, 2009) has suggested that industries should have

self-regulation about treating effluents to standards set by pollution

control authorities. In this context, Confederation of Indian Industry

(CII) has recommended a ten point agenda (CII Communique, 2010).

Setting up of benchmark norms and disclosure standards covering

water use in all segments of agriculture, industry and domestic as well

as implementing actions on incentivizing water conservation are

considered relevant for a new policy. .The agenda highlights

multipronged actions for setting time bound targets for waste water

recycling; establishing rain water harvesting as part of the building

code, restoration of water bodies and instituting a system of water

credits among others.. A suggestion was made to create a Bureau of

Water Efficiency. We feel that a Bureau of Water Conservation (BWC)

would not only improve productivity per unit of water consumed in

the industrial and agricultural processes, but also facilitate

monitoring, making water assessments and water audits mandatory

in identified industries and utilities for conservation measures.

Industrial Ecological Measures in Coastal Zones Lastly an inclusive

water policy should address coastal ecology issues. While

environmental flows for Ganga River are being computed under Ganga

Action Plan, the environmental / ecological footprint of

'developmental' activity and impacts of water-resource development

projects may cause heavy pollution and contamination in coastal

waters. For example energy industry produces waste as fly ash from

thermal power plants and nuclear waste heat from nuclear reactors,

which are being added to oceans and are causes of concern (Qasim,

2009). The effluent discharge of coastal industries may cause immense

pollution problem and affect future drinking water supply obtained

from water desalination. Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 1991



and Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011 promulgated by

Ministry of Environment & Forests .ensure vulnerability of some

coastal areas and Islands States to ecological imbalance, protection of

coastal waters as well as impacts of climate change.

With India having 7000 km of coastal line, proper management of

coastal wet lands, estuarine wet lands and flood plains can augment

water resources significantly. Wise use of wetlands into river basin

management not only helps in maintenance of hydrological regime,

but also in conservation of water and biodiversity. Degradation of

coastal wet lands through land development and water management

activities reduce the natural capacity to store and purify water. Soil

subsidence due to anthropogenic activities of ground water extraction

may disrupt wetland hydrology and even loss of wetland. Accelerated

sea level rise due to climate change and increased frequency of

hurricanes would demand coastal wetland restoration through

Engineered Water Management Systems. Therefore a suggestion is

made here to include improved management of wet lands for water

security in the Indian water policy.

ConclusionsIn the rapidly changing economic scenario, energy gap is required to

be filled up in India at a faster rate for meeting the basic needs of its

people. Formulation of water related policies for different sectors of

economy, hydroelectric power for reducing GHG emissions from

power sector and development of strategies for zero water waste are

getting highlighted. This paper describes important concerns related to

water security and suggests implementable policy actions for

addressing sustainability issues. Ground water conservation and trans-

boundary cooperation with respect to hydropower generation are the

need of the hour. The concerns for water and industry could perhaps

be best addressed by a Bureau of Energy Conservation and engineered

water management in coastal regions.

AcknowledgementsAuthor conveys her sincere thanks to Dr. S. Z. Qasim for the guidance

and encouragement.

21

References

Confederation of India Industry CII Communique Journal 2010. Vol.

19, no. 10, pp 63.

Kathpalia G. N. and Kapoor R. 2002. Water Policy and Action Plan for

2020, Alternate Futures, pp 33.

Majumdar, R. C., Raychaudhuri, H. C., & Datta, K., 1978. An Advanced

History of India (4th ed.).Delhi: Macmillan.

Min. of Water Resources, 2010. Background Note for Consultation

Meeting with Policy Makers on Review of National Water Policy, pp50.

National Water Mission: A Comprehensive Mission Document, 2009.

Vol I, owr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/MissionDocument

8395131900.pdf

Parikh, Kirit, 2009. .Integrated Water Management: Policy and

Concerns, Draft Report, Planning Commission

Qasim, S. Z., 2009. Climate Change and Marine Environment, in

Awareness and Capacity Building on Carbon Capture and Storage,

ACBCCS News Flyer, p1.

Siddiqui, I. A., 1992. History of water laws in India. In C. Singh (Ed.),

Water law in India, New Delhi: Indian Law Institute, pp. 289319.

Department of Science & Technology, 2003. (Ed.) Malti Goel, STAC

Scan Plus: a Newsletter of Inter-sectoral Science & Technology

Advisory Committee, ISSN 09T2, 6659, Vol 11, no. 3, p.12.



Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship of Ocypodemacrocera Population from Pondicherry

Sandy Beaches, South East Coast of India

1A. Yogamoorthi* and R. Siva Sankar

The brachyuran crab, Ocypodemacrocera population inhabiting along the

sandy beaches of Pondicherry has been examined for its population

characteristics taking the relationship of carapace length/width to wet (body)

weight. Growth parameters a and b of the length-weight relationship, (LWR) w

= aLb, for O. macrocera was 2.5326, 2.5811 and 2.5517 for males, females

and entire population, respectively. The values of b estimated were 0.0412,

0.0409 and 0.0411 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The

regression equation for the LWR are W= 2.5326 + 0.0412L for males, W=

2.5811+0.0409L for females and W= 2.5517 + 0.0411L for the total crab

population. The coefficient of determination of males, females and entire

population were 0.922, 0.928 and 0.923 showing a strong correlation between

the variables. The increase in body weight was associated with carapace length

and width with an equal degree of correlation. The LWR and WWR were

showing positive allometry for all crabs. In O. macrocera, the sex ratio of the

crabs was 3:2 and the length/width-weight distribution pattern did not show

remarkable differences between sexes. It is inferred from the present study that

the allometric relationship among the various parts of the body is functionally

important in the biology of organisms and particularly as a predictive tool for

evolving specific conservation strategies.

IntroductionInformation on morphometric, meristic and length-weight characteristics

of crabs is required for assessment of the fishery (Gbemisola Akin-Oriola

et al., 2005). The size-weight relationship has been used in fishery

* Reader, Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry

University, Puducherry1 Research Scholar, Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry

University, Puducherry


Abstract


analyses for several purposes: to convert one variable to another, to

estimate the expected weight for a certain size, or to detect ontogenetic

morphological changes related to maturation of crustaceans and fishes

(Pinheiro and Fransozo, 1993). Estimate of biomass is essential for studies

modeling the structure, animal growth, production, and energy flow in

ecosystems. Because indirect estimation of mass from the body length of

an organism is much easier than direct measurement of its dry mass, the

relationship between body mass and length is a useful tool in ecological

research (Petrakis and Stergiou 1995; Koutrakis and Tsikliras 2003; Torcu-

Koc et al., 2006). There are numerous reports on the relationships between

carapace width and wet weight of crabs (Atar and Seçer 2003; Hitoshi

Miyasaka et al., 2007) nonetheless, no reports are found pertaining to the

relationship of carapace length/width to wet weight with reference to

Ocypodemacrocera. Hence presently an attempt has been made.

Material and MethodsAmong the few brachyurans, O. macrocera is distributed along the sandy

beaches of Pondicherry (12°00'59'?N 79°51'43'?N) occupying the high tide

level of the intertidal zone. The crabs are collected by hands and cast nets

during night time and dislodge them from their burrows of 1m depth

during the daytime with the assistance of a fisherman. About 132 animals

are caught alive and transferred to the laboratory in a closed plastic

container. The morphometric measurements are taken and are subjected

statistical analysis.

The relationship between length and weight is usually expressed by the

equation:W = aLb.

This equation can also be denoted as its logarithmic form:

logW = log a + b logL

Where: W = Weights; L = Carapace length or carapace width; a

=Intercept; b = Slope

a and b are estimated by the linear regression analysis from

logarithmically transformed data and the association degree between

weight-length variables is calculated by the determination coefficient (r2)

(Levent Sangun et al., 2009). A student's t-test was used to check for the

width/length-weight relationship statistical significance.

25

ResultsIdentification and distinction between male and female

Totally, one hundred and thirty two crabs were caught from the high

tide mark of the sandy beach in which 75 are males and 57 are

females. Male crabs have a narrow abdomen while females have a

wider abdomen as indicated in the Fig. 1 and 2. Sex ratio and size composition:

The sex ratio of the O. macrocera population studied was 3:2. The

results showed that the size of O. macroceraranged between 2cm and

4 cmfor male and 2.2 to 3.9 for female (Carapace width) and the wet

weight between 6.35 to 50.02 g for males and 8.43 to 50.64 for

females, respectively as shown in table 1.

The relationship of regression of width-weight relationship, length-

weight relationship and width-length are presented in fig. 3, 4 & 5 for

male, female and overall population. Growth parameters a and b of the

length-weight relationship, (LWR) w = aLb, for O. macrocera was

2.5326, 2.5811 and 2.5517 for males, females and entire population,

respectively. The values of b estimated were 0.0412, 0.0409 and

0.0411 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The

Male 75 3.1 0.069 2 4 3.6 0.07 2.5 4.5 26.62 1.67 6.35 50.02

Female 57 3.1 0.064 2.2 3.9 3.7 0.07 2.7 4.5 27.45 1.65 8.43 50.64

Both 132 3.1 0.048 2 4 3.6 0.05 2.5 4.5 26.95 1.18 6.35 50.64

Width CharacteristicsN Mean SE Min. Max.

Width CharacteristicsMean SE Min. Max.

Width CharacteristicsMean SE Min. Max.

Male O. Macrocera Female O. Macrocera

Fig. 2Fig. 1

Table 1

Width, length and weight characteristics for O. Macrocera

Sex

Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship


regression equation for the LWR are W= 2.5326 + 0.0412L for males,

W= 2.5811+0.0409L for females and W= 2.5517 + 0.0411L for the

total crab population. The coefficient of determination of males,

females and entire population were 0.922, 0.928 and 0.923 showing a

strong correlation between the variables as given in fig. 3.

Regression relationship between carapace width- body weight

Fig. 3

Relationship between width and weightGrowth parameters a and b of the width-weight relationship, (WWR) w = aLb, for O. macrocera was 2.0481, 2.1309 and 2.0782 for males, females and entire population, respectively. The values of b estimated were 0.0396, 0.0373 and 0.0388 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The regression equation for the WWR is W= 2.0481 + 0.0396L for males, W= 2.1309 + 0.0373L for females and W= 2.0782 + 0.0388L for the total crab population. The coefficient of determination of males, females and entire population were 0.918, 0.920 and 0.918, respectively, showing a strong correlation between the variables as given in fig. 4.

Regression relationship between carapace width- body weight

Fig. 4

25Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship

Relationship between width and length:Growth parameters a and b of the carapace width- length relationship, (WLR) w = aLb, for O. macrocera was 0.425, 0.2684 and 0.3733 for males, females and entire population, respectively. The values of b estimated were 1.0328, 1.0891 and 1.0522 for males, females and whole population, respectively. The regression equation for the WLR are W= 0.425 + 1.0328L for males, W= 0.2684 + 1.0891L for females and W= 0.3733 + 1.0522L for the total crab population. The coefficient of determination of males, females and entire population were 0.990, 0.994 and 0.990, respectively, showing a very strong correlation between the variables as given in fig. 5.

Fig. 5

Regression relationship between carapace width- length


DiscussionThe relationships between carapace width and weight and carapace length and weight have many uses. They are, for example, indicators of a condition, and are used to calculate biomass and to estimate the recovery of edible meat from crabs of various sizes (Lagler, 1968). Information about the individual body weight-length/width relationships in population characteristics is in general of great importance for estimating the population size of a stock for its exploitation. The weight increment to the width-length ratio is used in a given geographic region for observing a species forming and growing (Atar and Seçer, 2003).

In view of the importance of such studies, presently the brachyuran crab, O. macrocera population inhabiting along the sandy beaches of the Pondicherry is examined for its population characteristics taking the relationship of carapace length/width to body (wet) weight. In fact, length-width and weight data are useful and standard results of sampling studies (Atar and Seçer, 2003). They also have a practical value, since they make it possible to convert length into weight and vice versa. On the other hand, body weight and total length, carapace length and carapace width are the most frequently used dimensions in the study of crustaceans (Sukumaran, 1997). In all instances, wet weight is the independent variable and the dimensions of various characteristic fragments are the independent variables (Richardson et al., 2000). In O. macrocera, there is a strong relationship (r2 = 0.92) between length and weight of males and females and the entire crab population. The linear regressions between width or length and crab weight were significant (P > 0.001) and carapace width and length regressions were also significant (P > 0.001). The relationship between carapace width and carapace length was linear with a very high degree of correlation (r = 0.99) as shown in Fig III, implying that the increase in carapace width to carapace length was proportionate. Body weight-carapace length shows that sharp increase in body weight was observed. The carapace length increased marginally in the specimens in the size range of 25-45 mm, and the relationship was linear. Body weight - carapace width relationship was found to be of same nature as in the case of body weight and carapace length. The increase in body weight was associated with carapace length and width with an equal degree of correlation. The LWR and WWR were showing positive allometry for all crabs.

25Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship


It is also to note that according to Bagenal (1978) when co-efficient of regression is greater and or less than 3, then growth is allometric but when equal to 3, then the growth is isometric. The concept of allometry was first postulated by Huxley and Tersse (1936) and since then it has been extensively applied by many biologists to estimate the population growth characteristics. The values of b ranged from 2.04 to 3.24 for C. Sapidus from Georgia (Stickney, 1972), and it shows similarities with the result of C. Sapidus from Beymelek Lagoon (Atar & Seçer, 2003). In the present study the values of b ranged from 0.2 to 2.5 were recorded. Further, the reports of Pauly (1984) and Saprre (1992) it could not be ignored that the values of b for two other marine portunid crabs (Portunussanguinolentus and P. pelagicus) are larger in some cases, i.e. extraordinary more than 3. Even though the change of b values depend primarily on the shape and fatness of the species, various factors may be responsible for the differences in parameters of the length/width-weight relationships among seasons and years, such as temperature, salinity, food (quantity, quality and size), sex, time of year and stage of maturity.

In O. macrocera, the length/width-weight distribution pattern did not

show remarkable differences between sexes. The sex ratio of the crabs

was 3:2, indicating that males were found mostly going in search for

food and mating because of the reproductive period which is seasonal

during the onset of rainfall. Similar observation has also been made by

Bello Olusojiet al (2009).

Although data analysed ( sample size) in this study is not of greater

magniture, it is still possible to infer that the allometric relationship

among the various parts of the body is functionally important in the

biology of organisms and particularly as a predictive tool for evolving

specific conservation strategies.

AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the Director, CAS in marine Biology and Prof.Ajmal

Khan for their expertise and permission to refer the museum specimen

required for the confirmation of the species selected in the present

study. We also profusely thank the fishermen from Chinnakalapet

(opposite to our University) for their help and cooperation in catching

the animals from the deep burrows both during day and night times.

29

Without their involvement, we could not dig out so many crabs for the

study. We extend our thanks to Dr.S.M.Sundarapandian, Senior

Lecturer, for his help in completing statistical analyses.

ReferencesAtar, H.H., Seçer, S.2003. Width/length-weight relationships of the

blue crab (CallinectessapidusRathbun 1896) population living in

Beymelek Lagoon Lake.Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal

Sciences.27. pp. 443447.

Bagenal, T. B. 1978. Methods of Assessment of fish production in

freshwaters.IBP Handbook No 3. p. 126130, 166169.

Bello Olusoji, O.A., Anifowose, O.J. and Sodamola, M.Y. 2009. Length-

Weight Relationships, Condition Factor and Fecundity of the West

Africa Freshwater Crab, Sudanonautesafricanus (Milne-Edwards 1883),

in Western Nigeria. West Africian Journal of Applied Ecology.16. pp. 65-

74.

Gbemisola Akin-Oriola., Martins Anetekhai and KemiOlowonirejuaro.

2005.Morphometric and Meristic Studies in Two Crabs:

Cardiosomaaramatum and Callinectespallidus. Turkish Journal of

Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences.5. pp. 85-89.

Huxley, J. S. and Tessir, G.1936.Terminology of relative growth,

Nature.137. pp. 780-781.

Hitoshi Miyasaka, MotomiGenkai-Kato, Yukiko Goda and Koji Omori.

2007. Length-weight relationships of two varunid crab species,

Helicetridens and Chasmagnathusconvexus, in Japan. Limnology.8. pp.

81-83.

Koutrakis, E.T. and Tsikliras, A.C. 2003.Lengthweight relationships of

fishes from three northern Aegean estuarine systems (Greece).Journal

of Applied Ichthyology.19. pp. 258260.

Lagler, K.F. 1968.Capture, Sampling and Examination of Fishes,

Methods for Assessment ofFish Production in Freshwaters. IBP

Handbook III. p. 7-45

LeventSangun, CananTureli,ErhanAkamca and OnderDuysak.2009.

Width/Length-Length Relationships for 8 Crab Species from the North-

Eastern Mediterranean Coast of Turkey. Journal of Animal and

Veterinary Advances.8 (1). pp. 75-79.

Carapace Length/Width-Weight Relationship


Pauly, D. 1984.Fish Population Dynamics in Tropical Waters: A

Manual for Use with Programmable Calculators. The International

Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management.Manila. Philippines.

p. 325.

Pinheiro, M. A. A. and Fransozo, A. 1993.Análise da relaçãobiométrica

entre o peso ealargura da carapaçapara o siriArenaeuscribrarius

(Lamarck, 1818) (Crustacea, Portunidae).Brazilian Archives of Biology

and Technology.36(2). pp. 331-341.

Petrakis, G. and Stergiou, K.I.1995. Weight-length relationships for 33

fish species in Greek waters. Fisheries Research.21. pp. 465469.

Richardson, A. J., Lamberts,C., Isaacs,G., Moloney, C. L. and Gibbons,

M. J. 2000.Length-Weight Relationships of Some Important Forage

Crustaceans from South Africa, Naga.The International Center for

Living Aquatic Resources Management quarterly.23. No. 2.

Stickney, R. R. 1972.Length-weight relationships for several fishes and

invertebrates in Georgia coastal waters with condition factors for fish

species.Skidaway Institute of Oceanography Savanna.Georgia.

Sparre, P. 1992.Introduction to Tropical Fish Stock Assessment. Part

IManual.FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.Rome. Rev 1. 306/1

Sukumaran, K.K. and Neelakantan, B.1997.Length-Weight Relationship

in Two Marine Portunid Crabs Portunussanguinolentus (Herbst) and

Portunuspelagicus (Linnaeus) from the Karnataka Coast. Indian Journal

of Marine Sciences.26. pp. 39-42.

Torcu-Koç, H., Erdogan, Z. andTreer, T. 2006. A review of length-

weight relationships of Fishesfrom freshwaters of Turkey. Journal of

Applied Ichthyology.22. pp. 264270.

Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer on the Growth Enhancement of Black Mustard Plant

1 1,2 1T.C. Srijaya , P.J. Pradeep and Anil Chatterji

There have always been attempts to replace inorganic fertilizers with organic

fertilizers from natural sources for enhancing the growth of commercially

important plants. In continuation to the same efforts, an attempt was made to

demonstrate the growth enhancing properties in the extracts of two species of

seaweeds (Padina tetrastomatica and Sargassum sp.) used on black mustard

plant (Brassica nigra L). The extract of Sargassum sp. (1:100 dilution) was the

most effective concentration in enhancing different parts of the plant by more

than 80% (p<0.05). Padina extract of the same dilution also showed promising

results but was relatively less effective than the extract of Sargassum sp.

(p<0.05). Micro elemental analysis revealed that the major micro-elements 2+ + 3+ 3+such as; Mg , Na , Al and B were relatively higher in 1:100 dilutions of the

extracts of both the species of seaweeds as compared to the crude and 1:50

dilutions of the extracts.

Introduction Application of synthetic growth promoters in agriculture farming has

been in practice for many decades. However, continuous use of

inorganic fertilizers in traditional farming has been losing its

popularity because of its adverse effect in altering the chemistry of the

soil, making it less congenial for plant growth. Moreover, the harmful

effects of inorganic fertilizers have serious impact on human health

(Camargo and Alonso 2006). In recent years, liquid extracts prepared

1 Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia.2 Oral Cancer Research and Coordinating Centre, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.


Abstract

from different seaweeds have started gaining importance as foliar

sprayers or soil conditioners for several important crops (Rama Rao

1991, Mohan et al. 1994, Rajkumar and Subramanian 1999,

Thirumaran et al. 2006, 2007, 2009, Rathore and et al. 2009, El-

Quesni et al. 2010). Seaweeds have been reported to take the richness

of mineral elements from the sea that can account up to 36% of their

dry mass. The mineral macro-nutrients in seaweeds consist of sodium,

calcium, magnesium, potassium, chlorine, sulfur and phosphorus. The

micro-nutrients include iodine, iron, zinc, copper, selenium,

molybdenum, fluoride, manganese, boron, nickel and cobalt (Jensen

1993, Noda et al. 1990, Jiménez-Escrig and Goni 1999). Wet or liquid

extracts made from seaweed such as; Eucheuma sp. and Sargassum sp.

are used as supplementary fertilizers that have been reported to

increase the yield of crops by 12-36% in some commercially important

plants (Stephen et al. 1985). The seaweed extract has been found to

contain growth stimulators such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokine.

The extract also comprises growth promoting hormones (IAA and 2+ 2+ 2+ 4 6+ 7+ 4+

IBA), trace elements (Fe , Cu , Zn , Co , Mo , Mn and Ni ),

vitamins and amino acids (Challen and Hemingway 1965, Stephen et

al. 1985). The use of seaweed extract at the germinating stage showed

encouraging results by stimulating the growth of roots and shoots

(Featon and Van Stadena 1983). About 2-10% of seaweed extracts in

combination with NPK fertilizer has also been used in some

developing countries to enhance the yield of the crop of the

commercially important plants (Chatterji et al. 2004). Seaweed extract

can be used as a growth enhancer for variety of plants at a lower

concentration without any harmful effects (Abdel-Mawgoud et al.

2010). Plants sprayed with seaweed extract showed healthy growth

with bright green and larger leaves, early flowering and fruit bearing

as compared to the group where no seaweed extract was used (Abdel-

Mawgoud et al. 2010). The extract of Sargassum sp. when tried on

turnip, chilies, pine apple, paddy, some flowering plants and

vegetables etc., showed an enhancement in the growth of plants by 35

to 40% (Dhargalkar et al. personal communication). Considering the

importance of seaweed extract for agricultural applications, an attempt

was made to evaluate the growth enhancing properties in the extracts

prepared from two species of seaweeds namely; Padina tetrastomatica

and Sargassum sp. on the black mustard plant (Brassica nigra L).


Material and Methods

Plant Materials and Extract PreparationFresh samples of seaweeds (Padina tetrastomatica and Sargassum sp.) were collected during the low tides from a coastal village at Tanjung Sedili (Johor) in Malaysia. Seaweeds were washed thoroughly immediately after their collection with seawater and then freshwater subsequently to remove the adhering material and sand particles.

oCleaned seaweeds were dried in oven at a temperature of 60 C and ground to fine powder using a pulverizer. About 1 kg of dried seaweed powder and 4 liters of freshwater was boiled separately for each species under a pressure of 15 lbs using a pressure cooker (Pressure Canner, 15.5 Quart) for 1 hour. This process yielded 2 liters of concentrated extracts of seaweed from each species. Extracts were finally filtered using a muslin cloth and treated as 100% concentrated extracts of each species. In 1 liter of concentrated extract, 0.1% of formaldehyde solution (5 ml) was added to preserve the extract. Extracts of P. tetrastomatica and Sargassum sp. were used after their dilution with fresh water to achieve 1:50 and 1:100 dilutions. The efficacy of the extract was evaluated as soil conditioner by adding the extract in the soil before planting the seeds of the black mustard plant (Brassica nigra L).

Before commencing the experiments for evaluating the efficacy of the extracts, soil from a commercial agriculture farm was collected and mixed with 2% river sand thoroughly. The soil was filled properly in 15 plastic pots (20 x 20 x10 cm size). Prior to transplantation of the seeds, the following five sets of pots were prepared for evaluating the efficacy of different seaweed extracts:

Set 1 : Control group (Absence of seaweed extract in the soil)

Set 2 : Experimental Group- P-50 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of P. tetrastomatica (1:50 dilution) was mixed the soil].

Set 3 : Experimental Group- P-100 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of P. tetrastomatica (1:100 dilution) was mixed with the soil].

Set 4 : Experimental Group- S-50 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of Sargassum sp. (1:50 dilution) was mixed with the soil].

Set 5 : Experimental Group- S-100 [Seaweed extract (20 ml) of Sargassum sp. (1:100 dilution) was mixed with the soil

33Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer

before transplantation of seeds.

The above mentioned sets were prepared in triplicates. The black mustard seeds (Brassica nigra L.) were purchased from the local market and kept in fresh water for one hour in a glass beaker. Only the seeds that settled at the bottom of the beaker were used for conducting the present experiment 5 seeds of black mustard were carefully planted at the center of each pot one by one at a distance of 2 cm each. The seeds were pushed 5 cm deep in to the soil and the depression was then loosely covered back by the soil.

Each pot was labeled with the pot number and the date of sowing of the seeds. The date of sowing was recorded to determine the offset date for the data analysis. Regular sprinkling of water was done every day to keep the soil moist. The day on which the seeds started germinating through the soil was treated as day Zero. The plants were watered every day or on alternate days depending on the requirement.

Growth Measurements

thAfter the 60 day of the experiment, three plants from each set of the experiment were slowly removed to review the growth of the plant. The following measurements were taken:

1. Leaf Count. Total number of leaves growing on one plant was counted and the mean number for three plants was recorded. The leaves that appeared for the first time were not considered as real leaves as they were dicotyledons. They were thicker and rounder than actual leaves.

2. Plant Height. The height of each plant was measured from the base to the tip of the plant in millimeters using a scale and their mean was recorded.

3. Stem Thickness. The thickness of each plant stem was measured in diameters at the base of the plant using a Vernier caliper and their mean values were recorded.

4. Leaf Area. The length and breadth of the leaves of each plant was measured by a Vernier caliper. The leaf area was estimated by multiplying values of the length and breadth and then dividing the same by 2.

Micro-element CompositionThe elemental composition was also measured to see the effect of


dilution on the concentration of micro-elements present in the seaweed extracts. For that 100ml of solution from all groups (P-50, P-100, S-50 and S-100) including crude extracts were freeze dried. Freeze dried contents from all groups were taken in a sample size of 0.1g for the digestion process. The process was conducted by mixing the 0.1g weighed sample with 3ml of concentrated nitric acid and then kept in the digestion chamber at a temperature of 60° C for 5 hours. From this digested product, 1 ml of the solution of each group was transferred individually to 6 different centrifuge tubes (15 ml) and then subsequently 9 ml of Milli-Q water was added to each tube The diluted sample was finally used for detecting the elemental composition of the samples on an ICP-MS unit (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, Perkin Elmer, USA). The collected data was tested statistically by analysis of variance, one- way ANOVA (Originpro. 8.1).

