Vol 2-Agricultural Science

8/9/2019 Vol 2-Agricultural Science.

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Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 1 - 5, 2008 Wilolud Online Journals, 2008.

EFFECT OF SAND OR SOIL AS A DIETARY COMPONENT ON PHOSPHORUS UTILIZATION

G. O. Wordu And I. W. DeeduaDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture

Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt,Rivers State.

ABSTRACTExperiment was conducted to determine the effect of sand or soil ingestion on Pbalance in Goats. 12 Africa Dwarf goats (44.9kg) were fed a based diet containing10% of either soil (the mould in which plants grow - the mixture of disintegrated rockand organic material which nourishes plant) or sand (a mass of rounded grains ofrocks) in a completely randomized design. Animals were injected iv with a singledoes of .5cm; of32p as orthophosphoric acid to facilitate determination of metabolicfecal P. Total fecal and urine collections were made for 7 d and blood samples wereobtained three times. Levels of A1, Fe and Mn for the sand diet were 46, 199 and36ppm, and for basal diet 147, 88 and 35ppm. Goats fed the sand diets had lower(P>.05) serum P concentration than goats fed soil diet. Total and metabolic fecal Pwere higher (P > .05) and urinary P lower (P < .05) for goats fed sand resulting inlower (P > 01) apparent and true P absorption and P balance for these two dietscompared with the soil diet.

KEY WORDS: Soil ingestion, phosphorus, Aluminum, iron, goat.

INTRODUCTIONGoat and cattle on pasture ingest variable amounts of soil during grazing. Field and Purves (1964) reportedthat during winter grazing, sheep ingested soil at levels up to 15% of total dry matter intake and suggestedthat ingested soil is a source of minerals to grazing ruminants. Healy (1968) and McGrath (1982) indicatedthat average soil ingestion can reach 1,600g/d for cattle and 400g/d for sheep and that probably one-half ofthe annual intake occurs during the winter.

Phosphorus deficiency is found frequently in tropical grazing areas around the world (Cohen, 1980), andmay be the first limiting mineral under many grazing conditions. Aluminum and Fe in ingested soil mayinterfere with dietary P utilization (Rosa et al; 1982) and this effect could be critical if the animals were ina borderline P deficiency. The present experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of ingestion ofsoils of different mineral composition on performance, blood variables and P metabolism in Africa Dwarf

goat.

TWELVE MATERIALS AND METHODS: West Africa Dwarf goats, initially averaging 44.8kg, wereassigned to two treatment groups in a completely randomized design. Experimental diets contained 10% ofeither sand (control) or soil as shown in table 1. Washed sand and soil were screened to pass a No. 60screen (sieve opening 250m) before mixing with the basal diet.

Goats were confirmed in metabolism stalls during a 21 day period. The basal diet was fed the first 7d andexperimental diets the next 14d. Feces and urine were collected the final 7d. A single dose of .5mci of32Pas carrier-free orthophosphroic acid was injected into three goats of each treatment group on the first daythat experimental diets were fed.Feed offered was limited to 900g/head daily and tap water was provided and libitum. Feed offered, fecesand urine were weighed and sampled daily and composted separately for each goat. Blood samples were


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G. O. Wordu And I. W. Deedua: Continental J. Food Science and Technology 2: 33 - 37, 2008

obtained by jugular puncture the day before feeding the experimental diets and the last day of the balancetrial. Goats that were injected with 32P were bled three times during the balance trial to determine specificactivity of serum P. Dry matter and ash determination were made in duplicate (AOAC, 1984). Feed wasanalyzed for Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and P bycolorimetric method. Determinations of Ca, Mg and P in serum were made following the same methods.Radioactivity in serum, urine and feces was measured in a liquid scintillation counter (Beckman LS 335)and results were corrected for quenching using an internal standardization method (Long, 1979)endogenous P excretion was determined from corrected counts in serum and feces.

Table 1: composition of Basal DietIngredient %Corn meal 34.0Cotton seed hulls 30.0Corn starch 26.3Sugar cane molasses 3.0Soybean meal 2.0Cassava meal 2.0Urea 2.0Salt 1.0Ground limestone .2Total 100.0

Table 2: Chemical characteristics of sand and soil

Item Sand Soil

Ph(H2O) 4.8Ph(In KCl) 3.9Exchange elements Meq/100g

Al 3.19K .14Mg .18Ca .08P .20

Total elements %Al .06 6.15Fe 1.62 3.05Na .56 1.30K .96 .20Mg .31 .06Ca .75 .03

P .03 .03ppm

Mn 53 1,390Cu 30 138Zn 26 90

Correlations among excretion, absorption and retention were calculated and all data were analyzed by thestatistical Analysis system procedures (SAS, 1979). Duncans multiple range test was used to comparemeans.


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RESULTSThe chemical composition of the diets (Table 3) showed that changes in mineral composition occurred as aconsequence of introducing 10% soil or sand. Ash, Al, Fe, Zn and Mn were higher for the experimentaldiets compared with basal diet. Ash was higher in the sand diet and lower in the soil diets. The sand dietswere lower in Aluminum and Cu. Phosphorus, Ca and Mg concentrations were similar in the experimentaldiets and basal diet.

Table 3: Mineral composition of experimental Dietsa

Ash P Ca Mg

g/100gSand 15.1 .15 .19 .10Soil 12.5 .16 .19 .10

_______________________ ppm _____________________Al 346.0 7,504.0Fe 199.0 1,194.0Mn 36.2 40.7Cu 7.8 10.6Zn 46.2 51.8

aDry matter basis

Table 4: Effect of sand or soil ingestion on serum minerals in goat a

Item Sand Soil SDb

______________________mg/100ml _____________________________PhosphorusFinal 7.33c 9.08d 1.09Change -36 1.66

CalciumFinal 9.25 8.91Change .20 -.08 .52

MagnesiumFinal 2.23 2.23Change .08 .11 .24

a Each value represents the means of six goats, b Standard deviation calculated from radical mean squarecd Means in the same row with different superscripts differ (P < .05)

Serum P increased 1.66 mg/100ml for the goats fed soil diet but decreased to .36mg/100ml for the controlgroup metabolic fecal P excretion was lower (P


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sulfate (Thompson et al; 1959) but was decreased at 2,000ppm Al as aluminum chloride (Valdivia et al;1982). Standish et al (1971) observed a depression in serum P in cattle when 1,000ppm Fe as ferroussulfate was fed. Dietary levels of Al for the diets containing soil in the present studies were about 7,500and 16,600pmm and levels of Fe were 1,200 and 7,200 pmm.

There was no difference in P absorption or retention with relatively small amounts of soil 450 or 900g,were added to diets for cows (Miller et al, 1977).

It is concluded from the present study that soil ingestion may adversely affect the utilization of P by goatmainly through its content of Fe and Al. This effect would be a function of the soluble levels of theseelements in soil. Results, however, indicated that effects are of much smaller magnitude than what wouldhe expected if soluble compounds of Fe and Al were provided.

Table 5: Effect of sand and soil on phosphorus absorption and retention in goats

Phosphors Sand Soil SDa

Intake, mg/d 1,010 1,020 190Fecal, mg/d 930d 700e 150Apparent absorption, % 7.9f 31.4g 11.22Metabolic fecal, mg/dc 470d 390e 80True absorption, %c 54.5f 6.56g 4.93Urinary, mg/d 41d+ 117c 70Net retention, mg/d 39f 203g 105

a Standard deviation calculated from the residual square, b Each value represent the mean of six goatsc Each value represents the mean of three goats, d:e Mean in the same vow with different superscriptsdiffer (P


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Standish, J. F., Ammerman, C. B., Palmer, A. Z and Sampson, C. F. (1971). Influence of dietary iron andphosphorus on performance, tissue mineral composition and mineral absorption insteers. J. Amin.Sa. 33:171-181.

Thompson, A; Hansard, S. L. and Bell, M. C. (1959). The influence of aluminum and zinc upon theabsorption and retention of calcium and phosphorus in Lambs. J. Arium. Sci. 18:187-197.

Valdivai, R. Ammerman, C. B; Henry, P. R: Feaster, J. P. and Wilcox, C. J. (1982). Affect of dietaryaluminum and phosphorus on performance, phosphorus utilization and tissue mineral compositionin sheep. J. Amin. Sci. 55:402-410.

Received for Publication: 16/01/2008Accepted for Publication: 13/04/2008

Corresponding Author:G. O. WorduDepartment of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Rivers State University of Scienceand Technology, Nkpolu, P.M.B. 5080, Port Harcourt, Rivers State.Email: [email protected]


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USE OF PIGEON PEA (Cajanus cajan L) AS SOIL AMENDMENT FOR THE GROWTH, LEAFCHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF WHITE YAM (Dioscorea rotundata L)

E.I. Moyin JesuAgronomy Department, Federal College of Agriculture, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria

ABSTRACTAn experiment was carried out to investigate the use of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) assoil amendment for the growth and yield of white yam ( Discorea rotundata L)between 1999 and 2002 at Akure in the rainforest zone of Nigeria.

There were four treatments namely; NPK 15 -15 -15 fertilizer applied at 300kg/ha,poultry manure at 6t/ha, pigeon pea planted at two seeds per hole at spacing of 1m x0.5m between rows of yam plots (soil amendment) and a control (no fertilizer). Thetreatments were arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCB) andreplicated five times. The initial soil status before planting was analyzed and eachplot size is 4m x 4m (16m2).

