VLT_best_practices_report

J o a n W h i t e

Conservation organizations have been taking action to mitigate climate change and to adapt to its effects. This report collects lessons-‐learned and best practices from conservation organizations, researchers, and practitioners in the emerging field of land conservation under climate change. Planning for a changing climate is essential for success because the species and activities on protected lands will change with a changing climate. Land trusts could apply the significant land resources at their disposal for both mitigation and adaptation. Land conservation could play a key role in helping social-‐ecological systems to adapt. Many of the key strategies for slowing climate change are land-‐based, such as perennial cropping and forestry for carbon sequestration. There are several organizations leading the way in this fledgling field and an emerging literature on the topic.

VLT Climate Change Project Best Practices Report 2015

08 Fall

Land Conservation in a Changing Climate: An Emerging Field

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 1

WHY THIS REPORT ......................................................................................................................... 1 APPROACH ..................................................................................................................................... 1 MAJOR FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................ 2

FRAMING ..................................................................................................................... 4

FORWARD-‐LOOKING LAND CONSERVATION ................................................................................... 4 EARLY DAYS ................................................................................................................................... 4 IMPORTANCE OF LAND CONSERVATION ......................................................................................... 5 WORKING IN VERMONT ................................................................................................................. 6

ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES ..................................................................................... 7

FOUNDATION LEADERSHIP ............................................................................................................ 7 STAFF-‐INITIATED ........................................................................................................................... 8 GRASSROOTS .................................................................................................................................. 8 AVOIDING A SILO ............................................................................................................................ 9 EXAMPLE: MASS AUDUBON ........................................................................................................ 10

RESOURCES ................................................................................................................ 11

FUNDING ..................................................................................................................................... 11 STAFF CAPACITY ......................................................................................................................... 11

ADAPTATION: TWO VIEWS ......................................................................................... 12

TWO VIEWS OF ADAPTATION ...................................................................................................... 12 INWARD LOOK – CURRENT ASSETS AND POTENTIAL PROJECTS .................................................. 13 OUTWARD LOOK -‐ ASSISTING SOCIAL-‐ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS IN RESILIENCE ............................ 16 ADAPTATION IN NATURAL SYSTEMS ........................................................................................... 17 ADAPTATION IN SOCIAL SYSTEMS ............................................................................................... 18 EXAMPLE: JEFFERSON LAND TRUST ........................................................................................... 20

MITIGATION ............................................................................................................... 21

LEADING BY EXAMPLE ................................................................................................................. 21 EXAMPLE: ALLEARTH RENEWABLES ......................................................................................... 23 LAND-‐BASED MITIGATION STRATEGIES ...................................................................................... 23 CARBON SEQUESTRATION ........................................................................................................... 24

COMMUNICATIONS ................................................................................................... 25

POSITIVE RESPONSE .................................................................................................................... 25 UNIQUE COMMUNICATIONS OPPORTUNITIES .............................................................................. 26 COMMUNICATIONS BEST PRACTICES ........................................................................................... 27 COMMUNICATING WITH FARMERS .............................................................................................. 28

AGRICULTURE ............................................................................................................ 29

IMPACTS TO PRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 29 AGRICULTURAL MITIGATION ...................................................................................................... 31 LOCAL FOOD SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................. 32 LOW-‐ELEVATION LAND USE CONFLICTS ...................................................................................... 33

LEGAL FRAMEWORKS ................................................................................................. 34

PRINCIPLED ADAPTATION IN EASEMENTS .................................................................................. 34 TOOLS FOR PRINCIPLED ADAPTATION ........................................................................................ 35 BALANCING FLEXIBILITY, PROTECTION, AND COMPLEXITY ........................................................ 37