ResultsThe recorded measurements of the different parts of the plants in each

group are presented in Table 1. In all groups, the effectiveness of

extracts (1:50 dilutions) of both the species were found relatively

lower in comparison to the extracts that were diluted by 1:100 times.

It was observed that the average leaf count was maximum (9 leaves

/plant) in group S-100 when compared to the control group (3 leaves

/plant). The P-100 group was also found effective but the leaf count

was relatively lower (6 leaves/plant) than the groups where Sargassum

Plant parts Control P-50 P-100 S-50 S-100

Leaf count 3±1.2 4±1.1 6±1.2 3±1.2 9±1.1* * *Plant height 70±3.7 82±4.6 188±12.3 118±12 162±8.9

* *Stem thickness 1±0.2 1±0.1 1.2±0.4 1.9±0.2 1.9±0.1

* * *Leaf length 7±1.4 16.5±2.08 22.3±2.5 12±1 34.3±3.5

* * *Leaf width 4.7±1.2 13.3±0.58 16.4±1.1 8±1.02 27.33±1.53

* * * *Leaf area 16.45±2.6 109.72±2.8 182.86±2.95 48±1.9 468.70±11.09

35

Table 1

Measurement of plant parts (mm) [values with

asteriks were significantly different (P<0.05)]

sp. extract was used (Table 1).The relative percentage of the number of leaves was 66.7 with

Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer


Sargassum and Padina extracts (1:100 dilutions) respectively, and the

leaf count was 50% higher than the control group (Figure 1). The

maximum plant height of 188.0+12.3 mm was recorded in group P-

100 in comparison to 162.0+8.9 mm with group S-100 (Table 1). The

relative increments in plant height were 62.8 and 56.8% with Padina

and Sargassum extracts respectively (Figure 1). Surprisingly, the stem

thickness did not show any difference with S-50 and S-100 though

these values were the maximum as compared to the control and

Padina extract groups (Table 1). The percentage of Increments in the

stem thickness was 16.7 and 47.4% more with P-100 and S-100

The maximum leaf length and breadth were; 34.3+3.5 and 27.3+1.53 mm in those groups where Sargassum extract (1:100 dilutions) was used (Table 1). The extract of Padina (1:100 dilution) was also found effective in increasing the leaf length and breadth significantly. The percentage increments in leaf length and breadth were; 75.6 and 82.8% respectively with Sargassum extract (1:100 dilution) in comparison to the control group (Figure 1). Maximum leaf area with

2Sargassum extract (1:100 dilution) was 468.70+11.09 m and the 2minimum was (16.45+2.6 m ) in the control group (Table 1). The

percentage increment in this group in comparison to the control group was 82.8% (Figure 1). The data collected for each group separately was tested statistically by applying one-way ANOVA and it was found that among all the groups Sargassum extract of 1:100 times dilution was most effective and showed significant enhancement (P<0.05) in

Fig. 1

Percent increment in different plant parts

37

different parts of the plants by more than 80%. The Padina extract of the same dilution was effective but relatively the percentage increment in most of the parts of plants except plant height were significantly lower as compared to the Sargassum extract (P<0.05).

3+ 4+The ICP-MS analysis showed that micro-elements such as; Cu , Pb , 2+ 2+ 2+ 4+Ba , Cd , Cr and Co in the Padina extract were within the range of

0.073-1.89 ppb in crude, 0.66-1.750 ppb in 1:50 and 1.65-68.70 ppb in 2+ 3+ +

1:100 dilutions of extract. The micro-elements like Zn , Fe , Mn and 3+Al were within the range of 8.56-78.60 ppb in crude, 8.89-40.40 ppb

in P-50 and 156.00-637 ppb in P-100 groups. Similarly micro-elements 3+ + 3+

such as; B , Na and Mg were within the range of 58.30-5270 ppb in

crude, 46.30-3090.00 ppb in P-50 and 3610-94300 ppb in P-100 groups

(Figure 2A).

Fig. 2

Elemental composition in Padina and Sargassum extracts



The ICP-MS analysis of Sargassum extract showed that micro-elements 3+ 4+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 4+such as; Cu , Pb , Ba , Cd , Cr and Co were within the range of

2.42-2.10 ppb in crude, 2.31-1.78 ppb in S-50 and 1.08-11.90 ppb in 3+ 2+ + 3+

S-100 groups. Micro-elements like B , Zn , Mn , and Fe were

ranged between 10.40 and 73.60 ppb in crude, 4.35 and 54.00 ppb in 3+ +S-50 and 61.70 and 373.00 ppb in S-100 groups. Similarly Al , Na

2+and Mg were ranged between 135.00 and 11900.00 ppb in crude,

36.90 and 5020 ppb in S-50 and 1330.00 and 71,500.00 ppb in S-100

groups, respectively (Figure 2B).

In Padina extract (P-50) most of the elements showed a significant

decrease (P<0.005) ranging from 4.34 to 52.90% with an exception 2+ 2+where Zn and Cd showed an increase of 3.40 and 2.69%

respectively (Figure 3A). In Padina extract (P-100) all the elements

were of higher magnitude ranging from 50.5-98.3% (P<0.05). Similarly

in Sargassum extract (1:50) a significant decrease (P<0.05) was

observed, it ranged between 4.34 and 77.0% (Fig. 3B). However, in

Sargassum extract (1:100) a considerable increase ranging between 3+ 2+

22.7 and 97.0% was observed with an exception where B and Cd

showed 16.1 and 55.3.0% decrease, respectively.

DiscussionSeaweeds generally known as marine algae comprise of about 45,000

species found in the world oceans (Bequette and France 1997). They

are basically photosynthesizing plants exposed to a combination of

light and high oxygen concentrations that result in the formation of

free radicals and other strong oxidizing agents. Seaweeds rarely show

Fig. 2

Percent change in the elemental composition of Padina (A) and Sargassum (B) extracts

39

any photodynamic damage during metabolism as they have efficient

protective anti-oxidative mechanism. This important characteristic

also helps in protecting commercially important plants from extreme

sun heat when seaweed extracts have been used as a fertilizer

(Matsukawa et al. 1997). Attempts have also been made for the past

several decades to isolate many other important compounds from

seaweeds useful for various purposes (Moore 1978, Konig et al. 1994,

Tutour et al. 1998, Satoru et al. 2003).

The present investigation confirms the previous findings of Chatterji

et al. (2004) where seaweed extract was used for a variety of plants

with lower concentration without any harmful effects. In the present

study, aqueous extract of Sargassum sp. has been found to be more

successful and thus the possibility of developing an effective fertilizer

for improving the growth of plants is high. Surprisingly, extracts of

both species when diluted 100 times showed better results as

compared to the less diluted extract. This further shows that only a

small amount of seaweed extract can be used or even mixed with

commercially available plant fertilizers to enhance the growth of the

commercially important plants. Secondly, places where use of

inorganic fertilizers is not encouraged in agriculture farming, extract

from seaweed might be a good, powerful and environmental friendly

approach to replace the extensive use of inorganic fertilizers.

Effect of seaweed extract on watermelon hybrids (Citrullus lantus L.)

was successfully demonstrated by Abdel-Mawgoud et al. (2010).

Watermelon hybrids were cultivated and sprayed twice after five and

nine weeks of their plantation with different concentrations of the

extract of seaweed prepared from Ascophyllum nodosum. The effect of

seaweed extract was highly significant showing better vegetative

growth and bigger size of the fruit as compared to the control groups.

Similarly when the aqueous extract of Sargassum wightii was sprayed

on Zizyphus mauritiana, it showed an increased yield and better

quality of fruits (Rao 1991). Featon and Van Stadena (1983) found an

improvement in the growth of tomato shoot and root when a seaweed

extract was used either as foliar sprayer or mixed with the soil.

The findings of the present study confirmed that all growth

parameters showed enhancement with all concentrations of seaweed



extract used for the efficacy experiment. The enhancement of these

plant growth parameters could be either related to the presence of

auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, precursors of ethylene, betaine and

cytokinins (Stephen et al. 1985) or could be due to the hormonal

activity of the seaweed extract (Crouch and Staden 1993). The

accumulation of higher mineral content in the plant where seaweed

extracts were used, strongly suggested the positive effect of seaweed

extract as a promoting substance. These plants showed higher ability

to absorb and metabolite the nutrients from the soil that was

supplemented by the seaweed extracts (Abdel-Mawgoud et al. 2010).

The appropriate concentration of seaweed also plays an important role

in enhancing the growth of the plants. In the current study, though all

concentrations were found effective, more diluted extracts (1:100)

showed better results as compared to the concentrated extracts.

Seaweeds are considered to be well balanced, harmless and natural

sources with a high degree of bio availability of trace elements (Booth

1964). Large number of natural compounds is produced by the plants

including seaweeds. These natural products with large or

stereoisometrically complicated molecules are present in reasonable

concentrations. Natural compounds have a unique and defined

chemical structure and consist of a fixed ratio of elements that are

held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds.

Elements in the plants form compounds to become more stable with

the maximum number of possible electrons (normally 2 or 8) in their

outermost energy level. Elements of the compounds do not retain their

original properties once they form a bond. The strength of bonds

varies considerably and is either known as strong bonds (covalent or

ionic bonds) or weak bonds (dipole-dipole interaction). The

constituents of natural compounds can be separated by a chemical

reaction as a compound can only be formed either from elements or

from other compounds or a combination of the two by a chemical

reaction (Hill et al. 2005). In the present study the crude extract of

both the species showed a lesser concentration of micro-elements

which meant that these micro-elements had a strong bonding with

natural compounds. There could be a possibility of initiation of a

chemical reaction when the extract was being diluted. Maximum

freely available elements were at 1:100 dilutions. The growth of

41

tomato plants and their roots have improved significantly when

seaweed extract (1:500) was used as a foliar sprayer at regular

intervals or mixed with the soil in which the tomatoes were planted

(Featon and Stadena 1983). However, Abdel-Mawgoud et al. (2010)

reported a reverse trend in the growth of the plants where higher

concentration of seaweed extracts were found less effective in

enhancing the growth of watermelon plants. The extract of seaweed of

Ascophyllum nodosum indicated considerable enhancement in the

plant yield and health of different crops. However, the mechanisms of

action in enhancing the growth has not been demonstrated

successfully so far (Colapietra and Alexander 2006). This interesting

hypothesis deserves further detailed investigation to prove that more

micro-elements are available for the growth of plants once the extract

is diluted.

In recent years, use of inorganic fertilizers has been discouraged by all

sectors of people. The inorganic fertilizers in higher quantities not

only burn the delicate roots of the plant but also distort the quality of

the soil by encouraging the leeching of the nutrients in the soil.

Generally inorganic or chemical fertilizers are primarily derived from

chemical compounds such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium

phosphates and potassium chloride and do not completely compose

micronutrients that are essentially required by the plants. These

fertilizers also contain salts and other compounds which are not

absorbed by the plants and left behind in the soil and build up over

the time. The accumulation of such compounds makes the soil less

congenial and sometimes has harmful effects on the plants. At this

stage, the soil needs to be neutralized using other substances to bring

it to a normal state suitable for planting. Such toxic compounds in the

soil sometimes may get washed away during watering of the plants

and seep into groundwater. It has been reported (Camargo and Alonso

2006) that the toxic wastes from fertilizers contaminate the ground

palatable water which is harmful to human health. Besides showing

harmful effects on human health, use of inorganic fertilizers needs

strict watering schedule in order to retain moisture in the soil which

is sometimes not economical.

Seaweed farming in many Asian countries is at an experimental stage

and unfortunately, so far no attempt has been made to utilize seaweed



as a growth enhancer in commercially important plants. Judicial

harvesting strategies for sustainable production and utilization of

seaweeds should now be advocated seriously involving the fisher folk

communities in coastal villages. It is the right time to initiate effective

programmes on seaweed cultivation and also develop technical

expertise for the large scale cultivation of economically important

seaweeds, such as Padina and Sargassum sp. Seaweeds are generally

harvested manually in many countries and such harvesting practices

are an important source of additional income to coastal fishermen and

fisherwomen (Immanuel and Sathiadhas 2004). Development of

effective fertilizers from seaweed will certainly help farmers to get

better and quality yield in their crops. In conclusion, this practice of

seaweed usage will also help poor fishermen community to generate

additional income by supplying raw materials for the preparation of

bio-fertilizer from seaweeds.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the University Malaysia Terengganu for

providing SKS fellowships to STC, PJP and Principal Research

Fellowship to AC. We are grateful to Mr. Joseph from Institute of

Oceanography, for his kind help during ICPMS analysis.

ReferencesAbdel-Mawgoud, A.M.R., A.S. Tantaway, M.M. Hafez and H.A.M.

Habib. 2010. Seaweed extract improves growth, yield and quality of

different watermelon hybrids. Res. J. Agri & Biol. Sci. 6(2):161-168.

Bequette, B.J. and J. France. 1997. Seaweed at your service. UNESCO

Courier. 50(11):40-42.

Booth, E. 1964. Trace elements and seaweeds. In: De Virville AD, th

Feldmann J (Eds), Proceeding of the 4 International Seaweed

Symposium. MacMillan, London, Challen, S.B., Hemingway, J.C. 1965.