The growth parameters recorded for the yam were vine length (cm), leaf populationand stem girth (cm). At harvest, yam tuber weight (kg), tuber length (cm), tuber girth,root length and seed yield of pigeon pea plants were determined. Leaf and soil N, P,K, Ca, Mg, pH and Organic matter contents were also analyzed at the end of theexperiment.

The results showed that there were significant (p>0.05) increases in the vine length,leaf population, stem girth, tuber weight, tuber length, tuber girth, soil and leaf N,P, K, Ca, Mg, pH and O. M of white yam cultivated under the different fertilizertreatments compared to the control treatment.

Pigeon pea plants used as soil amendment increased yam tuber weight, tuber girth andtuber length by 29.4%, 14.5% and 24.02% respectively compared to NPK fertilizer.While poultry manure increased the same yield parameters by 84%, 68.60% and 89%compared to control treatment respectively.

Pigeon pea plants used as soil amendment also increased the soil pH, O.M, K, Ca andMg by 28%, 30%, 95% and 89% respectively compared to the NPK fertilizertreatment. In-addition pigeon plants produced 2600kg/ha of edible seeds (2.6t/ha)

which gave it a great comparative advantage over the use of poultry manure and NPKfertilizer as soil amendment.

KEYWORDS : Pigeon pea, soil amendment, growth, leaf chemical composition,yield and white yam.

INTRODUCTIONYam (Dioscorea spp) is a tuber crop belonging to the familyDioscoreaceae and it is a tropical crop withmany species originating in South east Asia and was brought to West Africa in the 16th century. Amongthe species of yam is white yam (Dioscorearotundata) which produces edible tubers.


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E.I. Moyin Jesu: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 6 - 17, 2008

Yam is an important crop to man and his environment because it serves as source of food to man and hislivestock, provides starch for industrial use and generates income to farmers (Coursey and Hay, 1980).

Despite the enormous benefits of yam to man, the optimum production of the crop is still far below thedemand of the populace because of continued decline in fertility of tropical soils. Efforts to increase thesoil nutrient status through the use of inorganic fertilizers (Urea and KCl) for optimum yield of yam havebeen carried out by Hughunchi (1988), Adetoro and Folorunso (1995). Although, good yields wereobtained by these researchers, however, some production problems associated with the use of theseinorganic fertilizers such as poor storage of harvested yam tubers, poor pounding quality of yam paste fromcooked tubers which have led to loss of faith in the use of inorganic fertilizers by farmers (Agboola,1982b).

Therefore, the use of plant and animal residues for the growth and yield of yam and other crops had beenadvocated because of their low cost and availability (Agboola, 1974), Kogbe (1976) and Moyin-Jesu(2002). Nevertheless, the high quantities of the plant and animal residues required to fertilize the soil andthe intensive labour requirement in their application did not encourage wider adoption by farmers.

The quest to find answers to the above mentioned research problems prompted the need to look inwards foralternative sources of biological fertilizers using the traditional leguminous shrub crops such as pigeon pea(Cajanus cajan) and long yam bean (Sphenostilis stenocarpa) to enrich the fertility of the soil grown toarable crops, compatible with the farming systems, provide source of food for the farmer(s) and thelivestock.

Having reviewed literature extensively, there is scarcity of research information on the use of pigeon pea(Cajanus cajan) as soil amendments to increase the soil fertility, growth and yield of yam. Hence, theobjectives of this study are as follows.

(i) To determine the effectiveness of pigeon pea with the conventional fertilizers (poultry manureand NPK fertilizers) as soil amendments on the growth and yield of yam.

(ii) To determine their influences on the leaf and chemical composition of yam plots afterharvesting.

(iii) To determine the comparative advantage of pigeon pea plants over the convectional fertilizersin term of cost/benefit ratio of farmers.

Theoretical framework for the researchFor a proper interpretation of the research findings, the following theoretical position is being taken.Todaro (1985) advanced three core values of development life sustenance, self-esteem and freedom fromsubservience. His argument is that a people without sufficient means of life sustenance (i.e food and

income) will not have self esteem and will consequently remain subservient.

This position is important for us in Nigeria where high status of interest groups morbid loyalty and kinshiphold sway in official institutions. Most formal agricultural establishments are created to serve powerfulinterest and most farm inputs (fertilizers, agrochemicals and seeds) are out of reach of the poor resourceand low-income status farmers due to the prevalent scarcity and high cost of purchase.

Therefore, adapting alternative methods of fertilizers such as utilizing organic waste and bio-fertilizerplants such as long yam beans, pigeon pea; cowpea and ground nut for sustainable agriculture must bepursued, vigorously. This is environmentally compatible with the farming system, locally sourced andcheap.


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MATERIALS AND METHODSField EperimentsThe experiments were carried out at Akure in the rainforest zone of Nigeria and the soil is sandy clay loam,skeletal, kaolinitic, isohyperthemic oxic paleustalf (Alfisol) or Ferric Luvisol (FAO).

The site had been continuously cropped to cereals and tuber crops for 10 years while the two experimentswere conducted between October 1999 and March 2001, and between October 2001 and January 2003 onthe same site.

The annual rainfall of the study area is 1300mm and it is well distributed throughout the year while theannual temperature ranged between 22oC and 28oC. These climatic conditions are considered adequate forgrowth and yield of white yam.

The land was cleared, ploughed, harrowed and ridged. The plots were land out at 4m x 4m (16m 2) and yamsets prepared from white yam variety ( Dioscorea rotundata L) were planted in early November eachcropping year in to the plots at a spacing of 1m x 1m. The plots were mulched immediately to preventscorching and decay of the planted yam sets by heat.

There were four treatments namely poultry manure, pigeon plants, NPK 15 -15-15 fertilizer and a control(no fertilizer, no manure), replicated five times and arranged in a randomized complete block design. Thepoultry manure was applied at 6 tha-1, NPK 15 15 15 fertilizer was applied at 300kg/ha, pigeon peabeans were planted at two seeds per hole at a spacing of 1m x 0.5m between the middle rows of yam plotsand the unfertilized or control treatment did not receive any fertilizer nor manure nor pigeon pea plants.

Manual weeding operation was first carried out in the third week after sprouting and it continued at everythree weeks interval until the maturity of the crop. Individual staking of the yam vines was done in thesecond week after sprouting in early March 2001 and 2002 and the mulching materials were removed in

each cropping year when the rain was steady.

The young yam vines were trailed on the stakes to prevent vines from creeping on the soil and properdrainage channels were made to prevent applied treatments from being washed away by rain water. Theyam vine length (cm), leaf population and stem girth (cm) were measured at weekly interval beginningfrom two weeks after application of treatments till 12 weeks after sprouting.

Harvesting of the yam tubers was done at 32 weeks after sprouting and the following yield parameterswere taken such as yam tuber girth, tuber length (cm) and tuber weight (kg). The harvesting of the pigeonyam bean pods started in November to January ending each cropping year and the final weight of theshelled grains were measured and recorded (kg) for each experiment. At end of the harvesting, all thepigeon pea plants were uprooted before the second experiment.

Soil Analysis Before the second experiment.The samples of the surface (0.15cm)soils used for the experiment were collected, air-dried, sieved with2mm sieve and utilized for routine soil analysis. The particle size distribution was determined by thehydrometer method (Bouycous, 1951). The soil pH (1.1 soil/water and 1.2 soil/0.01M CaCl2 solutionsusing a glass/calomel electrode system (Crockford and Nowell, 1956).

The organic matter (O.M) was determined by the Walkley and Black (1934) while the exchangeable bases(K, Ca, Mg and Na) were extracted with 1M NH40AC pH7 and the amount of K, Ca and Na weredetermined on the flame photometer using appropriate element filters. The Mg content in the extract wasread on atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Jackson, 1958). The exchangeable acidity (H+ and AL3+)was measured from 0.01M KCl extracts by titrating with 0.1M HCl (McLean, 1965) while percent N wasdetermined using the microkjedal method (Jackson, 1964).


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Available P extracted using Bray P1 extractantand the extracts measured with Murphy-riley blue method(Murphy and riley, 1962) on spectronic 20 at 882Um while the soil bulk density was determined using coremethod (Ojeniyi, 1985).Soil Analysis after the ExperimentAt the end of each experiment, soil samples were taken from 0.15cm depth from each treatment plot, air-dried, sieved and analyzed for soil pH, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and O.M, and soil bulk density and describedearlier.

Collection, Processing And Analysis of the Treatments usedThe poultry manure was collected from over 10,000 poultry birds of Rhode Island breed in the livestockunit of Federal College of Agriculture, Akure. The pigeon pea bean seeds were obtained from over five(5)hectares farm in the institution while NPK 15 15 15 fertilizers were purchased from Ondo StateAgricultural inputs and Supplies Company and it is of high grade. (240 240 240)

The poultry manure was stacked to allow for proper mineralization processes while the pigeon pea beansseeds were soaked in an 100 ml 0.01M H2S04 acid solution for 30 minutes to weaken the hard seed coat forquick germination.

The determination of the nutrients in the poultry manure was done using wet digestion based on 25 5 5ml of HNO3 - H2SO4 HCIO4 acids. The filtrates were collected for the amount of % P, K, Ca and Mg.The % P was evaluated using vanadomolybdate colorimetry and read on spectronic 20 while the % K, andCa were read on flame photometer and Mg was determined on atomic absorption spectrophotometery. The% N was determined by microkjedahl method (Jackson, 1964) while the nutrients composition of NPK 15 -15 15 fertilizer was obtained from the manufacturers label.

