Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017 Mapping ... · PDF fileRemote Sensing, Soil Geochemistry, soil mapping, Port ... Imagine and ESRI ArcGIS 10.2.2 software. RS data are represented by cloud-free

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR)

Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017

ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in

Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 1261

Mapping of Soil Geochemistry in Port

Said Governorate, Egypt Utilizing GIS

and Remote Sensing Techniques

Rana Y. El-Kady1, Ahmed E. El-Rayes

2, Yasser M. Sultan

3 &

Akram M. Aziz4

1,3,4 Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Port Said University, Port Said, Egypt

2 Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt

Abstract: Port Said soil geochemistry is the major

soil limitation factor affecting agricultural

production. Ions content and soil salinity

distributions are increasingly needed, particularly

for better soil management. Fifty-sex samples were

taken with complete coverage of the study area at

depth of 40 cm. The cultivated areas are determined

utilizing satellite image of Landsat 8 by using NDVI

method. The chemical analysis for the soil extract

were done utilizing titration method for Cl, HCO3,

Ca and Mg ions, colorimeteric method for SO4 ion,

flame spectrophotometery for Na ion, TDS-meter for

TDS, electric conductivity meter for Ec. Sodium

Absorption Ratio (SAR) is empirically determined

using the chemical concentrations of Na, Ca, and

Mg. Utilizing Arc GIS, every ion concentration is

mapped to detect its spatial distribution in the study

area. The results show that the high concentration of

Calcium and Magnesium ions located south Malaha

Lake. The high concentrations of sodium and

chloride ions are located at the eastern part of El-

Salam Canal. The high concentrations of Ec, sulfate,

and TDS are located at restricted area between Suez

Canal and El-Salam Canal. The soil salinity

classification shows that areas south El-Tina Plain

classified as saline-sodic type, which needs extensive

treatment before cultivation.

Key Words : Geographic Information System,

Remote Sensing, Soil Geochemistry, soil mapping,

Port Said.

1. Introduction

In the last decades, the intensity of soil

degradation remarkably increases, particularly in the

Nile Delta region because of human activities [1] and

uncontrolled urbanization. Therefore, the need for

land reclamation in new areas appeared to

compensate the decreases of suitable soil areas for

agriculture. The present work aimed to delineate the

suitable zones for new agricultural expansions in

Port Said Governorate based on soil geochemistry.

Most soil reclamation faced increases of the salinity

and alkalinity, which became a major global issue.

The soil salinity mainly increases along coastal zones

impacted by sea water. The poor quality of

groundwater affects the chemistry of soil that hamper

the cultivation process. Remote sensing (RS) and

Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques

were extensively used for understanding soil

degradation processes and modeling soil degradation

risk [2] based on soil chemistry.

Port Said Governorate is one of the areas that newly

involved in the land reclamation program. It is

located at the northeastern part of Egypt, along with

the eastern side of the Nile Delta, which lies at the

most northern gate of Suez Canal on the

Mediterranean Sea [3], on a narrow peninsula

between the Manzala Lake and the Mediterranean

[4], which occupies an total area of 1464.21 km2 and

land area reach up to 889.1 Km2 (Fig.1).

Figure 1: Location map of Port Said Governorate.

http://www.onlinejournal.in/






The study area is bounded by Latitudes

30°53'22.90"N & 31°21'49.86"N, and Longitudes

32°3'52.66"E & 32°33'16.30"E. It is characterized by

low relief and gently slopes towards the coastline of

Mediterranean. The south sector of the Governorate

was invaded by old branch of Nile known as Pelusiac

branch, which constitutes the main supplier of soil

that used for land reclamation process.

Generally, Port Said surface soil consists of four

classes of sediments (Fig. 2). Sabkha covers most of

the mapped area. Nile silt exists in mainly at the

northern sector around Port Said and part of Port

Fouad cities. The salt crust existed near Malaha Lake

to the northeastern sector. The Wadi and Playa

deposits are distributed as sand bars along the

southeastern parts and the western coast.

Figure 2: Distribution of surface soil sediments at Port

Said Governorate area (modified after [5]-[6].

El-Tina Plain and south Port Said city have

the most suitable soil for cultivation. El-Tina Plain

consider as an integral part of the ancient Nile Delta

sedimentation [7]. According to Hassan (2003) [8],

El-Tina Plain characterized as a triangular shape that

bordered from the west by the Suez Canal, from the

north by the Mediterranean coastline and from the

south by a sharp line contact with northern Sinai

sand sheet and ancient Pelusiac fault.

El-Tina Plain is a structural depression that

was filled by soil consists of extensive mud and

covered by salt crust in distant parts, mixed with

marine water [9] with 1 m to 3 m elevation above sea

level. The amount of new sediment reaching the

plain through the Nile River has been greatly reduced

over the last 40 years following the construction of

the Aswan high dam.