Growth of higher plants in response to feeding with seaweed extracts. thProc 5 Ind Seaweed Symp. pp. 385-393.

Camargo, J.A. and A. Alonso. 2006. Ecological and toxicological effects

of inorganic nitrogen pollution in aquatic ecosystems: A global

assessment. Environ. International. 32:831849.

Chatterji, A., V.K. Dhargalkar, P.K. Sreekumar, P.S. Parameswaran, R. Rodrigues and S. Kotnala. 2004. Anti-influenza activity with Indian

seaweeds- A preliminary investigation. Proc. MBR: Nati Sem New Frontiers in Mar Biosci Res 11-16.Challen, S.B. and J.C. Hemingway. 1965. Growth of higher plants in response to feeding with seaweed

thextracts. Proc 5 Ind Seaweed Symp.

Colapietra, M. and A. Alexander. 2006. Effect of foliar fertilization on yield and quality of table grapes. Acta. Hortic (ISHS). 721:213218.

Crouch, I.J. and V.J. Staden. 1993. Evidence for the presence of plant growth regulators in commercial seaweed products. Plant. Growth Regul. 13:2129.

El-Quesni Fatma, E.M., M.H. Mona and M.K. Magda. 2010. Impact of Foliar Spray of Inorganic Fertilizer and Bioregulator on Vegetative Growth and Chemical Composition of Syngonium Podophyllum L. Plant at Nubaria. J. Ameri. Sci .6(8):288-294.

Featon, B.C. and S.J. Van. 1983. The effect of seaweed concentrate on the growth of tomato plants in nematode-infested soil. Sci.Horti. 20(2):137-146.

Hill, J.W., R.H. Petrucci, T.W. McCreary and S.S. Perry. 2005. In: General Chemistry (4th ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, pp. 6.

Immanuel, S. and R. Sathiadhas. 2004. Employment potential of fisherwomen in the collection and post harvest operations of seaweeds in India. Seaweed. Res. Util. 26:209215.

Jensen, A. 1993. Present and future needs for alga and algal products. Hydrobilogia. 261:15-21.

Jiménez-Escrig, A. and C.I. Goni. 1999. Nutritional evaluation and physio-logical effects of edible seaweeds. Arch. Latinoam. Nutr. 49:114-120.

Konig, G.M., A.D. Wright, O. Sticher, C.K. Anghofer and J.M. Pezutto. 1994.Biological activities of selected marine natural products. Planta. Med 60:532-537.

Matsukawa, R., Z. Dubinsky, E. Kishimoto, K. Masak, Y. Masuda, T. Takeuchi, M. Chihara, Y. Yamamoto, E. Niki and I. Karube. 1997. A comparison of screening methods for antioxidant activity in seaweeds. J. Appl. Phycol. 9:2935.

Mohan, V.R., K.R. Venkataraman, R. Murugeswari and S. Muthusamy. 1994. Effect of crude and commercial seaweed extracts on seed germination and seedling growth in Cajanus cajan. L. Phykos. 33:47-51.

43Effect of Seaweed Extract as an Organic Fertilizer

Moore, R.E. 1978. Algal nonisoprenoids. In: Scheuer, P.J. (Ed.), Marine Natural Products, Chemical and Biological Perspective, Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, pp. 44-171.

Noda, H., H. Amano, K. Arashima and K. Nisizawa. 1990. Antitumour

activity of marine algae. Hydrobiologia. 204/205:577-584.

Rajkumar, I.S. and S.K. Subramanian. 1999. Effect of fresh extracts

and seaweed liquid fertilizers on some cereals and millets. Seaweed.

Res. Utilis. 20(21):91-94.

Rama, R.K. 1991. Effect of seaweed extract on Zizyphus mauratiana

Lamk. J. Indian. Bot. Soc. 71:1921.

Rathore, S.S., D.R.Chaudhary, G.N. Boricha, A. Ghosh, B.P. Bhatt, S.T.

Zodape and J.S. Patolia. 2009. Effect of seaweed extract on the growth,

yield and nutrient uptake of soybean (Glycine max) under rainfed

conditions. S. Afr. J. Bot. 75(2):351-355.

Satoru, K., T. Noboru, N. Hiroo, S. Shinji and S. Hiroshi. 2003. Over

sulfation of fucoidan enhances its anti-angiogenic and antitumor

activities. Biochem. Pham. 65:173179.

Stephen, A.B., K. M. T John, L.M.S. Palnia, D.S. Lethama. 1985.

Detection of cytokinins in a seaweed extract. Phytochemistry.

24(11):2611-2614.

Thirumaran. G., K. Pratap and P. Anantharaman. 2006. Efffect of

seaweed extracts used as fertilizer for Abelmoschus esculentus. J.

Ecobiol. 19(4):373-376.

Thirumaran, G., P. Anantharaman and L. Kannan. 2007. Effect of

seaweed extracts used as a liquid fertilizer in the radish (Raphanus

sativus). J. Ecobiolo. 20(1):49-52.

Thirumaran, G., M. Arumugam, R. Arumugam and P. Anantharaman.

2009. Effect of Seaweed Liquid Fertilizer on Growthand Pigment

Concentration of Abelmoschus esculentus (l) medikus. Ameri-Eurasian.

J. Agro. 2(2):57-66.

Tutour, B.L., F. Benslimane, M.P. Gouleau, J.P. Gouygou, B. Saadan and

F. Quemeneur. 1998. Antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of the

brown algae, Laminaria digitata, Himanthalia elongata, Fucus

vesiculosus, Fucus serratus and Ascophyllum nosum. J. Appl. Phycol.

10:21129.


Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones During Storm and Normal Events

S.V.V. Arun Kumar, K.V.S.R. Prasad, K.V.K.R.K. Patnaik, CH. Venkata Ramu and P. Sreenivas*

Beaches along most of the shorelines of the world, exhibit variations in their geometric form over different time scales in response to the prevailing dynamic forces due to waves, tides and associated currents. The periods and intensity of erosion and accretion alternate over time and are generally coupled to nearshore wave conditions. The wave action on the coast depends on deep water wave climate and its complex transformation processes in the nearshore regions. Depth induced shallow water wave refraction has significant influence in wave attenuation and in turn the distribution of wave energy. The wave runup on dissipative beaches depends primarily on the deep-water significant wave height, wave period and beach slope (Peter et al., 2001). The nearshore parameters, viz. wave runup, wave setup and wave energy, have been evaluated during storm and normal conditions of SW monsoon (June-September) and NE monsoon (November-February) by empirical parameterization along the Visakhapatnam coast. During storms, increased water levels shift runup and the location of wave-attack higher on the profile, making berms and dunes more vulnerable to erosion and over-tapping (Stockdon et al., 2007).

The higher nearshore wave energies are observed at R.K.Beach, Jodugullapalem beach and Sagarnagar beach during both the seasons. During storm events, the higher wave energies associated with higher wave runups casue severe erosion along the wave convergence zones. The storm wave runups (SWRUs) were higher at R.K. Beach, Palm Beach, Jodugullapalem Beach and Sagarnagar Beach. The yearly low wave energy is observed at Lawson's Bay with lowest wave runup, considered as safest zone. R.K. Beach, Palm Beach and Jodugullapalem Beach are identified as vulnerable zones of wave attack. It is noteworthy that in addition to wave energies, the wave runups and wave setups also play a vital role in endangering the coast (Prasad et al 2009).

Study areao o

Visakhapatnam coast (Lat. 17 41'34'' N and Long. 83 17'45''E) located

in the northern part of Coastal Andhra Pradesh, India is selected for

* Department of Meteorology and Oceanography, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam


Abstract

Fig. 1

Location map. The stations are denoted by numbers (135) along the coast

this study (Fig.1). The study area comprises 8 km long stretch from

Coastal Battery to Rushikonda beach, about 35 stations are selected

with equal spacing along this stretch. The coastline is aligned

WSWENE direction with almost parallel bathymetry contours offshore.

The predominant offshore wave height is 1.0-1.25 m during regular

storm wave events and 0.5-0.75 m during normal conditions. It has a

natural harbour in the southern most part constructed for shipping,

trade and defence. Towards north, there is Lawson's Bay beach which

has a concave shape with low energy waves throughout the year. The

popular R.K. Beach is almost straight (~2 km) with plunging breakers.

The spring tide range is around 1.5 m and the beach is composed of

fine-coarse sand of mean grain size ~0.35mm.

ResultsNearshore wave energy and wave runupDuring the SW Monsoon season, the average nearshore wave energy

3 along the coast is higher for the stations 3 and 20 with values 4.3x10

2 J/m (Fig. 2). From the southern end of the coast, the wave energy is

3 2decreasing having a least value of 2.2x10 J/m in the Lawson's Bay (station 13). Hence, during this season, R.K. Beach, Jodugullapalem Beach and Sagar nagar Beach are the high energetic zones and so there is a possibility of erosion at these places. The seasonal


Fig. 2

47Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones

In the southern part, the wave energy is lesser at stations 9 and 10 3 2(~1.5x10 J/m ). This shows that during NE Monsoon, the southern

part of the coast is less vulnerable to wave attack except the stations 4 3 2

and 6. The mean minimum energy occurs at station 18 (1.8x10 J/m ).

On a yearly average, the stations 4, 15 and 31 are the higher wave 3 3 3 2energy zones with values 3.9x10 , 3.6x10 and 4.0x10 J/m

respectively. The lower energies reside at Lawson's Bay (station 12)

and station 18. Hence, in a year maximum possibility of erosion takes

place at R.K. Beach, Palm Beach, Jodugullapalem Beach and at

Wave runup (in blue) and breaker wave energies (in brown) during south-west and north-east monsoon seasons in storm (a, b)

and normal conditions (c, d), respectively

3 2maximum occurs at station 15 with value 4.1x10 J/m and thereafter the stations along the northern extension are potential zones of higher wave energies (Fig.3).

But in the natural conditions, the erosion at the above locations may

not be severe. The severe erosion also depends upon the extent of

maximum wave runup during storms. As the cut in the beach takes

place mainly in the foreshore region of the beach, we must include

the wave runup factor in addition to wave energy.

During storm conditions, the maximum wave runup (R ) ranges 2%

3 2between 5-6 m and Wave energy (E ) is around 5.0x10 J/m . During b

these conditions for SSE waves (SW Monsoon), SWRUs are higher at

the stations R.K. Beach (station 5) and Jodugullapalem Beach (station

21) with magnitudes 5.13 m and 5.52 m respectively. SWRU lows are

occurring all along the Lawson's Bay beach (stations12 to 16) and

along Rushikonda Beach (stations 33 to 35). Lower runups are

associated with lesser foreshore beach slopes. Whereas during storms


Fig. 3

Nearshore wave energy distribution in SW monsoon, NE monsoon,and yearly average along the coast

of NE Monsoon season, the higher wave runups occur at the above

places with lesser magnitudes. The wave energies are having higher 3 2

magnitudes from the stations 7 to 15 of around 1.3x10 J/m , but taking

the runups into consideration the stations from 11 to 15 are less

vulnerable to erosion.

During normal conditions the estimated wave runups and energies are 3 2of lesser ranges (R ~1-2 m and E ~ 10 J/m ). For the most frequent 6 2% b

sec period waves, during SW Monsoon (SSE waves) and NE Monsoon

(E waves), the results are quite noticeable that the stations 3, 4, 7, 9 in

the southern part and the stations 20 and 25 in the northern part are

vulnerable to erosion during SW Monsoon season and the stations 8,

11 and 22 are vulnerable to erosion during NE Monsoon season.

Hence it is worth mentioning that in addition to higher wave energies,

the higher wave runups are also should taken into account for

identifying the vulnerable zones of erosion along the coast.

Response of the beach to Nearshore parameters.

49

Fig. 4

Beach profiles at stations 3, 4, and 9 between March 2007 and August 2007 showing intensity of erosion

(volumes in m3/m of shoreline) due to storm waves

Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones


The results were compared with the beach profiles taken prior

(March) to and after (August) the storm events at stations 3, 4 and 9

(Fig. 4) in order to observe the response of the beach due to combined

affect of wave energy, wave runup and wave setup. It is observed that,

the net seasonal erosion takes place at all the above stations with the 3maximum being noticed at station 3 of magnitude 133.44 m /m of

3shoreline. At station 4, it is around 104.8 m /m and at station 9, it is 3still lesser than 47.76 m /m. The erosion was mainly observed at the

foreshore zone and it is a short-term effect. The erosion was observed

to be severe at the stations where wave runup is high. Severe erosion

is possible for steeper foreshore beach slopes (higher wave runups)

even for moderate breaker wave energy during storm conditions.

ConclusionDuring storm conditions of SW Monsoon, the storm wave runups

(SWRU) are higher at the stations R.K. Beach and Jodugullapalem

Beach with magnitudes 5.47m and 5.59 m respectively. Higher SWRU

are also observed at the above stations during the storms of NE

Monsoon, with magnitudes 5.13 m and 5.52 m respectively. SWRU is

observed to be smaller all along the Lawson's Bay beach with

magnitudes 0.64 m. The higher nearshore wave energies are observed

at R.K.Beach, Sagarnagar beach and Jodugullapalem beach with 3 2magnitudes around 4x10 J/m during both the seasons. The yearly low

3 2wave energy (1.8x10 J/m ) is observed at Lawson's Bay with lowest

wave runup (0.56 m), considered as the safest zone. R.K. Beach, Palm

Beach and Jodugullapalem Beach are identified as vulnerable zones

due to waves. In addition to wave energies, the wave runups and wave

setups also play a vital role in endangering the coast. Even though

some of stations are having higher energies but erosion may not be

occurring significantly without much slope (wave runup). Severe

erosion is possible for steeper foreshore beach slopes (higher wave

runups) even with moderate breaker wave energy during storm

conditions.