Leaf Analysis of the Yam/PlantAt 19 weeks after sprouting, leaf samples were taken from the top, middle and lower parts of the yam crop

in each treatment using secateurs, properly cleaned, milled into smaller pieces and dry ashed in a mufflefurnace for 6 hours 4500C. The ash was made into solution, filtered and the filterate was analyzed forN,P,K, Ca and Mg.

The % N was determined using micro-kjedahl method (Jackson, 1964) while the P content was determinedusing vanado-molydate colorimetry and read on spectronic 20 at 442Um. Ca contents were determined onflame photometer using appropriate filters while the Mg content was read on atomic absorption spectro-photometer.

The data obtained from the means of the two experiments for the growth and, yield parameters, leaf andsoil chemical composition were analysed using ANOVA F-test and the overall treatment mean effects werecompared using Duncan Multiple Range Test at 5% level.

RESULTInitial Soil Analysis Before Planting YamTable 1 presents the soil physical and chemical properties before planting of yam. The soil is acidic (pH5.60) and very low in organic matter. The low organic matter content of the soil also reflected in the lowvalues of soil N,P,K,Ca,Mg and Na which were below 10mg/kg P, 0.20 mmo/kg K, Ca, Mg and Na(Agboola and Corey, 1973) and 0.15% N (Sobulo and Osiname, 1981) considered as soil critical levels foroptimum crop production in south western Nigeria. The soil density is 1.60g/cm3

Chemical Composition of the Organic MaterialTable 2 presents the chemical analysis of the poultry manure and NPK fertilizer used for the cultivation ofyam. The poultry manure had values of % N,P,K,Ca,Mg,Fe,Cu,Mn,Zn and Na while the NPK fertilizer hadhigh values of N,Pand K only and lack Ca,Mg,Na,Fe,Cu, Zn,Mn and Na. Pigeon pea plant fixed 224kg/ha,4.7%P, 3.2%K, ).90%Ca, 1.11%Mg and 0.20%Na (Boonche and Anecksamphant, 1993).


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The growth And Yield Parameters Of Yam Under Different TreatmentsTable 3 presents the values of leaf area, vine length, leaf population and stem girth, tuber weight, tuberlength and tuber girth of while yam under the different fertilizer treatments. There were significantincreases (P


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views of Agboola (1982a) who had reported poor growth and yield responses in soils not fertilized. Thelow soil nutrients status also reflected in the least values of yam leaf N,P,K,Ca and Mg; soil pH,N,P,K,Ca,Mg and O.M. The low organic matter status (Agboola and Corey, 1973). The low organicmatter status would have also contributed to the initial high bulk density of 1.58g/cm3 which was furtherincreased to 1.60 and 1.63g/cm3 under the control and NPK fertilizer treatments respectively as a result ofcontinuous cultivation.

The significant increases in the growth and yield of white yam due to application of poultry manure, use ofpigeon pea plants and NPK fertilizer could be adduced to increased availability of nutrients in the soils.The application of poultry manure and use of pigeon plants increased soil organic matter, N,P,K, Ca andMg status and reduced soil acidity. Soil acidity (low pH) is known to affect the yields of crops adverselythrough inhabitation of nitrogen fixation (Aduayi, 1980).

The highest nutrient contents (Soil organic matter,N,P,K, Ca and Mg) supplied by the pigeon pea plant intothe soil were responsible for shoot, and yield development. K had been reported to encouragephotosynthesis and tuber formation in yam Adu-Daaph et al, 1994. This could explain why the pigeon peaplant produced the best values of yam tuber weight (kg/ha), tuber length and tuber girth compared to NPK,poultry manure and control treatments. Pigeon pea plant is a legume which fixes N into soil and increasedthe level of SOM. For- instance, Boonchee and Anecksamphant 1993) reported that pigeon pea plant fixedinto soil 224kg/ha symbiotic N, 4.7%, 3.2%K, 0.90%Ca. The leaf liter and canopy of the pigeon pea plantcould be responsible for the responsible for the reason why it reduced most the soil bulk density.

The reduction in the soil bulk density by the use of pigeon pea plant should have positively influencedother soil physical properties such as aeration, water infiltration and uptake. Thus, the improvement of soilphysical condition is consistent with the work of Woomer and Muchena (1993) which reported thatcontinuous productivity of tropical soils is associated with maintenance and improvement of soil physicalcharacteristics.

Whiteman et al, (1985) reported that pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) has been considered a potential cropbecause of its adaptability to semi-arid environments, tolerance to low soil fertility and capacity to recyclenutrients. The use of pigeon pea plant reduces the rate of erosion, weed competition and supplies nutrientsof the soil and this observation agreed with the work of Agboola (1986) which reported that the use of fastgrowing perennial leguminous crops such as pigeon pea intercropped with other crops reduced the impactof heavy rainfall on soils and assisted in soil fertility improvement. The increase in vegetative growth ofwhite yam such as vine length, stem girth and leaf population under pigeon pea plants compared to thatproduced by poultry manure and NPK fertilizer could be attributed to the ability of the roots of pigeon peaplants to fix nitrogen into the soil. This observation agreed with the work of Boonche and Anecksamphant(1993) who reported that roots of nitrogen fixing crops such as legumes have nodules, where nitrogenfixation takes place. They stated further that pigeon plant fixed 224kg/H/ha/yr into soil, thus, enhancing itsuse for soil fertility maintenance.

The reduction in the SOM of plots fertilized with NPK fertilizer adversely affected the Ca and Mg contentsof the soils and this could be due to the high P and K in such soils which negatively influence the Ca andMg availability because of high K/Ca, P/Mg and K/Mg ratio. The implication is that high soil K wouldresult into nutrient in balance as reported by Bear, (1950).

The comparative advantage of pigeon pea plant as soil amendment compared to the poultry manure andNPK fertilizer by providing additional food and income for farmers could be the major ways of improvingfarmers standard of living of food security. Mapfumo et al, (1998) reported that pigeon pea grain containsan average of 22% crude protein and has a high nutritional value for both humans and livestock. Ali(1996)also reported that in the semi-arid tropics of Asia pigeon pea and soya bean-based systems are rapidlyreplacing other systems because of higher monetary returns.


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Agboola (1982c) further reported that the major reasons why farmers could not adopt the use of greenmanure such as calapogonium and mucuna for soil fertility maintenance was that it was labour intensiveand farmers did not usually get food or money in return for their cultivation. He suggested that the use offast growing shrub legumes which would fertilize the soil, provides food and income for the farmers wouldbe advantageous. Therefore, the use of live pigeon pea plants as soil amendment for the production of yamhas justified the above assertion by improving the soil and leaf N,P,K,Ca and Mg, soil pH and SOM,provides additional income and food for the farmers.

For-instance, the 2.6t/ha of pigeon pea seed yield under pigeon pea plants treatment yielded $5016.00compared to $3433.00 and $3362.00 estimated on yam yields under poultry manure and NPK fertilizertreatment Table 6).

However, the cultivation of traditional legumes such as pigeon pea, lima beans and long-yam beans byfarmers had gone down drastically such that these crops were nearly going into extinction. There is need toevolve a comprehensive extension package on production of legumes such as pigeon pea as a directsolution in soil fertility management and as a component of food security. Ahmed et al (1996) alsoreported that farmers have now identified the need and potential of pigeon pea as an intercrop with maize,yam and sorghum.

The cultivation and use of traditional legumes such as pigeon pea and lima bens as soil amendments forfood crops would aid bringing them back into commercial production by farmers instead of theconvectional legumes produced from research centers which encouraged heavy use of agrochemicalsbecause they were easily suspectible to pests and diseases attack. The use of pigeon pea plant as anamendment for yam crop as reflected in the highest values of tuber weight, tuber length and girth showedthat it was compatible with food crops as an intercrop. This observation agreed with the work of Adeyemi(1999) which reported yield advantages in cocoyam/maize/cassava intercrop.

CONCLUSIONThe researcher work has identified that the use of fast growing legume such as pigeon pea as soilamendment increased the yam vine length, stem girth, leaf population, tuber weight, tuber length and girth;leaf and soil N,P,K, Ca and Mg: soil pH, SOM and decreased soil bulk density. Therefore, the use ofpigeon plant as biological fertilizer source for yam production could substitute for 300kg/ha NPK 15 15 15 fertilizer and 6t/ha poultry manure.

This recommendation agrees with fact that pigeon pea plant is environmentally compatible with thefarming system in the tropics, provides additional source of food and income for poor resources farmers.In-addition, the high cost of purchase, scarcity of inorganic fertilizers and the labour intensive nature ofgathering high quantities of manure for crop production did not help farmers in achieving sustainable foodproduction.

The versatility of pigeon pea (Protein source, fodder and fuel wood) can potentially benefit a wide range offarmers but the successful adoption of pigeon pea and other legume based technologies may largely dependon dissemination of information through extension approaches to stakeholders on legume technology.

REFERENCESAdeyemi A.A. 1991. Yielded advantages in maize/cocoa/yam/cassava intercrop. Trop.Sci. (2). 27 30.

Adetoro A.A. and O.O. Folorunso, 1995: Response of yam to different levels of potassium fertilizers andmethods of fertilizer application Proc. 3rd All Africa Soil. Sci. Conf. held at Univ. of Ibadan, Nig. 26 &90 95.

Adu-Daap., H.K, J, Cobbina and E.O. Asare, 1994. Effect of cocoa pod ash on the growth of maize. J.Agric. Sci. Cambridge 132:31-33.