El-Tina Plain classified into two zones

separated by El-Salam Canal; a northern strand plain

and a southern delta plain [10]. The northern strand

plain width increases from 1 km in the east to 12.5

km in the west. It contains the Malaha Lake at the

northern part with a concave shoreline configuration

of about 39 km long and 818 km2 area [11]. The

southern part of the plain is composed of muddy

delta sediments [11]. It is also composed of sandy

plain sheet unit that occupies a narrow zone to the

east and southeast of Malaha Lake. The soil salinity

of the area varies from slightly saline to highly saline

[12]-[13].

2. Materials and methods

The most efficient tools to assess the spatial

integration of various data sets including geological

maps, Landsat 8 images, and soil chemistry data are

found in RS and GIS tools [14].

The methodological development over the

study area aims to show the concentration levels and

spatial distribution of chemical components and

salinization of Port Said soil by using ERDAS

Imagine and ESRI ArcGIS 10.2.2 software.

RS data are represented by cloud-free

Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) imagery

with 11 band, which dated on the 14th of February

2015 with Path/Row (176/38) and (176/39) to apply

the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

method. The spatial resolution is 30*30 m and

represented in the UTM WGS 1984 datum and Zone

36.

Many image processing is applied on the

satellite image bands include stack the bands in one

image layer and rectify the study area from the

satellite image.

The NDVI method is the indices ratio

images and classification techniques were applied to

provide information on vegetation distribution and

dynamics, calculate the areas used for cultivated

purpose and differentiate between the cultivated

zones, wetlands and water bodies of Port Said

Governorate. The green leaves have high visible light

absorption together with high near-infrared

reflectance, resulting in positive NDVI values. Bare

soil, cloud, and concrete have NDVI values close to

zero, while water has negative NDVI values [15].







In addition to tabular data, including chemical

characteristics of soil from, are obtained from

previous studies [16] and from field measurements

and laboratory experiments. The soil samples were

taken at 0.4 m depth. The sample location is

specified by using GPS device. The collected soil

samples were widely distributed over the entire Port

Said area. The surface soil samples were collected

manually in polyethylene bags. The soil chemical

analysis is focused on the determination of

Bicarbonate (HCO3-), Chloride (Cl

-), sulfate (SO4

2-),

Total Dissolved Salts (TDS), Sodium (Na+),

magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2

+), Sodium

Adsorption Ratio (SAR), and Electric Conductivity

(Ec). These ions are analyzed in soil extract using

titration method for HCO3, Ca, and Mg, flame

photometry for Na+, colorimetry for SO4

2- and by

electric conductivity meter for Ec.

The ion composition is expressed in

milliequivalents per litre (meq/l), which represents

the molar concentration of the ion, normalized by the

ionic charge, while Ec is measured in ds/m.

SAR is calculated using calcium, sodium and

magnesium concentrations according to the

following equation [17, 18].

The results of chemical analyses were integrated

with GIS database using attribute tables with

coordinates of each sample location.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. NDVI

The results of RS analyses of the study area

showed that the agricultural zones are concentrated

at the southeastern locality and at the zones confined

between west Suez Canal and Manzala Lake (Fig. 3)

El-Tina Plain considered as wetland zone, which

defined as zones of temporary filled with water [19].

The cultivated area occupies 280 km2 out of the total

area 1464.2 km2 of Port Said Governorate (Fig. 4).

Figure 3: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

(NDVI) map of Port Said area.

Figure 4: Distribution of cultivated zones in Port Said

Governorate.







3.2. Soil ions distribution

A number of 56 soil samples distributed

around the entire study area are collected and

subjected to chemical analysis for major ions (Fig.

5).

Figure 5: Soil samples-location map of Port Said area.

3.2.1. Calcium Ion Distribution

Calcium is the most predominant cation in soils.

The average calcium content of the earth's crust is

about 3.6% and total amount of calcium in the soil

ranges from less than 0.1% to as much as 25%.

The clayey soils usually contains more calcium

than sandy soils [20]. Calcium concentrations in soil

of the study area are ranged from 200 to 1800 meq/l

(Fig.6).

The calcium distribution map shows that the high

concentration values are recorded at two locations in

the eastern part of Port Said, near the Malaha Lake.

Generally, calcium might be supplied by several

ways. Gypsum might be the main source of calcium

when the soil pH is high. Other sources of calcium

include calcium nitrate (Ca (NO3)2), which contains

18-19.5% of Ca and also calcium chloride that

contains about 42% of Ca [20].

Figure 6: Calcium distribution map in soil of Port Said

Governorate.

3.2.2. Magnesium Ion Distribution

The obtained data of chemical components of soil

showed that the high magnesium contents are

distributed at the eastern parts of Port Said along two

localities to the south of Malaha Lake (Fig. 7).