AcknowledgementThe authors sincerely acknowledge the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, India for providing research

fellowship.

51

ReferencesPeter, R, P.D. Komar paul , Mc.D.G. William, M.John, B. A. Reggie

(2001) “Wave runup, extreme water levels and the erosion of

properties backing beaches”, Jr. of Coastal Res., Vol.17, No.2, pp. 407-

419.

Prasad, K.V.S.R., S.V.V.Arun Kumar, Ch.Venkata Ramu and P.Sreenivas.

“Significance of nearshore wave parameters in identifying vulnerable

zones during normal and storm conditions along Visakhapatnam coast,

India”. Natural Hazards: Volume 49, Issue2 (2009), Page 347 - 360. doi

:10.1007/s11069-008-9297-4.

Stockdon, H.F., Sallenger, A.H., Holman, R.A., Howd, P.A., (2007) “A

simple model for the spatially-variable coastal response to hurricanes”.

Marine Geology. 238: 1-20.

Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying Vulnerable Zones


Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation along the Coasts of Port Blair

J. K. Mishra*, Shesdev Patro, D. Adhavan and Anita Mishra

Conservation and protection of marine biodiversity has become an

international priority due to its significance in the ecological, economic and

moral value of the society. It is thus imperative to note down the vivacity of

diversification of organisms in different marine ecosystems and understand

distribution pattern of different in any single ecosystem as in the case of

intertidal rock pools for their adaptation and distribution pattern.

Andaman & Nicobar being a unique biosphere with island ecosystems serves

as home to diversified group of organisms, especially in its intertidal

environment. The rocky intertidal environment of the A & N Island holds

myriads of life forms indicating a healthy environment. Present investigation

was carried out on five rock pools at Sesostris Bay, Port Blair (A & N Islands),

where we recorded 23 different species comprising of sea weeds, animals of

different phyla and corals. However the plankton composition was found to be

very low indicating the maximum grazing activity by rock pool animals. All the

environmental parameters were found to be at its lowest concentration, where 0as the temperature (29-31 C) and salinity was found to be 34‰ in

concurrence with the adjoining sea water.

IntroductionIn the marine ecosystem, intertidal zone happens to be the most

important environment, which remains exposed to all the harsh

environmental conditions. This extremely narrow interface between

the ocean and land is a region which is known for its amazing

biodiversity and extreme ranges of physical forces. Biological

* Department of Ocean Studies and Marine Biology; Pondicherry University, Port Blair,

Andamans


Abstract


communities of this environment are subjected to high impact forces

of the nature extending from wind and waves, salt water and fresh

water runoff, desiccation, submersion, and extremes in temperature,

all in one day. The conditions in the environment at times influence

the animals to make choices about their habitat selection, feeding

behavior etc. in coherence with the surrounding environment (Huggett

and Griffiths, 1986; Chapman, 2000; Castellanos-Galindo and Giraldo,

2008).

These harsh intertidal shores of Andamans were found to be of

different types including rocky, sandy and at places muddy shores

with a highly and differentiated life forms which are subjected to a

rapid and significant changes in physicochemical parameters and food

supply that occur on the basis tidal movement. Of all these types,

rocky shores (with hard rock) are observed to be the most densely

inhabited by microorganisms, diversified animal forms and also

autotrophs including sea weeds etc. But at times, rocky shores show

some characteristic features due to the presence of rock (tide) pools of

various sizes, depths and locations (i.e. at different levels descending

from supralitoral to sublitoral zones). These rock pools are formed, as

the high tide comes in over a rocky shore filling the depressions or

hollows which turn into isolated pools as the tide retreats with the

ebbing tide (Fig. 1; some of the rock pools studied).

These rocky areas on the edge of an ocean is filled with sea water and

provides a unique habitat, where ocean meets the land and is

continuously shaped by the action of sun, wind and water. Several

authors have already explained the composition of different rock pool

flora and fauna in the world (Huggett and Griffiths, 1986; Trussell,

2001; Pinn and Rodgers, 2005; Matthew, 2006). But not much work is

being carried out on the rock pools found along the coast of Andaman

& Nicobar Islands except the report on shore animals of Andaman and

Nicobar Islands by Tikader et al. (1986). So to understand the

biological diversity in these tiny pools and adaptations of organisms

within itself to the fast changing physical and chemical parameters of

the pool environment, this investigation was carried out by selecting

five rock pools at different locations along the Sesostris Bay, Port Blair,

55Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation

Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Present study was also focused to

understand different types of animal association for food and shelter

in a single pool in association with the biological and physical

components of this tiny biosphere, with a view to make a database for

future applications in the areas of bioactive secondary metabolites

from rock pool organisms under stress and develop a sustainable

management plan for the biodiversity resources.

Materials and MethodsIn the present study, five different rock pools of varying sizes (area in

sq cm) were selected along the Sesostris Bay, Port Blair. Of which 0 0three were selected near the south point (11 39.88' N, 92 45.41' E),

0 0and three were in front of the Science Centre (11 39.35' N, 92 45.45'

0 0E and 11 - 39.34' N, 92 - 45.44' E). These were observed for physical

factors like temperature, salinity, pH, water depth, total area and

biological parameters like different species, their number and their

zonation pattern. Also the BOD concentration of the pool water was

estimated. The study was carried out for a period of two years

extending from December, 2006 to April, 2008 and the sampling was

done in the lowest low tide during full moon and new moon days.

The total area of the pools were measured by taking the average of

both the length and width (in cms) at the longest tip of the pool using

a measuring tape and calculated to the nearest sq. cm. scale. Similarly

water depth was measured by taking the average depth at three

different points in the pool and calculated to the nearest centimeter

scale. The air temperature, sea water temperature and the temperature

of the pool water was also measured by using a regular laboratory

thermometer. Salinity was measured by using refractometer (ATAGO)

and pH was measured using pH meter (pHTestr 30, Instruments).

Simultaneously BOD samples were collected and analyzed in the

laboratory by titrimetric method after fixing the samples in the field

by Winkler's reagent.

The biological parameters like number of animals and plants in the

rock pools were counted and also identified up to genus and species

level in the field and unidentified samples were collected, stored in

10% formaldehyde and brought to the laboratory for further analysis.


Results and DiscussionsEach rock pool studied provides a unique environment and differs

from each other in their depth, height in the intertidal zone and area.

We found that the water temperature of the rock pool was within a

range of 29ºC 34ºC, salinity range of 33-35 ‰ and the pH of the rock

pool water was found to be 8 8.2, which were in concurrence with

that of the adjoining sea water (Fig. 1).

0 0 0The total area of five pools No. 1 (11 - 39.88' N, 92 - 45.41' E); 2 (11

0 0 0 0- 39.90' N, 92 - 45.39' E); 3 (11 - 39.90' N, 92 - 45.40' E); 4 (11 - 0 0 039.35' N, 92 - 45.45' E) and 5 (11 - 39.34' N, 92 - 45.44' E) was found 2 2 2 2 2to be 247cm , 203cm ,110cm , 119 cm and 69 cm , whereas depth of

the water column was found to be 31 cm, 22 cm, 21 cm, 29 cm and 14

cm respectively.

It was observed that the rock pools were enriched with a variety of life

forms. More number of organisms belonging to 23 genera / species

including sea weeds, invertebrates, fishes (ornamental, sand goby),

mollusks, corals was found to inhabit a comparatively small aquatic

medium within the rock pool environment. It was recorded that in a 2 2 2 2 2

total area of 247 cm , 203 cm , 110 cm ,119 cm and 69 cm (of pool #

1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively), number of animals and plants were 348,

363, 176, 290, and 66 respectively (Fig. 2). This shows that pools are

densely populated, suggesting the fact that pools have no binding in

limiting the number of animals. As it is evident, number of species in

0 0Rock Pool No. 1 (11 39.88' N, 92 45.41' E) Rock Pool No. 3 0 0 (11 39.90' N, 92 45.40' E) Two of the several Rock Pools studied at Sesostris Bay, Port Blair, A & N Islands

Fig. 1

57

some small pools was comparatively found to be more than that in the

larger pools. This may be due to the adaptive pattern of the rocky

shore animals to a vertical zonation in relation to the elevation of the

intertidal environment (Huggett and Griffiths, 1986).

As discussed above, number of animals in each rock pool varies not in

relation to the available space but due to the compulsion of being

retained during the ebbing tide in the higher elevations. In some

cases, even if the tide pool area is more, number of animals are less in

comparison to the less area with more number of animals, which is

well documented during the study in rock pool number two and four

(Fig. 3). A detailed composition of different group of animals is also

given in Table 1.

Temperature, Salinity, pH of the corresponding Rock Pools at Sesostris Bay(Port Blair, Andaman & Nicobar Islands)

Fig. 2

Total area of Rock Pools and their corresponding number of animals inhabiting

Fig. 3

Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive Zonation


However the plankton composition in the pool water was found to be

very low, which may be attributed to the high grazing rate by the

organisms like ornamental fishes, sand goby, crab and other lower

organisms. On the other hand, there were also no crustaceans except

few crabs observed in any of the pools during the study period. But a

specific distribution pattern in the animals in every pool was observed

with a specific zonation pattern of the intertidal environment As it is

evident from the Table 1, and also explained in the Fig. 4, the number

of gastropods was more in the pool one, which is fairly closer to the

seawater level during the lowest low tide, and their number declines

with the higher reaches indicating a trend of vertical zonation of rock

pool animals as suggested by Huggett and Griffiths, 1986. Similarly

ornamental fishes also found to have the same distribution pattern.

Total number of organisms and sea weeds found in the Rock Pools studied at Sesostris Bay, Port Blair (A & N Islands)

Table 1

Number of organisms

Pool Brittle- Sea Gastro- Bi- Oyster Crab Sea Sand Coral Orna- Sponge TotalNo. star urchin pod alves weed Goby mental No.

fish

1 64 08 152 - 03 05 01 86 03 24 02 348

2 146 08 123 - 02 05 02 55 04 17 01 363

3 44 - 65 - - - 02 55 03 07 - 176

4 17 02 30 10 05 07 - 17 02 09 - 99

5 - - 12 - - 01 - 46 01 06 - 66

Population density in different Rock Pools at Sesostris Bay (Port Blair, A & N Islands)

Fig. 4

59

Population density of rock pools exhibited a high degree of variation during the study period (Fig. 4). It has also been observed that the number of brittle stars in rock pools show fluctuation. In January, the number of brittle stars was less but increased in February and again shows a decrease in March & April. But in the pool number five, brittle stars were not found at all during the period of study. Similarly, the number of gastropods showed a gradual decline in their congregation and was found very less in numbers during the month of March & April. Also the number of crabs decreased gradually and only one or no crabs were found in the month of March and April. Number of ornamental fishes also shows variation in their numbers. But the number of species of corals, seaweeds, sponge, other fishes including rock skippers, gastropods, and brittle stars was found to remain constant and there was no elimination or addition of new species.

Study on rock pools resulted in the identification of organisms belonging to 25 genera / species (Fig. 5), comprising three species of seaweeds (Padina tetrasporomatica, Turbinaria ormnate and coralline red algae; Pillulifera sp.); four Genera of corals (Pocillopora damicornis, Acropora nasuta, Acropora mont iculasa, Mont ipora and Pseudosiderastrea sp.); two species of sea urchins (Diadema setosum, Stomopneustes variolaris); one species of brittle star (Ophiocoma scolopendrina); two species of crabs (unidentified), six species of gastropods (Nerita costata, Nerita squamulata, Conus ebraeus, Engina medicaria, Thais mutablis and Turbo sp); four species of ornamental fishes (damsel fish: Abudefduf saxatilis and Chaetodon sp.; Goby (Neon Goby: Elacatinus oceanops and a sand Goby: Pomatoschistus minutus); one species of oyster (Pinctada sp.); one species of sponge and the acorn barnacle (Balanus amphitrite).

Species diversity in different Rock Pools at Sesostris Bay (Port Blair, A & N Islands)

Fig. 5


The striking feature is that the number of species of ornamental fishes,

sand goby, gastropods, sea urchins and other animal forms, sea weeds

and corals remain constant in the pool water throughout the study

period. But only with the fluctuation in their total numbers in

different pools with a specialized colonizing pattern (Huggett and

Griffiths, 1986; Underwood and Chapman, 2000). Although corals and

sea weeds were grown permanently and no new species of the sea

weeds or corals were found to grow during the period of study, this

indicates the fact that these organisms are endemic and there is less

threat from the invasive species along the study area, which may be

due to the resource limitation for the survival of the species (Romanuk

and Kolasa, 2005).

It has also been observed that many of the tide pool animals were

difficult to observe at the first sight due to their camouflaging

behavior, which in turn helps these organisms to hide themselves

from the hungry predators during their continuous exposure and is a

special adaptive feature of the animals too.