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Aduayi, E. A. 1980: Effect of Ammonium Sulphate Fertilization on soil Chemical Composition, FruitYield and Nutrient content of Okra. Ife J. Agric. Vol. 2, (1): 16-33. March, 1980.

Agboola, A. A. and R. B. Corey, 1973: Soil Testing, N,P,K for maize in the soils derived frommetamorphic and igneous rocks of Western State of Nigeria. J. West Afri. Sci. Ass. 17(2): 93-100.

Agboola, A. A.; 1982a. Soil Testing, Soil Fertility and Fertilizer use in Nigeria. Proc. 1st NationalSeminar in Agric Land Res: 6-8, Kaduna, Nigeria.

Agboola A.A. 1982b. Prospects and problems of using soil testing for adoption of fertilizer use inEkiti/Akoko Agric. Dev.project Area. Soil testing field project, Agronomy Department, University ofIbadan, Nigeria.

Agboola, A.A. 1982c. Organic Manuring and Green Manuring in Tropical Agricultural System. Proc.12th Int. Congr. Soil Sci. 198-212,Feb. 8-16, 1982, New Delhi, India.

Agboola, A.A. (1986): Planning for Crop production without planning for Soil Fertility Evaluation andManagement. Proc. 14th Annual. Conf Soil Sci. Soc. Nig: 20 24, Makurdi, Nigeria.

Ahmed, A.M, Rohrbach, D.D., Gono, L. T, Mazhangara, E. P, Mugwira, L. Masendeke, D.D. and Ali baba,S. 1976. Soil Fertility Management in the communal areas of Zinbabwe: Current practices, constraintsand opportunity for changes. Results of a diagnostic survey. Southern and Eastern Africa Regional papernumber 6. ICRISAT-Southern and eastern African. 27 pp.

Ali, M. 1996. Pigeon based cropping systems in the semi-arid tropics. In: Dynamics of Roots andNitrogen in Cropping Systems of the Semi-Arid tropics. Ito, O, Johansen, C, Adu-Gyamfi, J.J. Katayama,K. Kumar Rao, J.V.D.K and Rego, T.J (Eds), pp 41-58. Japan International Centre for Agricultural

Sciences, Ibaraki 305, Japan.

Bear, F.E. 1950. Cation-anion Relationship n Plants and Their Bearing on Crop Quality. Agron. J. 42:176-178.

Boonchee, S: and C. Anecksamphant, 1993. Sustaining Soil Organic Matter for Upland Rice Productionin Northern Thailand. Proc. Int Symposium on Soil Organic Matter Dynamics and Substainability ofTropical Agric. Jointly organized by the laboratory of Soil fertility and soil Biology, KatholiekeUniversitert Leuven (K.U. Leuven) and 1.1.1..A: 155 161, Leuven, Belgium.

Bouycous, H. 1951. Mechanical Analysis of Soil Using Hydrometer Method. Analytica. Chem-Acta22:32 34.

Crockford, L. and R. Nowell, 1956. Laboratory manual of Physical Chemistry. John Wiley and SonsN.Y. Experiments 31 and 32: 58 59.

Coursey, D.G, and P.H; Hay. 1980: Root and Tuber Crops and their Potentials in Food production in thetropics. WID crops (22): 261-265.

Folorunso, O.O. 1999: Use of Plant Residues for Improving Soil Fertility and Yield of Okra(Abelmoschus esculentum Mench) and Amaranthus Viridus L). Ph.D Thesis. Fed. Univ. Tech. Akure 1999.

Hughunci, V.O: 1988: The Effect of Potassium in Growth of Root Crops. Jaro (J. 24: 30 -32.)

Ikombo, J. 1984: Effect of farm yard manure and Fertilizers in Maize in Semi-arids of Eastern Kenya.Agric & Forestry J. 44:268 -274.


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Jackson, M. L. (1958): Soil Chemical Analysis. Englewood Cliff N.J. 1958: 57 67.

Jackson, M.L. (1964): Soil Chemical Analysis: Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, N.J: 86 92.

Kogbe, J.A.S, 1976. Studies on the manorial Requirements of Nigerian Local Leafy Vegetables.Nigeria. Agric. J. (136 -144).

McLean, E.O. (1965): Aluminum p 927 932 M.C.A Black (eds): Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2,Amer. Soc. Agron. Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A.

Mapfumo, Ps Campbell, Mpepereki, S. and Mafongoya, P. 2001: Legumes in Soil Fertility Management:The case of pigeon pea in small holder farming systems of Zimbabwe. African Crop Science Journal, (9(4):629 644)

Moyin-Jesu E. I. 2002: Raising Oil Palm Seedlings in the Urban Cities Using Sole and AmendedWoodash and Sawdust Materials. Pertanika J. Trop. Agric. Sci. 25: March 2002 in press.

Ojeniyi, S.O.; 1995. That Our Soil May Not Die 10th Inauguaral Lecture of Fed. Univ. of Tech, Akure,Nigeria.

Sobulo, R.A. and O.A. Osiname, 1981: Soils and Fertilizer Use in Western Nigeria, Res. Bull. 11:20-26,I.A.R.&T, Univ. Ife, Ile-Ife, 198

Toosman, B. 1990. Groundnut Microbiology Research at Khon Kaen University. In patanothai, A (ed)Groundnut Improvement Project Khon Kaen University. Report of work for 1986 1988. Khonkaen,Thailand: Faculty if Agriculture, Khonkaen University.

Todaro, M.P. 1985: Economic Development in the Third World, 3 rd Edition, Longman New York andLondon: 648 649.

Walkley, A, and Black I. A. 1934: An Examination of Degtajaroff method for Determining Soil OrganicAcid Filtration Method. Soil Sci. 37:29-38.

Woomer P.L. and F.N., Mucheris 1993. Overcoming Soil Constraints in Crop Production in tropicalAfrica. Sustaining Soil Productivity in Intensive Africa Agriculture. CTA Seminar Proceedings Accra(Ghana): 45, Nov. 10 17, 1993.

Whiteman, P.C. Byth, D.E. and Wallis F.S. 1985. Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan (L). In:Grain LegumeCrops. Summerfield, J.R. and Roberts, E.H. (Eds), pp 558 598. Collins, London.



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Table 1: Soil Chemical Analysis Before the experiment

pH Organic N P Exchangeable bases _______________ matter H2O CaCl2 % % mg/KG soil K Ca Mg Na

-------------- Mmol/kg soil -----

5.60 5.20 0.43 0.08 6.62 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.

Table 2: Chemical Composition of the Organic Fertilizer Used for the Experiment

Organic N P K Ca _______________________________ % _____________________________

Poultry Manure 3.90 0.75 0.48 0.54 * Pigeon pea plant 224 kg/ha 4.7 3.2 0.90

(SymbioticN fixed)

* Source: Bonchee and Anecksamphant (1993)


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Table 3: The Growth and Yield Parameters of Yam Crop Under Different Fertilizer Treatm

Treatments Vine Stem Leaf Tuber Tuber Length girth Population Weight Length (cm) (cm) + kg/ha (cm)

Control 42.18a 0.38a 12.38a 536.10a 9.78a NPK 15-15-15Fertilizer 218.84c 3.16c 42.46c 3362.50b 26.14b Poultry manure 191.74b 2.16b 30.26b 3433.10c 31.04c Pigeon pea Plant 218.30c 3.49c 37.38c 4866.20 36.26d LSD (0.05) 5.50 0.70 2.50 15.00 3.70

Treatment means within each column followed by the same letters are not significantly different frMultiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level.

Table 4: Leaf Chemical Composition of Yam Crop Under Different Fertilizer Treatment

Treatments N P K Ca __________________________________% _______________________

Control(no fertilizer) 1.03a 0.5a 0.4a 0.10aNPK 15-15-15 2.10b 1.75b 1.73d 0.15aPoultry Manure 2.30c 1.96cd 1.10b 0.25b

Pigeon pea plant 1.99b 1.88c 1.35c 0.28cLSD (0.05) 0.10 0.12 0.20 0.10

Treatment means within each column followed by the same letters are not significantly different frMultiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level


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Table 5: The Soil Chemical Composition of Yam Plot Under the Different Fertilizer Treatments

Treatments Bulk pH O.M N P K Density % mg/kg g/cm3

Control 1.60c 5.10a 0.24a 0.04 3.80a 0.06NPK fertilizer 1.63cd 5.13a 0.36b 1.42c 29.30d 0.94Poultry manure 1.36b 6.70b 2.40c 1.34b 24.20b 1.33Pigeon pea plants 1.28a 7.10c 2.70d 1.36b 26.30c 1.35LSD (0.05) 0.10 0.30 0.20 0.06 1.70 0.30

Treatment means followed by the same letters, within each column are not significantly different fr

Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 9% level.

Table 6: Comparative Advantage of pigeon pea Bio-Fertilizer Over the Convectional Organic andof Utility Parameters.

Treatments Yield t/ha Cost- benefit of pigeon pea

Pigeon pea bio fertilizer 2.60 $5016 ** (Pigeon pPoultry manure - $3433 * (yam yieldNPK 15-15-15 - $3362 * (yam yieldControl -

* 1kg of pigeon pea seeds = N50($0.5)2.6t/ha (2600kg) = $150.1

*Yam price $4866.20/ha)1 kg of yam tuber = $1.00


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MILLET AS A REPLACEMENT FOR CORN IN GROWING/FINISHING SWINE DIETS: EFFECTSON PERFORMANCE AND NUTRIENT OUTPUT.