Figure 7: Magnesium distribution map in soil of Port Said

Governorate.







Generally, soil magnesium comes from

weathering of rocks containing biotite, hornblends

dolomite and chlorite minerals. The common source

rock for magnesium is dolomitic limestone, which

provide both calcium and magnesium, potassium –

magnesium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, magnesium

nitrate and magnesium oxide. It also found in soil

solution and is adsorbed to clay and organic matter

surfaces. The soils often contain less exchangeable

magnesium than calcium because magnesium not

absorbed as tightly by clay and organic matter and is

more subject to leaching [20].

3.2.3. Sodium Ion Distribution

Sodium ion concentrations in soil of Port Said

area are ranged from 100 to 2200 meq/l. Soil sodium

ion of the study area are concentrated at two

localities, at the southeastern and the southwestern

parts of Port Said along El-Salam Canal (Fig.8). It is

obvious that the source of sodium in soil of the study

area is the leakage from El-Salam Canal. It is noticed

that the sodium concentrations are decreases by

moving away from El-Salam Canal.

Figure 8: Sodium distribution in soil of Port Said

Governorate.

3.2.4. Chloride Ion Distribution

Chloride ion contents in soil of Port Said

area are ranged from 100 to 1500 meq/l. Chloride ion

in soil is concentrated mainly in the eastern part of

Port Said (Fig. 9).

Figure 9: Chloride distribution map in soil of Port Said

Governorate.

Both chloride and sodium concentrations have

nearly the same distributions away from the sea

water. This may attributed to the presence of halite

layer near the ground surface in that area (Fig.10).

The halite belongs to halide group that considered as

the most soluble minerals and easily to broken down

by physical and chemical weathering [21]. The halite

is found only in the salt-affected soils.

Figure 10: Halite layer at shallow depth of El-Tina plain.

3.2.5. Bicarbonate Ion Distribution

The excessive of bicarbonate concentration

adversely affects the absorption of ions and causes

chlorosis in plants and inhibit the metabolic process

of plant, which ultimately affect plant growth and the

uptake of nutrients [22].

Bicarbonate (HCO3) contents measured in

meq/l are ranged from 1 to 17 meq/l. Bicarbonate ion







in soil distributed in two localities at the western part

and southern parts of Port Said (Fig. 11).

Figure 11: Bicarbonate distribution map in soil of Port

Said Governorate.

3.2.6. Sulfate Ion Distribution

Sulfate (SO4) is measured in meq/l, are

ranged from 20 to 380 meq/l. High sulfate ion in soil

are distributed at south of Port Said along the

intersection of Suez canal with El-Salam Canal (Fig.

12). It has no major effect on the soil other than

contributing to the total salt content (TDS) [23].

In most cases, the high sulfate soil contains

gypsum mineral, which easily soluble. The gypsum

may found in soil of the study area as mixed granules

or as a thin layers.

Figure 12: Sulfate distribution map in soil of Port Said

Governorate.

3.2.7. Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) Distribution

Soil salinization is a universal problem,

especially in extensively irrigated areas that are

poorly drained or areas reused drained water in

irrigation. Soil salinity is typically assessed by

measuring the soil electrical conductivity (EC) in

saturated paste extracted from soil [24, 25]. The high

saline soils are distributed along Suez Canal and

southwest of Port Said area (Fig. 13). The TDS of

soil ranged from 40000 to 280000 meq/l. The TDS

level considered as very high, which exceeds the

salinity of the Mediterranean Sea water.

In general, the major sources of soluble salts

in soils are weathering of primary mineral and native

rocks, residual fossils salts, atmospheric deposition,

saline irrigation and drainage waters, saline

groundwater, sea water intrusion, additions of

inorganic and organic fertilizers, sludges and sewage

effluents, brines from natural salt deposits, and

brines from oil and gas fields and mining [26].







Figure 13: TDS distribution map of soil in Port Said

Governorate.

3.2.8. Electric Conductivity (Ec)

Soil electrical conductivity is one of the soil

important character as the preferred index to assess

soil salinity. Under standard condition, E increases as

salt concentration increase [26]. The soil Ec ranges,

are classified into five distinct classes of saline soils;

slightly affected, moderately affected, strongly

affected, very strongly affected and abnormally

affected, (Table 1)

Table 1: Soil electric conductivity classes and its effect on

salinity ([14, 27]).

EC Class Type EC Range (ds/m)

Slightly affected 4 – 8

Moderately affected 8 - 16

Strongly affected 16 – 32

Very strongly affected 32 - 64

Abnormally affected >64

Data showed a highly significant effect of soil

electrical conductivity in most of area at the

northeastern and the southwestern parts (Fig. 14),

which indicate strong effected while at the

southwestern part showed slightly effect.