As the study suggests, diversification in the bio-resources and their

colonization of the tide pool environment along the study area is

highly significant. This will be helpful in further studies relating to

the genetic and adaptive pattern of the rock pool biota they possesses

to withstand the stress of a tiny biosphere like rock pools. Further

the study reveals that there is a highly diversified group of bio-

resources, which comprise 23 different species of animals and

plants. May be the competition for food and shelter forces these rock

pool organisms to best adapt the harsh environmental conditions.

However, it shows that rock pool is a very unique ecosystem, which is

fascinating but remains exposed to all threats including increasing

pollution and excess human activities. It is thus required to be

protected and conserved. Simultaneously this environment also holds

the key to make a genetic data base for future application and

sustainable management of the marine biodiversity resources.

AcknowledgementsAuthors would like to convey their gratitude to the Vice-Chancellor,

Pondicherry University for providing the facilities to carry out this

work. Also thanks are due to Prof. P. M. Mohan, Head, dept. of Ocean

Studies and Marine Biology for encouragement.


61

References

Castellanos-Galindo G. A. and G. Alan. 2008. Food resource use in a

tropical eastern Pacific tidepool fish assemblage. Marine Biology. 153.

pp. 1023-1035.

Chapman M. G. 2000. Poor design of behavioral experiments gets poor

results: examples from intertidal habitats. Journal of Experimental

Marine Biology and Ecology. 250. pp. 7795.

Huggett J. and Griffiths C. L. 1986. Some relationships between

elevation, physicochemical variables and biota of intertidal rock pools.

Marine Ecology Progress Series. 29. pp. 189 197.

Mathew E. S. 2006. Seaweed Diversity Enhances Nitrogen Uptake Via

Complementary Use Of Nitrate And Ammonium. Ecology. 87(9). pp.

23972403.

Pinn H. U. and Rodgers M. 2005. The influence of visitors on

intertidal biodiversity. Journal of Marien Biological Association, UK.

85. pp. 263-268.

Romanuk T. and Kolasa J. 2005. Resource limitation, biodiversity, and

competitive effects interact to determine the invasibility of rock pool

microcosms. Biological Invasions. 7(4). pp. 711 722.

Tikader B. K., Daniel A. and Subba Rao N. V. 1986. Sea Shore animals

of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, ZSI Calcutta. pp. 188.

Trussell G. C. 2001. Trait-mediated effects in rocky intertidal food

chains. Predator risk cues alter prey feeding rates. Ecology. 84 (3). pp.

629640.

Underwood, A.J. and Chapman M. G. 2000. Variation in abundances of

intertidal populations: consequences of extremities of environment.

Hydrobiologia. 426. pp. 25-36.



Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban

Ananya Roy*

Ecological diversity in Sunderban is at the threshold of decline. The fragile

land here is being swallowed every day by gradual sea level rise, coastal

erosion and tropical cyclones. Besides the global cause of sea level rise i.e.

thermal expansion of sea water also responsible is the land degrading

anthropogenic activity. An unsustainable situation has crept in the deltaic

plain when natural capital is being used up faster than it can be replenished.

River deltas are mainly facing the brunt of sea level rise and climate

change. The effects are most visible in the Sunderbans of West Bengal. It is

a vast region of mangrove forest near the mouth of Ganges, occupying

some 10,000 sq.km. of which 38% lies in India and the rest in Bangladesh.

Sunderban is a UNESCO world heritage site and a biosphere reserve

because it is the only refuge for Bengal tigers. Sunderban is also home to

four and a half million human population. So the impact of coastal

inundation has left a mark on the livelihood of the people too. Hence it is

required to delve into the depth of the problem.

South of Kolkata, Sunderban is one of the most unique ecosystems in this

part of the world. During the period1829-1830, the region was surveyed

and delineated as a Special Forest Cover by the Dampier- Hodges line.

Sunderban lies in the district of South 24 parganas of West Bengal.

This region rich in biodiversity is facing a subsidence due to tectonic

movements; as a result there is a tilt towards the east. The coastal area near

Sagar islands, Jambu Deep, Namkhana, Patharpratima, Bhangaduni is

susceptible to seasonal ocean currents, tides, waves, winds and cyclones.

* Social Science Department, Mother's International School, New Delhi.


Abstract

Heavy monsoonal rain and river flow almost partially inundates this

region for most of the year. The reduction of the mangrove area has

reduced sedimentation and accelerated erosion apart from removing an

important protection against flood waters and high waves. The current

threat is that of sea level rise.

Old maps record 102 islands in Sunderbans on the Indian side, 52 of them

are inhabited by total 180000 people. Of these Suparibhanga and

Lohachara have already disappeared and cannot be located even with

sophisticated satellite imaging, rendering some 10000 inhabitants

environmental refugees. Studies in the recent years have shown nearly

259 km. of Sunderbans have vanished in the last 30 years. A further

10,000 residing on twelve islands in the west of the estuary face a similar

threat. A large piece of Ghoramara has already shrunk to a tiny mudbank

in the past 25 years. These people have mostly migrated to Sagar but the

island is itself under threat. According to Dec '09 studies New Moore

Island / Purbasha (at the confluence of Ichamati and Rai Mangal rivers

near Bay of Bengal) has been swallowed by the rising sea.


Fig. 1

“The Sunderbans are a network of tidal channels, rivers, creeks, and

islands. Some of these islands are mere swampy morasses, covered

with low forest and scrubwood jungle, but those to the north which

are embanked, grow rich crops of rice. Sunderbans is drained by

Matla, Muriganga, Bidyadhari and Hooghly. Towards the coast the

land is scarcely above the high tide water mark.”1 O' Malley, Bengal

District Gazettier 1914/98 pg. The nature of the area makes it prone to

tidal flooding. Embankments are made to prevent the saline water

intrusion. But these embankments are prone to erosion caused by

violent storms and cyclones.

Four disastrous cyclones originated in the Bay of Bengal since 2006 --

Sidr, Nargis, Bijli and Aila. There has been an increase in almost 26 %

over past 120 years, in the frequency of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal,

which may be increased further with the intensifying of El Nino in the

upcoming days. Jalaluddin Shah of Moushuni Island reports that there

has been 13 disasters between 1993 and 2007.

Cyclones affect Sunderbans through three primary mechanisms: wind

damage, storm surge, and sedimentation. Sediments carried by storm

surges are deposited on the forest floor as the surge recedes, causing

plant mortality by interfering with root and soil gas exchange, leading

to eventual death of the plants. Storm surges reduce the viability of

seeds, seedling germination and seedling recruitment. Strong wind

destroys honey bee colonies causing high mortality. Coral reefs,

woodpecker, sea turtles and parrots are all vulnerable to cyclones. The

arboreal monkey and lizards face shortage of foods. Dunes and

beaches are washed away, and large areas are completely submerged.

Fish dies when the decay of foliage stripped from trees lower oxygen

levels in the water. Thus cyclones have heavier impact on wetlands

and the organisms that depend on them.

Sunderbans is the transitional zone between freshwater supplied by

rivers and saline water pushed by the Bay of Bengal. Sundari, trees

will suffer from 'Top dyeing' disease with the increase in salinity due

to temperature rise. Salinity increases the tree mortality rate by

reducing the production of new leaves, leaf longevity and the leaf area

(Suárez and Medina, 2005). Net photosynthesis rate, stomata

conductance and transpiration rate of leaves decrease with the

increase of salt concentration (Yan and Guizhu, 2007).1.

65Vulnerability of the Ecosystem in Sundarban

There is already an increase in salinity in the Chinai and Muriganga

rivers flowing on either sides of Moushuni and is shown in the table.Aquatic organisms will migrate inward due to rise in salinity. Many

fish species and other crustaceans utilize fresh water for spawning

and juvenile feeding. The Hilsa a major export item here, needs less

salinity to lay their eggs and enter various creeks in search of sweet

water. The hatchlings move towards the sea where they attain

adulthood, before returning to the rivers. Migration of fish species will

have an adverse effect on the economy of the region.

This area is also densely populated and the people mostly depend on

agriculture. Mostly poor landless people and migrants abound this

region. Rice, sugarcane, timber, jute and betel nuts are the principal

agricultural products. The agriculture mainly supports the local rural

economy of the northern side. Livestock breeding also shares a part in

the economy of South 24 Parganas, The confluence of river Ganga

with the sea here forms a congenial physical feature for Pisciculture.

Canning is the major fish market. The wholesalers transport them to

the Kolkata auction market. Presently the tourism industry has earned

prominence in the pockets of the district. The principal attraction of

the Sundarbans is the network of estuaries and the Royal Bengal tiger. Indian Sundarbans is bestowed with the highest floral diversity in the

form of mangroves, coastal wetland flora, beach flora and marsh and

swamp flora. The mangrove buffer zone lies to the south east of South

24- Parganas.


Date Time Tide Salinity

09.09.08 morning Low tide 0.9

evening High tide 10.5

16.09.08 Morning High tide 15

evening lowtide 10

30.09.08 Morning High tide 15

evening Low tide 11

Table 1

Source: WWF, pry. Survey (In March, Apr. salinity increases to 20- 25 )

The Indian Sundarban has been divided into two parts as (1) Area

within the Sundarban Tiger Reserve (STR) and (2) Area outside the

Sundarban Tiger Reserve. These are further divided into Northern,

Central and Southern zones. There are six zones, three in the STR and

three outside the STR. 105 plants species were identified from the

whole of Sundarbans belonging to different groups, viz. (1) true

mangroves species; (2) mangrove associated species; (3) back

mangrove species; (4) beach flora and (5) parasites, epiphytes and

mistletoes. The core areas as shown in the map( lying in the reserved

forest area of Gosaba, Netidhopani , Bhangaduni and Sajnekhali to the

south) are dominated by the trees, shrubs and herbs; the semi-core

areas by trees with twiners; and the mudflats in medium saline zones

of east of Matla river with shrubs and herbs. Tree-crabs hasten the

process of compositing by chewing the falling leaves. The burrowing

Thalassina species enrich the soil by mixing soil layers. Nutrient-rich

zones like that of Sudhannyakhali are dominated by Thalassina sp.

and Acetes sp. (Mahapatra and Mahapatra, 1990).


Fig. 2

Ghoramara and Jambudweeep now under the threat of submergence

are centers of floristic interest for its characteristic mangroves, open

FOREST DIVISION BOUNDARY

scrub and dense mixed jungle. The climbers are not well represented

in the island. High salinity and human interference have compelled

several species to migrate towards the eastern Sundarbans or are

gradually dying. (Naskar, et.al, 1997) In Henry's island much of the

mangrove areas have been depleted for fish culture. The photograpgh

shows shrimp culture being practiced within a kilometre from the sea

coast in Henry's island.


Fig. 3

Shrimp farming occupying earlier mangrove vegetation areas

Fig. 4

Encroachment of beach and sea water burying the mangroves

The accumulation of sand near the roots of the mangroves thus

burying the breathing roots are a clear evidence of sea water

swallowing the land. But this is an impact of depletion of mangrove

vegetation for economic development. There is also evidence of salt

water intrusion far inland as there is salt crust on the ground.

69

The mangroves and mangrove ecology of the Sundarbans are very

interesting in relation to their floral and faunal diversity, ecological

adaptabilities, unique halophytic phyto-succession, coastal zone

stabilization and enrichment of both the soil and water fertility.

Since the later half of the 18th Century, the presence of these

important natural resources have attracted the rural population to

migrate and settle on this deltaic land mass after clearing the

mangrove forests.

Economic importance of mangroves is no doubt undeniable.

Mangroves are looked at as first line of defense in case of storm

surges, tsunamis or high waves. They act as a major carbon sink.

These halophytic plants can provide a number of raw materials for the

large scale industries and also for the domestic fuel and fodder for

cattle and cottage industries on which the rural people can engage for

their livelihood. Mangrove timber is useful for chipboard, boat

building and paper industry. Besides all these, fishing and fisheries in

these mangrove ecosystem have much potentialities as supplying the

high value fish protein to the local markets as well as in the

international markets from Digha, Kolkata, Haldia. Tiger shrimp

(Penaeus monodon) of these Sundarbans tidal fisheries has attracted

the world markets in the recent time for its good quality and sizes of

the flesh. Apiary industry in the mangrove forest is a promising

economic activity. Wax, tannin are other useful extractions. Tanin

extract is used by the fishermen to dye their fishing nets to increase

their durability. Indian mangrove trees have 35% tannin in their barks.

(Kathiresan & Qasim, 2005)

Some mangrove species have traditional medicinal values like - stops

bleeding, cures breast tumor, leprosy, blood pressure and rheumatic

Reduction in Mangrove Reduction in area area (hectares) 1990-'91 the Indian coastline

120.000 40%

along

Table 2

Reduction of mangrove area in West Bengal



disorders. Mangrove plants or its sap is used directly whereas in other

cases the leaves are heated or plant material burnt into ashes for

application to cure skin sores and scabies.

Mangroves are self tolerant forest ecosystem found mainly in the

tropical and intertidal regions and are reservoirs of a large number of

plant and animal species with remarkable capacity for salt-tolerance.

They stabilize the shoreline and act as a bulwark against

encroachment by the sea. (Kishore Kumar, 2003)

Mangroves provide important economic and social resources to coastal

dwellers in the tropics. A series of conservation measures to restore

the forest and control land degradation had been undertaken in the

late 1980s by National Mangroves Committee.