Uchewa, E. N and Otuma, M. ODept. of Animal Production and Fisheries Mgt. Ebonyi State University, P. M. B. 053, Abakalilki

ABSTRACTThis experiment was conducted with 12 pigs to investigate the effect of diet onperformance and nutrient outputs, using millet as replacement for corn in swine diet.Dietary treatments were corn + soybean meal (A), millet + soybean meal (B) andmillet + soybean meal + synthetic amino acid (C). Pigs were housed in metabolismstalks designed to allow for total faecal and urine output and were fed twice daily to

approximately 90% ad libitum intake. Data collected were analyzed using the generallinear model procedure of SAS, with Q = 0.20 while means were separated usingpreplanned orthogonal comparison (A vs B and vs C). Results showed that there wasno significant difference (P> 0.20) in pig performance, but there was a reduction inphosphorus excretion by nearly 29%.

KEYWORD: Pig Millet, Nutrient output, replacement and performance.

INTRODUCTIONIt is difficult to read any publication related to animal agriculture or the environment and not see somereference to swine waste. Swine lagoons, spray fields, odor and even feeding/housing systems have becomea major topic of concern. Addressing the issues of swine manure management is complicated by the

national and international attention. Permanent solutions take time and resources, two items often lacking.

Dietary adjustments to reduce or modify nutrient excretion have the potential to address the issuessurrounding swine manure management with minimal time and resources. Cromwell (1996) reportedsignificant reductions in urinary and total nitrogen excretion when synthetic amino aids were used toreplace a portion of the soybean meal in growing swine diets. Owsley and Hydon (1989) showed thepotential for improving nutrient balance by using wheat or millet with synthetic amino acids in swine diets.Both grains contain more total and available phosphorus than does corn (NRC, 1998; (Hale et al, 1985).Interest in millet as a swine feed ingredient has increased in the last 5 years millet contains more Lysineand phosphorus than wheat, but the availability of the grain itself limits its use. Meyer et al. (1996) reportedno difference in performance of pigs fed wheat or millet. If feeding millet will address the issues ofnitrogen and or phosphorus excretion while maintaining acceptable pig performance, the opportunities forits production should increase.

This study is therefore made to investigate the effects of dietary manipulations on nutrient output andfertilizer value of manure in growing swine. The purpose of the experiments in this report was to determinethe effect of replacing corn with millet on nutrient excretion and pig performance

MATERIALS AND METHODSThis research was conducted in the piggery unit of the department of animal Science, Ebonyi StateUniversity. Twelve pigs weighing 40kg were used in a replicated 3x3 Latin Square design to determine theeffects of diet on nutrient output. Pigs were housed in stainless steel metabolism stalls designed to allow fortotal faecal and urine output. Pigs were fed twice daily to approximately 90% of ad libitum intake. Facesand urine were collected for three periods. A 3 day acclimation period was followed by 5 days of total fecesand urine collection. Samples were frozen as collected and saved for analysis.


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Dietary treatments were corn + soybean meal (A), millet + soybean meal (B) and millet + soybean meal +synthetic amino acid (C). Resources seeds provided the millet used throughout the experiment.Experimental diets (table 1) were formulated to contain comparable levels of lysine and availablephosphorus, and to meet the daily requirement of each based on 90% of ad libitum intake. All other nutrientlevels either met or exceed NRC recommendations (NRC, 1998).

Data from the experiment were analyzed using the General Linear Model procedure of SAS, with 0-20.Means were separated using preplanned orthogonal comparisons (A vs B and B vs C)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.Table 2 contains the nitrogen excretion data. Faecal nitrogen excretion was lower and nitrogen higher forpigs fed the corn-based diet. However, replacing millet with corn and adding synthetic amino acids in thediet decreased urinary nitrogen excretion and increased nitrogen retention.

Table 1. Nutrient composition of diets.Nutrient2 Dietary treatment1

A B C

Crude protein 16.27 17.77 13.53

Lysine 0.95 0.95 0.95

Calcium 0.60 0.60 0.60

Total phosphorus 0.50 0.45 0.41

Available phosphorus 0.23 0.23 0.231A: Corn + soybean meal; B: millet + soybean; meal; C: millet + soybean meal + synthetic amino acids.

2Valus calculated from chemical analysis of ingredients (available p calculated using availability vales fromNRC (1998).

Table 2. Effects of dietary treatment on nitrogen excretion.

ResponseDietarytreatment1A

B C Pr>FContrastsA vs B B vs C

Faecal excretion, g/d 15.94 18.82 20.51 0.15 *

Urinary excretion, g/d 13.28 16.45 10.35 0.08 * *

Total excretion, g/d 29.22 35.26 30.86 0.12 * *

Retention 41.57 28.53 35.86 0.05 * *1A: Corn + soybean meal; B: millet + soybean; meal; C: millet + soybean meal + synthetic amino acids.Table 3 contains the phosphorus excretion data replacing millet with corn and adding synthetic amino acidsin a soybean-based feed had no effect on phosphorus excretion (P > 0.02). Faecal and total phosphorusexcretion was greater for the corn-based diet than the millet-based diet. Further analysis of the data usingphosphorus intake as a coverable produced the same results. This indicating that the estimates used forphosphorus availability were probably low.

Table 3. Effects dietary treatment on phosphorus excretion.

ResponseDietary treatment1A B C Pr>F

ContrastsA vs B B vs C

Faecal excretion,g/d

1.05 0.74 0.77 0.08 *

Urinary excretion,g/d

0.03 0.03 0.02

Total excretion, g/d 1.08 0.77 0.97 0.07 *

1A: Corn + soybean meal; B: millet + soybean; meal; C: millet + soybean meal + synthetic amino acids.


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There was no difference in growth rate (818 vs 841 g/d) or conversion (gain/feed) 288 vs 309 g/kg) forpigs fed diets A or B, respectively (P> 0.02) for any period or for the 98 day trial.

Upon completion of all collections, frozen samples were thawed, homogenized and analyzed for nitrogen,phosphorus, zinc and copper. A micro-Kjeldah! procedure was used to determine nitrogen levels (AOAC,1990). Mineral levels were analyzed using ICAP (AAES, 1986).

CONCLUSIONSBase on the data from this experiment, corn with millet in grow/finish diets had no effect on pigperformance, but did reduce phosphorus excretion by nearly 29%. Additional work is needed to see if thiseffect is due to higher phytase levels in millet, or if other factors may be affecting availability. The effectsof synthetic amino acid supplement of millet, while not reported here, have been shown by others tosupport performance comparable to millet-soybean meal (Meyer et al, 1996).

REFERENCEAAES, 1986. Procedures used for soil and plant analyses by the auburn university soil testing laboratory.January 1986. Department of Agronomy and Soils Department Series No. 106, Alabama.

AOAC, 1990, Protein (Crude) determination in animal feed: Copper Catalyst kjeldahl method. (1984.13)official methods of analysis. 1990. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 15th edition.

Cromwell, G. L. 1996, synthetic amino acid my improve performance, reduce nitrogen excretion.Feedstuffs v. 68: 12-13,17-19,31.

Hale, O. M., D.D. Morey and R.O. Meyer, 1985. Nutritive value of Beagle 82 millet for swine. Journal ofAnimal Science 60:503.Meyer, R.O., J.H. Brendemuhl, and R.D. Barnett, 1996. Crystalline lysine and threonine supplement of soft

winter wheat or millet, low-protein diets for growing-finishing swine. Journal of Animal Science 74:577.

NRC, 1998, Nutrient requirements of swine 10th revised edition. National Research Council. NationalAcademy Press.

Owsley, W. F. and K.D. Hydon. 1989. Amino acid supplementation of small grains in swine diets. Proc. Ofthe Georgia Nutrition Conference:


Corresponding Author:Uchewa, E. N

Dept. of Animal Production and Fisheries Mgt. Ebonyi State University, P. M. B. 053, Abakalilki


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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEMAND FOR CERTIFIED RICE SEEDS IN EKITI AND ONDOSTATES, NIGERIA

Osundare F.O1 and Aderinola E.A21Department of Agricultural Extension and Management, Federal College of Agriculture Akure,

2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology Akure,

ABSTRACTThe study identified and estimated factors influencing the demand for certified riceseeds in Ekiti and Ondo States. Structured questionnaire supplemented with oralinterview were used to elicit information on 196 farmers randomly selected in the

study area. Multiple regression and descriptive statistics were used for data analysis.Results showed that the included regressors: own price of certified seeds; distancetravelled; size of the rice plot (ha); yield/ha and price/kg of certified maize seeds assubstitute crop explained about 51% of the variations in the quantity of certified seeddemanded at 50% level of significance.

KEY WORDS: Factors, Demand, Certified Rice Seeds.

INTRODUCTIONIn Nigeria, rice has become an important household food item that commands higher value than any othergrain crop in the Country. One tonne of rice worths about three times the value of other crops (Osundare2008). For instance, a better life bowl of rice sells for between N350 - N450 depending on the qualityand variety while the same bowl of shelled maize sells for N100 - N120 in Ondo State, and even cheaper inOyo State. Until recently, rice was widely regarded as a superior food commodity which was consumedmainly by city dwellers, the middle and high income groups in Nigeria.

The importance of rice in Nigerias food economy has risen dramatically in the last two decades as a resultof acute shortage in the supply of traditional food commodities. Before then, rice consumption was limitedto festive occasions like easter, christmas and new year celebrations. However, increased nationalpopulation; increased percent national income; rapid urbanization; changes in tastes and preferences,coupled with the availability of cheap, well processed and easy-to-prepare imported rice has made riceconsumption a household menu eaten at least once in every three meals in Nigeria. The importation ofpar-boiled rice has also adversely affected domestic rice industry resulting in decrease in local productionand increase in the prices of available rice commodity beyond the reach of low income earners.