The other Ec classification showed high

concentration along Suez Canal at the same location

of high concentration of TDS and sulfate (Fig. 15).

The Ec of alkali clay loam soil exhibits continuous

release of soluble salt with increasing the applied

sulfur [28].

Figure 14: Distribution of Ec effect on soil salinity

according to GARPAD (1984) Classification.

Figure 15: Distribution of Ec of Port Said soil.







3.2.9. Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR)

SAR is a very important criteria to classify the

soil as sodic or non-sodic. Soil SAR depends upon

relative quantities of Na and Ca plus Mg in the soil

solution and clay complex [29]. The USDA (1954)

[17] classified the SAR as values of less than 13 and

more than 13, which integrated with Ec. Most of Port

Said soil have very low SAR value, while the area

with values less than 13 is located at the western

coast, central part of Port Said and southern part of

Port Said (Fig. 16).

Figure 16: SAR distribution at Port Said Governorate.

3.2.10. Sodium Absorption Salt (SAR) and

Electric Conductivity (EC)

The study area is mostly covered by

considered as saline-non sodic soil, which occupies

nearly the half of El-Tina Plain (Fig. 17). The

relative high soil SAR could be explained on the

basis of increased salt accumulation, which caused

precipitation of CaCO3 and CaSO4 like salts leading

to high Na then increase in SAR [29]. Also SAR

values are generally referenced to the level of

bicarbonate (HCO3)-. High concentrations of anions

can also increases soil salinity by affecting the

exchangeable sodium and calcium ratio [30]. When

soil moisture decreases, water soluble calcium

bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 decomposes and precipitates

calcium carbonate.

The sodic soils with high content of Na+ can

significantly alter some important soil physical and

chemical properties such as dispersion of soil

particles and poor soil water permeability. Soil

dispersion is the primary physical process associated

with high sodium concentration [31, 30] because the

attraction forces that bind clay particles can be

disrupted by high content of sodium ions causes

plugging of soil pores.

Upon repeated wetting and drying and

associated dispersion, soils reform and solidify into

cement-like soil with little or no aggregate formation

[32], which will significantly reduce soil infiltration,

hydraulic conductivity and lead to surface crusting.

As a result, the cement–like soil structure will

impede water flow or infiltration in the soil, which

will induce more surface runoff and soil erosion [33].

The ratio of salinity (Ec) to sodicity (SAR)

determines the effects of salts and sodium on soils,

which surrounding and effect on the foundation of

buildings.

Both of Ec and SAR coverage were

combined together in a mathematical manipulation

using GIS to assess various levels of salinity and

sodicity in study area that classify the soil for salt-

affect soils as shown in Table 2. The integration

between Ec and SAR shows highly effect of sodicity

and salinity at the southeastern part of Port Said

Governorate and around the western sector of El-

Salam Canal (Fig. 17).

Table 2: Classification of soil salinity and salt–affected soil [17, 14].

The increasing SAR of soil, which contain

magnesium salts, leads to dissolve sodium

hydroxide, cement, bricks and magnesium hydroxide

in addition to the attacking of sulfate compounds to

calcium and aluminum.

Class Ec (ds/m) SAR (meq/l)

Salt Free <4 <13

Saline-nonsodic >4 <13

Saline-sodic >4 >13

Nonsaline-sodic <4 >13







Figure 17: Distribution map of classified salt-affected soil

at Port Said according to USDA (1954) classes.

4. Conclusion

The present study assessed the soil salinity

based on the geochemical properties of the collected

samples from Port Said area. The Satellite images of

Landsat 8 was used to apply NDVI method to

delineate the cultivated areas of Port Said

Governorate. With the application of Arc GIS and

geostatistical mapping, the spatial distribution of soil

salinity and soil ions was mapped and evaluated

based on the grid sampling and laboratory

measurements. The normalized difference vegetation

index (NDVI) analysis showed that the cultivated

areas concentrated at the western part of Manzala

Lake and at southeastern part of Port Said

Governorate. Utilizing SAR equation, the salinity

evaluation showed that the main localities of soil

salinity was highly distributed across the

southeastern part of Port Said Governorate. The high

concentration of calcium and magnesium are

distributed at the southern part of Malaha Lake. The

high concentrations of sodium and chloride are

distributed at the eastern part of El-Salam Canal. The

high concentrations of Sulfate, total dissolved salts

(TDS), electric conductivity (EC) are found at the

intersection between El-Salam Canal and Suez

Canal. The high concentration of bicarbonate is

found at the southern part of Port Said City.

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Vol-3, Issue-3, 2017 Mapping ... · PDF fileRemote Sensing, Soil Geochemistry, soil mapping, Port ... Imagine and ESRI ArcGIS 10.2.2 software. RS data are represented by cloud-free