The Sundarbans is the only world renowned marshy land and unique

habitat of the Royal Bengal Tigers ,(Panthera tigris tigris); besides

these, estuarine lusty crocodiles (Crocodilus porosus), several

poisonous snakes (Naja naja), Vipera russelli, Bungarus fasciatus,

Ophiophagus hannata, Trimeresurus erythurus) etc are the common

dwellers of the dense mangrove forests and estuarine water. Mangrove

habitat biota protects these world renowned unique Sundarban

mangals from the rapid and indiscriminate exploitation. The land and

people are at times saved from the natural calamities due to the dense

coverage of these mangrove forests of the Sundarbans. The vast

quantity of the most economically important natural resources tempt

the rural population to enter these dangerous mangrove forest lands

taking risk of their lives. The population of Olive Ridley sea turtles

has come under severe pressure from illegal mechanized trawling and

human interference. These turtles visit the western beach of Baliara

village and Sagar every year during the months of January, February ,

March and April to lay their eggs. I visited this island in early April

this year when an olive ridley was found killed by dogs, who visit the

beach in search of dead fishes or any other unfortunate marine

71

creatures.

The olive riddley (endangered) is a victim of unnatural predators due

to human encroachment near the beach.

The poor creature must have been caught unaware while it was laying eggs at night. Presence of human settlements on the other side of the embankment led to the predators in the beach. This again depicts human interference disturbing natural ecosystem. Since marine erosion is causing inundation of nesting grounds therefore they venture towards unknown beaches. Mostly they inhabit the Gahirmatha coast of Orissa and the coast of Midnapur near Digha and Shankarpur. Local people sometimes catch them to make some easy money. Arjun Manna, field officer of WWF reported having saved turtles from local hands many a times in the western shores of Baliara. Unfortunately these are the people who have lost their land to the sea. Man and animal both are battling tryst with destiny.

Sundarbans witnessed a constant human interference with the ecosystem for three quarters of the nineteenth century. It took some time before the importance of the Sundarbans for purposes other than cultivation were realised. Brandis (first Inspector-General of Forests in 1865) and Schlich (the then Conservator of Forests in 1874) had long emphasised the importance of scientific forestry. Sunderban has the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world where scientific management of resources started in 1869. Finally forest protection was enacted by the Government of India in 1878 under the name “Reserved” and “Protected” forests .It is one of the last tropical

Fig. 5



deltaic mangrove forest in Asia, the rest have succumbed initially to paddy fields and later to aqua culture.Due to heavy influx of human population, the western portion of the Sundarbans delta is completely reclaimed for agriculture, aquaculture and inhabitation and the same has been noticed in Baliara, Kusumtala, Bagdanga and Moushuni villages; this can be observed in the land-use pattern map; even now human population is encroaching south-wards to engulf the present reserve, where natural regeneration is not too rapid to combat that acute problem. In Moushuni island, there are hardly any mangroves noticeable except the narrow strip along the ferry ghat at Baliara. The western coast of this island towards the Muriganga river shows rapid coastal degradation. Much of the land has been swallowed and many village land and farming areas are already under the sea. Even embankments have failed to prevent the inundation of the villages. These areas had been under vegetation

thcover in the early 20 century. Survival here is a lurking question. WWF had taken initiative of planting mangroves in this western part but most of it has been destroyed during Aila cyclone. This can be

Most of the island of Moushuni is occupied by agricultural area. In the

picture below a part of Baliara village is seen where trees are being yet

felled to expand agricultural areas. This has further resulted in

unobstructed advancement of the sea .Some of these fields have now

turned saline due to intrusion of sea water during cyclones.

Fig. 6

A row of Avecennia Alba remains only along the ferry ghat at Baliara village

Fig. 7

Trees being used for building houses, fencing and furniture

In spite of the sign of natural regeneration in some limited areas, the

present day silviculturists have started thinking of maintaining and

conserving the existing forest situations by planning some non-

mangroves along this tract of the mangrove delta of the Sundarbans.

Realizing the significance of mangrove in preventing encroachment of

the sea there has been attempts to regenerate by plantation .

A few economically important non mangrove species can successfully

be introduced, as the mangrove ecosystem has certain ecological

successional stages and represent the edaphic climax. In fact plenty of

non-mangrove species in this mangrove reclaimed area will not fulfill

the needs of the existing eco-climatic factors of the mangrove

ecosystem. Several of the non mangrove species can survive in those

areas where no frequent tidal action has existed so far, but the

introduced or artificial vegetation cannot give rise to any new

vegetation by natural regeneration. Moreover by the artificial changes

of ecological condition, the other beneficial activities from these

natural resources may disappear, which is not congenial for that

unique ecosystem. Due to coastal erosion , human encroachment and

sea level rise , the natural habitat of the tiger is diminishing resulting

intrusion of the large cat into inhabited areas .


Fig. 8

Natural Habitat of Tigers in the estuaries

Ecological diversity is on the threshold of decline. Dwindling tiger

population, overfishing, trapping olive ridleys, clearing mangrove

forest for settling climate refugees are all creating pressure on the

existence of balanced ecosystem. Project Tiger of 1972 was an

ambitious step towards conservation. A healthy tiger population

indicates that the other ecological components in its habitat are

equally robust, since tigers need large amount of prey and good

habitat.

Preservation of mangrove forest controls the climatic extremes. The

evapotranspiration from trees contribute to marginal increase in

rainfall and also help in increase in ground water level. The forest

growth reduces surface runoff and induces underground water storage

and prevents soil erosion. It also extends the flow season of the river.

Thus the Tiger Project and mangrove plantation is both important for

our life supports as well as food security. More employmental

opportunity will prevent people from poaching, forest gathering and

hunting activities. Already NREGA has been implemented in a big

way. Joint Forest Management should be tried in the benefit of the

forest and the people's sustainability. Involvement of NGOs will also

help in local conservation of these unique forested areas.


References

Bandopadhyay, Ghosh A.K., K. Seshaiyana; An eco-taxonomical study

on the halophytic plants in the western fringes of the Indian

Sundarbans.

Chakraborty, Susanta, K. 2009. Biological Diversity of Midnapore

Coast, West Bengal. Enviroscan, vol 2, No. 2.

Chawla , S. K. 2008. Climate change- Impact on Indian Ocean Region,

Journal of the Indian Ocean Studies, Vol 16 No. 1 &2 , pg. 69

Kathiresan, K. and Qasim, S.Z. 2005 Biodiversity of Mangrove

Ecosystem. Uses of mangroves ; Hindustan Publishing Corporation.

New Delhi

Kumar, Kishore, 2003. Threat Perception Coastal Zone Environment.

Report Submitted to the Ministry of Defence.

Mahapatra, A.K. and Mahapatra M.K., 1990. An eco-floristic survey of

some islands in Sundarbans of West Bengal. Environment Ecology. Vol.

8(1).

Mitra, Abhijit, Majumdar Sabyasachi, Swapan Kumar. 2002. Marine

ecosystem a field guide. DPM Publishing Co., Kolkata.

Naskar K.R. G. Indian Societies Coastal Agricultural Resources 6 (2);

1988; 149- 158

Naskar, : K.R. Ghosh. D, Sen . Mandal R.N. and Sarkar. A. K.J.

Intercad. 1(1); 1997;

49- 60 ; Mangrove ecology of the Indian Sunderbans ; Its impact on

the rural economy and coastal environment

O' Malley, L.S.S.(1914/1998) Bengal District Gazetters: 24

Parganas.Calcutta: Govt. of West Bengal Pg. 98

Qasim, S.Z, 2003. Indian Estuaries. Allied Publishers, New Delhi.

Qasim, S.Z., 1998. Glimpses of the Indian Ocean. Universities

Publication, Hyderabad.



Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination

Kishore Kumar*

The explosions and radiation leaks in Fukushima nuclear power plants, a

result of earthquake and resultant tsunami waves, have impelled nations to

review safety situation in their nuclear facilities. The disaster in Japan has

reinforced the reality that experts can neither predict the magnitude of a

disaster nor can they take adequate measures in unforeseen circumstances.

People may argue that Fukushima reactors were old Mark 1 boiling water type,

as also about the placing of diesel generators (for pumping cooling water)

wrongly in a tsunami zone. However, it has also been seen in earlier, cases of

Three Mile Island and Chernobyl accidents that the disaster and their after-

effects can never be predicted correctly. Only the monstrosity of the destruction

and their impact are visible, whereafter there is no use finding excuses. The big

question is: has the time come to consider a gradual movement towards

cleaner energy, i.e. carbon-nuclear-free energy?

IntroductionThe area off the eastern coast of Japan was struck by an enormous 9.0

magnitude earthquake on March 11, 2011 at 1436 hrs. Japan Standard

Time (JST). The event created extremely destructive tsunami waves

which hit the coast in just a few minutes, causing extensive and

severe damage leaving thousands of people dead, injured or missing,

and many times more affected by disruption of electricity, water and

transportation. Apart from such large scale deaths and destruction, a

matter of much larger concern was the overheating of two Fukushima

nuclear plants, Daiichi and Daini whose cooling systems were

knocked out by the earthquake. This led to large radiation leak and

* Consultant, Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, New Delhi.


Abstract

the contamination of atmosphere, food and water. It is not only Japan

that will have to contend with the challenge of containing the damage

for a considerably long time, but the world community at large faces

the dangers associated with nuclear power generation in the event of

such disasters.


Table 1

The Great Hakuho 684 A.D.

Ninna Nankai 885-889 (Ninna era)

Kamakura 1293

Shohei Nankai 1346-1370 (Shohei era)

Meio Nankai 1498

Keicho Nankaido 1605

Seikaido-Nankaido 1698

Hoei 1707

W. Hokkaido 1741

Nankai, Tokai & Kyushu 1854

Edo 1855

Meiji Sanriku 1896

Greatest Kanto Earthquake 1900

Showa Shanriku 1933

Tonankai 1944

Nankaido 1946

Nigota 1964

Sea of Japan 1983

Okushiri, Hokkaido 1993

Nigota 2007

Japan Pacific Coast 2011

Greatest Earthquakes/Tsunami in Japan

Source: Japan Tsunami History. www.2mkonline.com/2011/03/11

The reactorsBoth the Fukushima reactors are the ageing Mark 1 Boiling Water

design, which store the used or spent fuel within the confines of the

reactor building inside a swimming pool like concrete structure. At

the time of reactor refueling, the spent fuel is removed by a large

crane into the pool and kept underwater for considerable time in order

to prevent the dangerous release of radioactivity. The water in the

spent fuel pool and the roof of the reactor building are the main

barriers to the release of radiation.

The fuel assemblies consist of zirconium alloy claddings that encase

uranium oxide pellets (fuel pellets). This is the most sensitive part as

zirconium reacts with air and steam to produce zirconium oxide and

hydrogen gas in an exothermic reaction, i.e. releasing vast amount of

heat and further aggravating the problem by raising the cladding

temperature, whereas steam reaction generates large quantities of

hydrogen. A self sustaining oxidation reaction, approximately a factor

of 10 than water's boiling point, could result in zirconium cladding

fire, and the consequent rise in fuel rod temperature would lead to

79Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination

Fig. 1

A map of the tsunami struck areas of JapanSource : www.peternian.wordpress.com

considerable increase of gas pressure inside which, in turn, would

lead to the cladding balloon out and rupture.

At very high temperature of about 1800°C/3300°F, the zirconium

cladding reacts with the uranium oxide fuel to form molten

zirconium-uranium oxide. This reaction along with the rupture would

release large amount of radioactive gases and fuel's radioactive

material, in the form of aerosols, in to the environment. The extent of

the release of radiation depends on the severity of the loss of coolant

water, the amount of spent fuel in the pool, and also how recently the

fuel has been discharged. The consequences would be much more

disastrous in the long-term due to the presence of long lived

radionuclide in the pool in large quantities Cesium-137, Iodine- 129,

Plutonium- 239 and Strontium- 90 than in the reactor itself. The

whole issue is directly related to the cooling of the spent fuel and

would require immediate replenishment of coolant water.


The earthquake and tsunamith

On Friday the 11 March, 2011, a 9.0 magnitude (Mw) earthquake hit

the Western Pacific Ocean, approx. 70 km east of Oshika Peninsula of

Tohoku (epicentre) at an underwater depth of approx. 32 km

(hypocentre). The disaster occurred when the Pacific plate, moving at

the rate of 8-9 cm per year, dipped under the plate beneath northern

Honshu. The motion pulled the upper plate down until there was

enough stress build-up to cause a seismic event. According to the

Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA), the quake had ruptured the

The fury of Tsunami unleashed by earthquakeSource : www.flixya.com

Fig. 2

fault zone from offshore Iwate to Ibaraki Prefectures, 500 km long and

200 km wide. Some other Prefectures, including Fukushima, recorded

just under 7 Mw ground motion on the JMA scale. As the plate

boundary and subduction zone in the area of the rupture is not very

straight, the magnitude of earthquakes there do not normally exceed

8.5 Mw, and that is why a 9.0 Mw magnitude of the recent event

surprised even the seismologists.

The break under the seabed caused the sea floor to rise by several

metres, and the portion closest to the epicenter experienced very large

shifts. A 400 km stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6 m

which allowed the tsunami waves to travel farther and faster towards

the coast. It is also estimated that the quake shifted the northeast

Japan by approx. 2.5 m closer to North America, whereas the Pacific

plate may have moved westwards by approx. 20 m. The fault

movement has been considered one of the largest recorded shifts that

has been associated with an earthquake. Experts on geophysics and

volcanology aver that the quake shifted the earth's axis by 25 cm, a

deviation that has led to planetary changes like the length of a day

and the tilt of our planet. This redistribution of the earth's mass

increased its rotationed speed, thus shortening the day by 1.8

microseconds.