In Nigeria, rice is among the least important cereal crops in terms of hectarage under cultivation and foodcrop output. Of the 75.7million hectares of crop lands in Nigeria, 1 million hectares were devoted to rice

cultivation with the production of over 2 million tonnes (Aderinola, 1992). This production however fellshort of total rice consumption of over 2.4million. In order not to deplete the nations foreign exchangeearnings through continuous rice importation efforts need to be made by rice farmers to improve totalfactor productivity which can raise rice output (Oladeebo, 2006). To achieve this in a developing countrylike Nigeria with a large population of small scale farmers, two choices are available: adoption of technicalimprovements which can raise crop yields within existing small farm structures and the encouragement oflarge mechanized farms (Chianu, 2000). In view of the expensive nature of machines, unavailability ofmachines, their spare parts, servicing and maintenance experts and smallness of rice farms, the use ofimproved seeds coupled with improvement in cultural practices is a surer way to sustainable selfsufficiency in rice production. This is because the biological innovations particularly certified seeds areland saving and output increasing.


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Seed certification is the process by which a third party guarantees the quality of the seed by issuance of acertificate of fitness, certifying that all attributes of the parent seed are maintained through field andlaboratory tests (Usman 1994). The seed must be distinct, uniform and stable. It is a cheap means oftransferring technology, basic means of increasing crop yield and also fundamental to raising the efficiencyof other agricultural inputs. This study therefore examined and estimated the factors influencing thedemand for certified rice seeds among rice farmers in Ekiti and Ondo States.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGYData were collected from rice growers buying certified rice seeds through the use of structuredquestionnaire administered on 196 rice farmers randomly selected in Ekiti and Ondo States. Three localgovernments were randomly selected from the two agricultural zones in each state; three towns/villageswere selected from each L.G.A. Ten percent of farmers growing certified rice seeds were randomlyselected from the list made available by the staff of Agricultural Input Supply Company (AISC) andAgricultural Development Project (ADP) in each state. Descriptive statistics and multiple regressionanalysis involving Ordinary Least Square (OLS) were used for data analysis.

Model Specification and Analytical TechniqueThe model hypothesized to identify the factors influencing the demand for certified seeds of rice in Ondoand Ekiti States is presented by equation (1):

QRij = o + 1PRij + 2PMij + 3DRij + 4FRij + 5YRij + EMij..(1)

Where:QRij = Quantity of Certified rice seeds purchased by the ith grower in the jth year (kg);PRij = Price/kg of rice seeds bought by the jth growerDRij = Distance traveled by the jth grower to buy certified rice seeds;FRj = Size of the rice plot of the jth grower;

YRj = Quantity of rice produced by the jth growerPMj = Price/Kg of maize seed bought by the jth grower (kg)EMj = Error term associated with collecting information from the jth rice grower.

The linear and double logarithmic functional forms of equation (1) were tried using the OLS technique.The evaluative criteria developed by Kmenta (1971) were used in choosing the demand equations forcertified rice seeds in the study area.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe estimated demand model for certified rice seeds hypothesized in equation (1) is presented in equation(2):

Log QRij = 0.232 - 0.500 log PRij + 2.90* log PMij

(0.833) (0.604) (0.079)+ 0.250* log FRj + 0.079* log DRj + 0.17 log YRj--------(2)

(0.044) (0.039) (0.041)R2 = 0.508; F = 41.325; DW = 1.74Figures in brackets are standard errors of estimated coefficients.

The certified rice seeds demand model (equation (2) shows that the included regressors explained about51% variations in the quantity of certified rice seeds demanded. The F test showed that the two modelswere significant at 5.0% while the Durbin Watson test indicated the absence of auto-correlation in theresiduals.

The t-test indicated that all the estimated coefficients of the regressors except log YRj were significant at5.0%. The positive sign on the coefficients of all the included explanatory variables with the exception of


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Log PRj suggested that an increase in each of these variables would cause the quantity demanded ofcertified rice seeds to increase ceteris paribus. This suggestion is in conformity with economic theory.The negative sign carried by the coefficient of price/kg of certified rice seeds (log PRj) conformed with thepostulate of economic theory. It implied that the higher the own-price of certified rice seeds, the lower thequantity demanded, all other things remaining unchanged. However, the estimated coefficient of Log PRijwas not significantly different from zero at 5.0% level. The positive sign on the coefficient of Log YRijsuggested that the larger the expected output, the greater the quantity of certified rice seeds purchased.

Similarly, the positive sign on Log FRij suggested that, the larger the farm size, the greater the quantity ofcertified rice seeds demanded while the positive sign on log DRj implied that the farther the distancetraveled to purchase certified rice seeds, the greater the quantity purchased. This is contrary to expectation.Tenable reason is that it is either the rice farmers pooled their resources together for collective purchase orbought in large quantities and stored for future use. However, the Farm Size (ha), price of maize anddistance traveled contributed significantly to the quantity of certified rice seeds demanded. Equation (2)also shows that the price of certified maize seeds as substitutes to rice had a significant influence on thequantity of certified seeds demanded. The larger the price of maize seeds the larger the quantity of certifiedrice seeds demanded. With respect to elasticity, all the explanatory variables were inelastic with respect toLog PRj.

It was found out that the coefficient of Log PMij in equation (1) was elastic with respect to Log QRij. Thisimplied that a 1.0% increase in the price per tonne of maize seeds would cause quantity demanded of riceseeds to increase by 2.9% ceteris paribus.

CONCLUSIONFindings from this study indicated that rice farmers in the study area demanded for certified seeds of rice.This is a pointer to a virile rice industry in the nearest future. However, the fact that the own price ofcertified rice seeds (Log PRij) was elastic is worrisome in view of the present economic liberalization and

deregulation policy characterized by removal of subsidy on agricultural inputs. A rise in the price/kg ofcertified rice seeds resulting from increase in the cost of production of the seeds may have a serious effecton the demand for certified rice seeds.

REFERENCESAderinola, E. A. (1992): Economics of Upland Rice in Ondo State. Applied Tropical Agriculture JournalVol. 152 158.

Chianu, N. (2000): A Comparative Economic Analysis of Labour Use in Fallow Management System inSout-West, Nigeria. A Ph.D Thesis In the Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan,Ibadan.

Kmenta, J. (1971): Elements of Econometrics; The Macmillan Press Ltd, London, 2nd edition. pp. 105.

Oladeebo, J. O. (2006): Economic Efficiency of Rain Fed Upland Rice Production In Osun and Oyo Statesof Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, FederalUniversity of Technology, Akure.

Osundare, F.O (2008): Comparative Efficiency of Maize Production Technologies in SouthwesternNigeria. Unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Agricultural Economics. FederalUniversity of Technology, Akure. Pp 162

Usman, I. A. (1994): Welcome Address in Evolving the Nigerian Seed Development Plan, Published bythe Federal Department of Agriculture, pp. 1 3.


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Corresponding Author:Osundare F.ODepartment of Agricultural Extension and Management, Federal College of Agriculture Akure


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ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES IN FUNDING PROCESSINGMILLS IN CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA

Adinya, I.B.1, Odey S.O.2, Oniah M.O.1, Umeh G.N.3, Agiopu, B.F.4 and Ogbonna ,K.I.51Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, 2Department of Agronomy, 4Department of AnimalScience Cross River State University of Technology (Crutech) Obubra Campus, Cross River State, Nigeria,

3Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Management, Ebonyi State University Abakaliki,5Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria

ABSTRACTA study was undertaken to determine the role of agricultural co-operative societies asinstitutional source of finance to processing mills in Cross River State, Nigeria. Datawere obtained from a random sample of 150 respondents in the study area by meansof structured questionnaire. The first stage involved random selection of fifteen localgovernment areas from eighteen local government areas in Cross River State. Thiswas followed by random selection of one village in each of the fifteen localgovernment areas of Cross River State. Ten respondents were randomly selected fromeach of the fifteen co-operative societies making a sample size of 150. The studyrevealed that agricultural co-operative societies in Cross River State were establishedbetween 1980 and 2008. The study also revealed that the major reasons for theformation of farmers co-operative societies in the study area is to enable farmersto obtain loans (60%) and farm inputs (6.67%). The result of the findings indicatedthat 90% of the agricultural co-operative societies in the study area have membershipcontribution as the major source of funding. The study revealed that cooperativesfunded rice processing mill(12 %), groundnut processing mill( 14.67%), oil palm

processing mill(6.67%), cassava processing mill(7.33%), palm kernel processingmill(5.33 %), pineapple juice processing mill(3.33%), plantain chip processingmill(8%), soy bean milk processing mill(8.67%), alcohol (local gin ) processing mill(5.33%), fish processing mill/animal feed processing mill(6.67%), maize processingmill(6%), sugar cane processing mill(3.33%), tea processing mill(2%), cocoaprocessing mill( 6.67%), and cashew nut processing mill( 4%). Based on thesefindings, it was recommended that agricultural co-operative societies should be wellorganized and properly managed in Cross River State. Managers and members ofcooperatives should cooperate and collaborate with government agencies such asuniversities and formal financial institutions for extra training.

KEYWORDS: Agriculture, Cooperatives, Finance, Farmers, Processing mills

INTRODUCTIONThe sources of finance to Nigerian farmers are, broadly speaking, two: formal and informal (Adinya et al,2008). According to Famoriyo(1980) sources of agricultural credit in Nigeria can be broadly categorizedinto two, formal and informal. The formal sources include cooperative societies, Agricultural DevelopmentBanks, Commercial banks and Credit Corporations established by law. While the informal sources include:merchants money lenders, rotatory savings and credit associations. This paper is concerned with theformal source, specifically, with the role of agricultural co-operative societies as institutional source offinance to processing mills in Cross River State. Cooperative societies are essential tool for rapidagricultural and economic development in all developing countries (Johnson, 1995). In Nigeria,cooperatives had their genesis in the wake of the world depression of 1929-30. The major interest of thecolonial rulers in introducing cooperatives at that time was agricultural; namely to get rid of the NigeriaCocoa farmers of the restrictive practices of the middlemen; the high costs of transportation and the paucityof credit (Ekpere, 1980). This preponderant interest has continued over the decades, so that today


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Adinya, I.B et al: Continental J. Agricultural Science 2: 25 - 34, 2008

agricultural cooperatives constitute 90% of all cooperatives in the country. They have a variety of forms.The cooperative societies have a long history of lending to the agricultural sector of our economy.

In 1974, Nigeria had less than 65 cooperatives that were registered and a majority of them are marketingcooperatives. The hard economy times had resulted in many of them decreasing in number and membership(Edet, 2003).

According to Roy (1976) cooperative formation enhances the mobilization of resources, efforts and ideas.Iniodu (1977) revealed that extended family system was seen as a desirable precondition for the successfulintroduction of co-operative societies.

There is no doubt that major occupation of rural people in Cross River State is farming (Adinya et al,2005). They further stated that, to attract government assistance, the farmers have formed themselves intofarmers co-operative societies. The influence has always been that the traditional production system of theNigerian farmers favored the organization of production along cooperative lines (Ekpere, 1980). Theexistence of large communally owned land and plantations were readily presented as examples for thepossibility of cooperatively owned estates.

The growing desire by both government and non-governmental organization and international agenciessuch as Agricultural Development Programmes(ADP); Bureau of Cooperative Development(BCD);UnitedNations Development Programme(UNDP);International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD) ,World Bank, to mention but a few, to assist in agricultural production in recent years cannot beoveremphasized (Edet, 2003). The primary production mechanisms of agriculture are the farmers who needto be assisted if agricultural production is to improve. However, both government and non-governmentalorganizations cannot assist farmers individually but in organized groups. This stimulated the formation ofvarious co-operative societies in nooks and crannies of Nigeria (Edet, 2003). He further stated that many ofthe farmers co-operative societies so formed have benefited from either micro or macro credit facilities of

both government and non-governmental agencies. Some have also benefited from free donations.

This paper reviewed the role of cooperative societies as institutional sources of finance to processing millsin Cross River State, as well as the benefits derived from agricultural cooperatives in Cross River State.

DEFINITION OF COOPERATIVECooperative is a special corporate form of business organization. In fact, it is not a purely businessenterprise, established with the sole aim of maximizing profit. Rather, it is a friendly organization withvaried aims and objectives such as promoting the welfare of members, and the maintenance of membersmutual interests. Members of co-operative societies receive only one vote each regardless of the number ofshares they own. They receive interest on their investment and also share in the earnings of the venture(Olaloye and Atijosan, 1989). Lawal(1975) revealed that co-operative society is an organization in whicha number of people may combine to produce a commodity , the proceeds of which are distributed among

the participants. On the other hand people may combine as consumers co-operative society obtaininggoods on wholesale terms and selling them at usual retail prices. The surplus is divided among themembers in the form of dividends on purchase. The basic operating principle of co-operatives is that everymember has one vote in determining the policies and electing the management of the organization. Farmersmay belong to several kinds of co-operative societies namely: Marketing Cooperatives; Processing millsCooperatives; Producers Cooperatives- Groundnut Producers Co-operative ; Cocoa Producers C-operative; Oil palm Producers Co-operative ; Garri Producers Co-operative ; Rice Producers Co-operative ; Sugarcane Producers co-operative ; Yam Producers Co-operative ; Goat Producers Co-operative ; BeefProducers Co-operative and Fish Producers Co-operative

IMPORTANCE OF CO-OPERATIVEOne cannot over-emphasize the important role, which co-operatives can play in Nigeria, especially amongthe farmers. At present income of individual farmer is low because productivity is low, and myriads of


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problems face individual farmer. The formation of cooperatives will go a long way to solve these problems.For instance provision of credit for farmers to buy necessities may be facilitated by the formation ofcooperative societies. By applying for loans as a group, rather than as individuals, the farmers canprovide greater security and assurance that the loans will be paid off once the crops are sold; as aresult they can obtain more credit on better terms than could an individual farmer. The farmers inNigeria belong to some form of cooperative societies. These enable the individual farmer to obtain higherprofit for his products and to buy necessities at lower prices (Lawal, 1975). According to Roy (1976)cooperative offers at least two general advantages which no other business institution can fully match:

*It offers an opportunity for all people, rich and poor, in all walks of lie, to help themselves bycooperating and pooling their resources however meager, with others.

*It develops and strengthens the individual citizen in acquiring and controlling private property, yetit preserves individual freedom, dignity and responsibility.

THE ROLE OF COOPERATIVE IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENTAs a result of unsuccessful attempts to introduce technologies to many less developed countries, experts inagricultural development assistance have started to view agricultural cooperatives as valuable resources inagricultural development work. This conceptual change results from efforts directed at understandingagricultural practices.

In addition, it has been claimed that cooperative can become a resource for agricultural developmentbeyond those manifested in existing production system. Traditional agriculture can make an importantcontribution to efforts to raise productivity. Researchers can use traditional principles to develop newtechniques that preserve the lands stability and productivity even as population increases (Wolf, 1986).According to Francis (1988), a new generation of varieties and hybrids adapted to marginal conditions andto intercropping could be the start of a new generation aimed at meeting the needs of the majority oflimited- resources farmers in developing world. Despite the knowledge and resource base, traditional

methods have limitations that will not enable them to meet the future food and other agricultural needs ofLeast Developed Countries (LDCs) except urgent action is taken. The problem created by rapid populationgrowth and the consequent demand on land will result in negative changes in agricultural production suchas reduced fallow, falling yield, and resource degradation. Despite these limitations, traditional farmingprinciples constitute a foundation upon which to develop scientific based but locally acceptable ways ofmeeting the farmers needs in Least Developed Countries (LDCs). An illustration of this model is thecontinuous-cultivation agro-forestry system developed at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture(IITA) called alley cropping which uses the traditional farming principle of natural regeneration in afallow system. Field crops are grown between rows of nitrogen-fixing trees, so foliage from the treesenhance soil organic matter while nitrogen is fixed in the nodules and increases soil fertility . Using thismethod, a higher level of crop production is possible without resorting to a fallow-rotation system. Co-operative societies provide finance for this modified agricultural system. External ideas are needed,especially in the application of modern science to improve and enhance traditional agricultural practices

(Titilola, 2003). Sustainable agricultural development is now a major concern of agricultural researchersand policy-makers in both developing and developed countries (Titilola, 1990).

In developing countries the main concern is with the fragile ecosystem and its implications for futureproduction and high cost of energy. Other evidences advanced by Kotschi et al (1989) are that:

* The present form of resource use has sustained people in resource-poor and fragileenvironments and must be preserved until proven superior forms of resource use have beendeveloped.

* Local farming knowledge can supply missing ecological links which may help scientists todevelop alternative farming.* Local farming practices and environment knowledge offer starting points for developingfarming methods which may increase the production and sustainability of local resources.


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* The world may lose much of the remaining genetic information and plants and animals; suchknowledge and management of biodiversity may also prove useful, especially in the medical andagriculture fields (Moles, 1988).

Roy (1976) revealed that the average small-scale farmer has a working program, which does not utilizemore than half of his annual labour potentialities; agricultural cooperative can devise various projectsmeant to absorb the extra labour force available. Such projects could include handicrafts and variouscottage industries and /or building small irrigation dams, water and feeder roads and building and operatingstorage, marketing and processing facilities.

In many developing countries there are increasing problems with urban poverty, especially from migrationsof rural poor cooperative; likewise have a role here, especially with regards to credit unions, workersproductive cooperatives, housing, health care , child care and transportation , among other needs, includingconsumer cooperatives.

METHODOLOGYThe research study was conducted for a period of one year and six months from 1st January, 2007 to 30thJune, 2008 in Cross River State, Nigeria. The state occupies an area of about 22,342.176 Square Kilometers(Quarterly News Letter of the Ministry of Local Government Affairs, Cross River State, 2006). It is locatedat Latitude 5o 25N and longitude 25o 00E (Figure 1).

The soils of Cross River State are utisols and alifisol but predominantly utisols (USDA) or(FAO/UNESCO, 1974).

Cross River State has the largest rainforest covering about 7,290 square kilometers described as one ofAfricas largest remaining virgin forest harbouring as many as five million species of animals, insects andplants (MOFINEWS, 2004). Cross River State is located within the evergreen rainforest zone. There aretwo distinct climate seasons in the area, rainy season from March to October and dry season fromNovember to February. The annual rainfall varies from 2,000mm to 3,424mm. The average temperature isaround 28oc (Cross River Agricultural Development Project, 1992). Cross River State is characterized bypresence of numerous ecological and zoo-geographically important high gradient streams, rapids andwaterfalls. About 2,888,966 people inhabit the area, of which the Efiks, Ejaghams and Bekwarras are themajor ethnic groups (Population Census 2006 In: Agbor, 2007 In: MOFINEWS, 2007). Fishing and


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subsistence agriculture are the main occupations of the people. Crops grown in the locality include rice,maize, yam, cassava, plantain and banana.