Explosion in nuclear reactor after TsunamiSource : www.hybridgames.co.uk

Fig. 3

The Japan Pacific earthquake, caused by 5.8 m up thrust on 180 km

wide seabed at about 60 km offshore from the east coast of Tohoku,

triggered giant tsunami waves of up to 40 m. They hit the coast within

minutes of the quake and travelled up to 10 km inland and caused

extreme destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan's northern

islands. In about half an hour, a wall of water roughly 250 miles hit

the northeast coast, with at least 7,000 dead and 10,000 missing, as

well as damaging the Fukushima-Daiichi nuclear power plant and its

six reactors. A plant operator had reported that the giant tsunami

wave that brought the nuclear plant on the brink of meltdown

measured about 14 m in height, whereas the Tokyo Electric Power Co.

(TEPCO) had earlier estimated the height of the wave at 10 m at

Fukushima No. 1 plant. The quake crushed an embankment and broke

the arm of a crane at the plant: “The tsunami approached all at once

and surged on to the plant…(it) cleared high above the dyke and came

rushing down to wash away one parked car after another”. These

plants were designed to withstand earthquakes of 8.0 magnitude only,

and the tsunami waves of 5.7 m at No. 1 plant and 5.2 m at No. 2

plant respectively.


Rescue personnel checked for radiation

exposure in Japan's Fukushima prefecture Source : www.gettyimages.com

Fig. 4

The reactor explosion and radioactive fall-outWhen the earthquake struck, the Fukushima-Daiichi plant

automatically shut down, sliding control rods, made of boron that

block neutrons, in to reactor cores that stopped the fission of enriched

uranium fuel. However, even with the fission stopped, nuclear fuel

rods must be kept cool with the help of a constant flow of water past

them. But, the now-still water in the reactor began to boil off,

threatening a meltdown of the uranium inside. Due to the tsunami

surge, the back-up diesel generators, placed only slightly above the sea

level, did not survive and their batteries lasted only a few hours.

Thus, the plant had no electricity to run the cooling pumps, and the

lack of coolant water exposed the fuel rods with a meltdown of

uranium fuel pellets inside.

Table 2

Source: Makhijani, Arjun and Ledwidge, Lisa. 2011. Fact Sheet: Radiation and Human Health, http://www.ieer.org

Radiation Exposure

Radiation absorbed dose (Rad): A measure/unit of the amount of energy

deposited in a given tissue (100 orgs/gm).

Gray (gy): A unit of absorbed radiation dose 100 rads.

Radiation equivalent man (Rem): A measure of the biological damage of

the given absorbed dose of radiation. They take into account how

ionizing radiations transfer their energy to human tissues rems are

derived from rads by multiplying the latter by a quality factor of the type

of radiation.

a) For gamma and most beta radiation, the quality factor is one (rems

equal rads).

b) For alpha radiation, the quality factor is 20 (rems=20 rads).

c) Neutron radiation factor vary according to their energy.

Sievert (Sv): A unit of equivalent absorbed dose equal to 100 rems. A

person-sievert is a population dose, expressing the sum of individual

doses in a defined population.


In the absence of coolant water, the hard zirconium-cladding of fuel

rods swelled and burst, releasing radioactive particles, Cesium-137

and Iodine-131, produced by fission. Worse, at a temperature as high

as 1200°C, the cladding stripped oxygen from the surrounding steam,

leaving hydrogen gas behind. At sufficient concentration, (i.e. >4 %),

the hydrogen gas became explosive in the presence of oxygen or a

spark. Being lighter than the air, it accumulated near the top of the

reactor building, and that is why its roof and walls were completely

blown off, releasing the radioactive material in the atmosphere.

For days, the workers and technicians in the reactor continued their

gallant effort to bring cooling water to the boiling reactors and the

overheating pools of spent fuel. That was in the face of further

explosions and hydrogen fires, apart from dangerous levels of

radiation. They could breathe only through special tanks and filters

strapped to their backs, but could hardly shield themselves from the

source of radioactivity. The radiation fall-out was finally confirmed

when the Japanese government reported that milk, canola, spinach

and other agricultural products, from the areas around the plant,

contained high levels of radioactive element, and barred their

shipment from the affected prefectures.

Table 3

Radionuclides release from nuclear facilities

Iodine-131: A half life of only 8 days (short lived). The primary risk

of exposure is thyroid cancer, more for children.

Cesium-137: A half life of 30 years, a high carcinogen.

Strontium-90: A half life of 29 years. It acts like calcium and

concentrates in bones, resulting in bone tumour and leukemia.

Tritium (Hydrogen-3): A half life of 12 years, and causes cancer on

inhalation or ingestion. It crosses the placenta, and its sufficient dose

cause miscarriage or birth defects to the embryo/foetus.

Source: Makhijani and Lisa. IEER. 2011

Only the completion of a new power line, to bring much needed

electricity from power plants outside the area, could restart the


electric pumps to cool down the reactors. However, that was

hampered by the impact of earthquake and tsunami which destroyed

the power grid, as also by the high level of radiation inside the reactor

buildings where the lines need to be connected. The task ahead is

extremely tough.

Conclusions

The heroic effort on the part of Japanese engineers and technicians, to

replenish cooling water to the boiling reactors and overheated spent

fuel pools, is indeed commendable towards containing the radioactive

fallout and further damage to the environment. These are still early

days, ans the level of radioactive fall-out will only be known after a

few weeks. Nevertheless, the developments in the past few weeks and

their after-effects raise some basic questions regarding the safety of

nuclear power plants in the event of big disasters. First, no one can

predict the tectonic plate movements a few kilometers below the

seabed and the magnitude of the quake. It does not allow sufficient

time to implement measures of safety. It is now admitted by the

authorities that the reactors were not designed to withstand

earthquakes and tsunami surge of such high magnitude. Another

mistake, as pointed out by experts was that back-up generators were

placed just slightly above the sea level in a tsunami zone, and their

destruction led to cut-off of power supply to run water pumps to bring

in cooling waters.

Now is the time to perhaps do a little introspection about nuclear

power in general. According to Arjun Makhijani form the Institute of

Energy and Environmental Research (Maryland, USA): “The tragedy in

Japan is a reminder that making plutonium and fission products just

to boil water is not a prudent approach to electricity generation”. The

world confronted the same problem during the Three Mile Island

(1979) and Chernobyl (1986) disasters, where the reactors produced

large amount of energy but the accidents played havoc with the

population and the environment. Many experts and concerned citizens

feel that the world has to gradually move to carbon free (coal and oil

based) and nuclear free power generation. Nations have to now

consider safe route to electrical power.


References

Ash. 2011. Japan Tsunami History. http://www.2mkonline.com

Biello, David. 2011. Anatomy of a Nuclear Crisis: A Chronology of

Fukushima. www.e360.yale.edu

Brown, Eryn. 2011. Japan earthquake shifted earth on its axis. Los

Angeles Times. March 12. See www.webcitation.org/5x96cBq8d.

F i s s i o n , n o t f u s i o n . 2 0 1 1 . B u s i n e s s S t a n d a r d .

http://www.sify.com/finance...html. March 22.

J a p a n E a r t h q u a k e : t s u n a m i h i t s n o r t h - e a s t . 2 0 1 1 .

www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12709598.

Japan Nuclear Power Plant Crippled by 14-metre Wave. 2011. AFP

Correspondent from Osaka. http://www.heraldsun.com.au. March 17.

Makhijani, Arjun. 2011. Post-Tsunami Situation at the Fukushima

Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan: Facts, Analysis and Some

Potential Outcomes. IEER. March 14.

Makhijani, Arjun and Ledwidge, Lisa. 2011. Fact Sheet: Radiation and

Human Health. Institute of Energy and Environmental Research (IEER),

USA.

Maugh, Thomas H. 2011. Size of Japan's quake surprises seismologists.

www.latimes.com/news/nationworld. March 11.

Sample, Ian. 2011. Japan earthquake and tsunami: what happened and

why. www.guardian.co.uk. March 11.

Singh, H.B. et. al. 2007. Tsunami. New Delhi. National Institute of

Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR, CSIR).


Guidelines to Authors

Journal of Coastal Environment (JCE) is published by the Centre for Ocean and

Environmental Studies, New Delhi twice a year. The Journal promotes the study

and analyses of scientific, economic and policy issues related to the ecology of the

oceans and coasts, with far reaching impacts on the land and the atmosphere. The

emphasis is to involve a large community of scientists and scholars from India

and abroad in developing a framework of discussion and debate on conservation

and sustainable development. Book reviews, interviews, communication and

news items related to the subject are also accepted for publication.

All manuscripts are to be submitted in English in duplicate, typed double-spaced

throughout the text and should preferably be 4,000 to 5,000 words. It is requested

that manuscripts be sent by e-mail or on a CD, accompanied with a hard copy.

The paper should be in the following order: Title; Author(s); Address(es);

Abstract; Introduction; Materials and methods (if any); Results; Discussions (if

any); Acknowledgements and References.

Tables to be included should have a heading, giving the substance, and should be

typed double-spaced on separate sheets. They should also be numbered in serial

order. Figures either drawn manually or by computer should be in black ink and

the lettering on them should be large enough to stand reduction. Photographs in

colour should have sharp contrast. Legends for figures and plates should be typed

in numerical order on separate sheets, one for figures and one for plates.

References to the literature cited should list the author's name, year of publication,

title of the paper, and the Journal titles which should be cited in full (no

abbreviation) with volume, number and page number, as indicated below:

For articles in a Journal

Walsh, J.E. 2008. Climate of the Arctic Marine Environment. Ecological

Applications. 18. pp. 3-22.

For two or more authors

Bejder, L., Dawson, S.M. and Harraway, J.A. 1999. Responses by Hectors's

dolphins to boats and swimmers in Porpoise Bay, New Zealand. Marine Mammal

Science. 15. pp. 738-750.

For BooksWard, D.R. 2002. Water Wars: drought, floods, folly and politics of thirst: Riverhead Books. New York. p. 12.

Chapter in a book:Andrews, T.J., Clough, B.F. and Muller, G.J. 1984. Photosynthetic gas exchange properties and carbon isotope ratios of some mangroves in North Queensland. In: H.J. Teas (Ed.), Physiology and Management of Mangroves. W. Junk. The Hague. pp. 15-23.

From websiteNational Oceans and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 1995. Regional Perspectives: IndianOcean.www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo.outreach/coral/ sor/sor_indian.html , accessed on July 13, 2008.

While giving reference of more than two authors in the text, after, the name of the first author, et al. should be used, followed by the year of publication.

Articles are to be referred before publication. Proofs are edited in-house and may be sent back to the authors for only major changes, addition or deletion.

Copies of the Journal will be sent to the authors after publication.

Journal of Coastal Environment(Bi-Annual Journal)

SUBSCRIPTION ORDER FORM

Name:

Address:

Pin

Tel: Fax:

E-mail:

Payment Enclosed DD/Cheque No. dated drawn in favour of the Centre

for Ocean and Environmental Studies for Rs. / US$ payable

at New Delhi.

Signature Date

(Please add Rs.50/- for Outstation Cheques and allow 4 weeks for

delivery of first issue)

New Renewal

Published byCentre for Ocean and Environmental Studies

A-2, East of Kailash, New Delhi 110 065, IndiaTelefax: 91-11-46078340

Website: www.coes-india.orgE-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

SUBSCRIPTION RATES

INDIVIDUAL COPY

Inland ForeignRs. 200/- US$ 40

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION(2 Issues Per Year)

Individuals ForeignRs. 400/- US$ 100

InstitutionsRs.600/-

ADVERTISEMENT RATES

Full Page

Colour : Rs. 30,000.00Black/White : Rs. 20,000.00

Half Page

Colour : Rs. 15,000.00Black/White : Rs. 10,000.00

(Four weeks to be allowed after submission of advertising material)

Edited and Published by S.Z. Qasim for the Centre for Ocean and Environmental Studies, New Delhi

Typeset and Printed by DezineHut : [email protected] • 98112 38475

Journal of Coastal EnvironmentVol. 1, No. 2, 2010

Role of Estuaries in Sustainability of Coastal Environment 1

S.Z. Qasim

Convergence of Energy Issues in National Water Policy 11

Malti Goel

Carapace Length/width-weight Relationship of Ocypode 23

macrocera Population from Pondicherry Sandy Beaches

A. Yogamoorthi and R. Siva Sankar

Effect of Seaweed Extract as Organic Fertilizer on the 31

Growth Enhancement of Black Mustard Plant

T.C. Srijaya, P.J. Pradeep and Anil Chatterji

Role of Nearshore Waves in Identifying 45

Vulnerable Zones during Storm and Normal Events

S.V.V. Arun Kumar

Biodiversity of Rock Pool Organisms and their Adaptive 53

Zonation along the Coasts of Port Blair

J.K. Mishra, Shesdev Patro,

D. Adhavan and Anita Mishra

Vulnerability of the Sundarbans Ecosystem 63

Ananya Roy

Tsunami Disaster and Nuclear Contamination 77

Kishore Kumar

Cover Photo : Mangroves at the Sundarbans

C o n t e n t s

Documents

Vol ume 1, N ber 2 0 ISSN 2229-7839 JJCCEE - Welcome to …repository.um.edu.my/21939/1/Effect of Seaweed Extract as... · of Goel summarises the concerns related to water management