Both primary and secondary sources of data will be used. The secondary sources of data include Review ofAnnual Reports, books, census data, journals, statistical documents, whereas the primary source of datawere mainly from field survey. The study covered randomly selected farmers cooperative societies inCross River State. Fifteen farmers cooperative societies were randomly selected for the study. Tenrespondents were randomly selected from each of fifteen agricultural cooperative societies making asample size of one hundred and fifty. Structured questionnaires were used in collecting data from 150respondents from fifteen agricultural cooperative societies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table1: Years of establishment of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State selected for thestudy

Years Frequency Percentage

1980- 1984 15 10

1995-1989 20 13.33

1990-1994 24 16

1995-2008 91 60.67

Total 150 100

Source: Field survey (2008).

The result of the findings on Table 1 revealed that many cooperative societies in Cross River State were

established between 1980 and 2008. This result is in line with the findings of Edet (2003) which observedthat the formation of many farmers cooperative societies during the period was as a result of someagricultural programmes which came up during the period such as Family Economic AdvancementProgramme (FEAP), Family Support Programme (FSP), Life Enhancement Programmed(LEP), amongmany others, which have provided an enabling ground for the establishment of cooperative societies.

Table 2: Reasons for the formation of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Reasons Frequency Percentage

Provide help to members 36 24

Access to farm inputs 10 6.67

To benefit from NGOs 4 2.67

Attract government assistance 10 6.67Loan acquisition 90 60

Total 150 100


Table 2: revealed that the major reason for the formation of cooperative societies in the study area was toenable farmers to obtain loans (60%). Apart from loan acquisition, other reasons such as access to farminputs 6.67%, attracting government assistance 6.67%, attracting benefit from NGOs 2.6%7 and providinghelp to members 24%.


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Table 3: Membership composition of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Characteristic ofmembers

Frequency Percentage

Gender

Female 45 30

Male 105 70

Total 150 100

Main occupation

Farmers 147 98

Civil servants 3 2

Total 150 100

Level of education

Illiterate 120 80

Literate 30 20

Total 150 100

State of origin

Non- indigenous 9 94

Indigenous 141 6Total 150 100


Table 3; indicated that cooperative societies in the study area have a high percentage of male membership(70%). The table further indicated that farmers recorded a high percentage membership composition (98%)of the cooperative societies in the study area. This implies that farmers are aware of fact that bothgovernment and non-governmental organizations cannot assist farmers individually but in organizedgroups; therefore, they formed various co-operative societies to enable them benefit from either micro ormacro credit facilities of both government and non-governmental agencies.

Table 4: Major source of funding of the agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Source of funding Frequency Percentage

Levies 6 4.00Government grant 2 1.33

Membership contribution

Share capital 22 14.66

Savings 35 23.34

Special deposit 45 30

Reserve 40 26.67

Total 150 100


The result of the findings on Table 4 indicated that 94.67% of co-operative societies in the studyarea have membership contribution as the major source of funding. This result agrees with the


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views of Ekpere(1980); and Edet (2003) which observed that organization and individuals shouldpool their resource together for self help and for achieving organization goals.

Table 5: Financial position of agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Amount(N) Frequency Percentage

500,000.00-10,000,000.00 108 72

10,500,000.00-20,500,000.00 40 26.67

No response 2 1.33

Total 150 100


Table 5; revealed that a low percentage of cooperative societies (1.33%) refused to disclose theirfinancial position. This result agrees with the views of Edet (2003) which observed that this was

always the case, some organizations always want to keep their financial position very secret..However, 26.67% indicated that their financial position stood at N10,500,000.00-20,500,000.00 .While 72 % indicated their own to be N 500,000.00-10,000,000.00

Table 6: Benefits derived from agricultural cooperative societies in Cross River State

Benefits Frequency Percentage

Farm inputs 39.00 26.00

Skill acquisition 20.00 13.33

Insurance cover 0.00 0.00

Loans 91.00 60.67

Total 150 100

Source: Field survey (2008).Table 6 revealed that 60.67% of respondents of collected loans. Farm inputs and skill acquisition had 26%and 13.33% respectively. This result agrees with findings of (Utsu, 2000; Adinya et al, 2008) whichobserved that farmers demand for credit arises because of their meager farm income and the need to changemode of production. Agricultural credit helps to improve farm output and economic well-being of bothlarge and small-scale farmers. Agricultural credit is not only important for accelerating agriculturaldevelopment but also in improving farmers efficiency (Miller, 1997). This implies that agricultural creditis necessary for agricultural and economy development.

Table 7: Nature of management of both human , financial and materials resources by farmers cooperativesocieties in Cross River State

Nature ofmanagement

StronglyDisagreed

Disagreed Agreed Stronglyagreed

Frequency

Total

Frequency/percentagemean

80(53.3%) 30(20%) 22(14.7%) 18(12%) 150 100

Wellmanaged

4(2.7%) 10(6.7%) 30(20%) 106(70.7%) 150 100

Not wellmanaged

86(57.3%) 24(16%) 18(12%) 22(14.7%) 150 100

Excellentlymanaged

86(57.3%) 24(16%) 18(12%) 22(14.7%) 150 100

Fairlymanaged

15(10%) 20(13.3%) 35(23.3%) 80(53.3%) 150 100



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The result of the findings on Table 7 revealed that the resources of most cooperative societies in CrossRiver State are not well managed (14.7%). While 70.7% of respondents stated that most of the cooperativesocieties in Cross River State are well managed, implies that resources of most cooperative societies arewell managed in Cross River State.

Table 8:Projects undertaken by fifteen cooperative societies(randomly selected) since their inception inCross River State

Projects undertaken Frequency Percentage Status

Groundnut processing mill 22 14.67 Completed

Oil palm processing mill 10 6.67 Completed

Rice processing mill 18 12 Completed

Cassava processing mill 11 7.33 Completed

Palm kernel processing mill 8 5.33 Completed

Pineapple juice processing mill 5 3.33 CompletedPlantain chip processing mill 12 8 Completed

Soy bean milk processing mill 13 8.67 Completed

Alcohol (local gin ) processing mill 8 5.33 Completed

Fish processing mill/animal feedprocessing mill

10 6.67 Completed

Maize processing mill 9 6 Completed

Sugar cane processing mill 5 3.33 Completed

Tea processing mill 3 2 Completed

Cocoa processing mill 10 6.67 Completed

cashew nut processing mill 6 4 Completed

Total 150 100 Completed


Table 8; revealed that cooperatives funded rice processing mill(12 %), groundnut processing mill(14.67%), oil palm processing mill(6.67%), cassava processing mill(7.33%), palm kernel processingmill(5.33 %), pineapple juice processing mill(3.33%), plantain chip processing mill(8%), soy bean milkprocessing mill(8.67%), alcohol (local gin ) processing mill( 5.33%), fish processing mill/animal feedprocessing mill(6.67%), maize processing mill(6%), sugar cane processing mill(3.33%),tea processingmill(2%), cocoa processing mill( 6.67%), and cashew nut processing mill (4%). The implication of theresult is that cooperative societies are aware of the importance of funding processing mills which resultedto the states growth and development.

CONCLUSIONThe problem of lack of credit for agricultural production in Nigeria has caused agricultural cooperativesocieties in Cross River State to be concerned on how best to solve the problem. The study found that

cooperative societies in Cross River State were established between 1980 and 2007. The study alsorevealed that the major reason for the formation of cooperative societies in Cross River State was to enablefarmers obtain loans (60%). Managers and members of cooperatives should cooperate and collaborate withgovernment agencies such as universities and formal financial institutions for extra training.

Base on the findings, the following recommendations are made:(i) A participatory approach should be their watch word in the management of their cooperative

societies in Cross River State.(ii) Member of cooperative societies in Cross River State should be well

trained by government agencies such as universities and formal financial institutions.(iii) Agricultural cooperative societies should be well organized and properly managed.


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REFERENCESAdinya, I.B., O.O. Kuye, V.E.,Enya, E.E. Enun, N.N.Inyang, M.O. Oniah and E.A.Agbogo(2005).Indigenous Methods of Palm Oil Processing Among Rural Women in Bekwarra LocalGovernment Area of Cross River State. A paper presented at 2 nd National Conference of Nigeria Society ofIndigenous Knowledge and Development. Held at Cross River University of Technology Obubra , CrossRiver State, Nigeria 9th-12th November, 2005, Pp7-12.

Adinya, I.B., A.D.Idio and O.O. Kuye, (2005). Farmers Awareness of Sources of Credit for ImprovedFarm Practices in Cross River State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Social Sciences 7(1):5-8.

Agbor, G.(2007). The Economics of Population Growth and Changes in Demographic Structure In:MOFINEWS(2007).Population Growth and Economic Development. Jan Feb,2007 Cross River StatePrivatization exercise, journey so far A Bi-monthly Journal of Finance Incorporated, Calabar, Cross River

State, Nigeria. Jan Feb, 2007. 6 ( 3): 7.

Cross River Agricultural Development Project(CRADP) (1992). Report on Wetlands of Cross River State,Nigeria. 115pp.

Edet, A.I. (2003). Analysis of Conflict Situations in Farmers Cooperative Societies in Akwa Ibom State .M.SC. Thesis Unpublished. Pp1-71.

Ekpere, J.A. (1980).Rural Cooperatives and Dairy Development, A

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