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Executive Summary Why this report Climate change is already affecting the ecology and economy of Vermont. Warmer winters, increased precipitation, drought, and flood events are causing human and natural communities to adapt. Towns are planning for more frequent and severe storm events. Farmers are experimenting with different cultivars. Trees and flowers are blooming sooner and lakes and ponds are frozen for shorter periods. Our current natural and social systems evolved in a stable climate, but now the climate will become increasingly erratic. (Martin). Change on the landscape is inevitable. To face this change, to understand it, to adapt, and to do its part to slow it down are among the major environmental challenges that will confront Vermont Land Trust (VLT) within the next several decades. Without thoughtful consideration of conservation practices, climate change will dramatically impact the ability of VLT to fulfill its mission. This report collects the experiences and reflections of conservation organizations, academic researchers, and others to explore how organizations are addressing climate change. It also presents the findings of a literature review of open sources from the emerging field of land conservation under climate change. Conservation organizations are beginning to conduct the science and build the basic operational tools to successfully conserve and manage land with climate change in mind, but the field is still in its infancy. This report presents lessons learned and ideas for the future from that fledgling field. This is the second report on climate change commissioned by VLT. The first report presented an internal audit of VLT, collecting the ideas and experiences of staff members at the organization. These two reports along with a collection of essential readings for land conservation under climate change are available at http://climatechangereading.blogspot.com/. Approach I conducted 10 interviews with staff at conservation organizations, non-profits, academic institutions, and state agencies. I asked organizations what they were doing in response to climate change, how they decided what to do, how they are funding new efforts, and questions specific to conservation planning, agriculture, and communications. Although I generated questions in advance, many conversations ranged widely in response to the knowledge and interests of the interviewees. You will find the last names of interviewees following ideas they presented. A list of the interviewees and their titles can be found on page 38.

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I also collected a group of essential readings which explore land conservation in the context of climate change. The main findings of this literature review are integrated into the body of this report, but I recommend that readers survey the original reports and studies which can be found at http://climatechangereading.blogspot.com/. There readers can explore readings thematically. Appendix A contains the full list of interview questions. Major findings 1. Looking into the future. Rather than trying to preserve land as it is now, land

trusts that are successfully adapting to climate change realize that change inevitable, and they prepare for the future.

2. Having an impact. Land is a critical resource for both adaptation and mitigation.

Even a relatively small state can play an important local, regional, and leadership role. 3. Many routes to taking action. Some organizations addressing climate change

chose to do so because their staff and leadership were interested. Others followed foundation leadership. Still others listened to their members and stakeholders.

4. Avoiding a silo. Successful organizations have integrated climate change thinking

into many aspects of their work. From acquisitions, to stewardship, to communications, to legal concerns, climate change will affect many aspects of operation.

5. Finding funding and increasing capacity. To start new programs, conduct

mapping exercises, and transition to low-carbon operations, organizations thought creatively about fundraising and increasing organizational capacity. They looked for new sources of funding from foundations and government. They enlisted committees of experts and sent current staff to trainings.

6. Evaluating the impact of climate change. To successfully achieve their

missions, many conservation organizations are seeking to understand how climate change will impact current assets. Otherwise they will be caught unaware by significant changes. When uncertainty is high, land trusts can use scenario planning to evaluate potential futures.

7. Assisting in social and ecological resilience. Land conservation can play a

significant role in helping natural and human systems to adapt to climate change by providing habitat, migration corridors, food and water provisioning, and flood protection.

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8. Reducing emissions is a source of credibility. Organizations found that their messaging about climate change was better received when they themselves reduced their own emissions through efficiency and renewable energy.

9. Positive response. Organizations who are leading on climate change have received

very positive responses from their members, board, donors, and stakeholders. Conservation supporters appear to be very receptive to climate action.

10. Unique communications opportunity. Conservation organizations are a

trusted source for environmental information for their members and the public. They reach a unique political audience. Some thought that land trusts could educate their constituencies about climate change and motivate action.

11. Agricultural production will be impacted. Farmers will likely experience

decreased production under climate change due to unpredictability of precipitation, heat stress, and changes in the phenology of important crops. Farmers on conserved lands may need special assistance to adapt.

12. Farming is a major source of carbon pollution. Changes to some

agricultural practices, such as fertilizer application, could significantly reduce carbon pollution. There could be additional co-benefits such as increased water quality.

13. Conflict between farming and habitat. Many farms in Vermont are on low-

elevation calcareous soils. These soils support a particularly diverse set of organisms. This is a case where conservation goals conflict, so setting priorities is important.

14. Principled adaptation in easements. Climate change will alter the land in

ways that may undermine the conservation purpose of the easement. Easements with some process for adaptation built in through generally crafted purposes, management plans, and ecological monitoring, will allow for more successful conservation in the face of change. Flexibility in easements must be balanced against stability and protecting the public interest.

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Framing Forward-‐looking land conservation In the past, conservation has focused on preserving land as it is or restoring it to some historical state. Under climate change, land trusts face the challenge of conserving land for an increasingly uncertain future. It will become difficult to preserve the status quo or restore ecosystems to some idealized “natural” state. This inevitable change requires that conservation organizations rethink what it means to conserve land. What are the purposes of conservation if not to maintain the status quo forever? How should landowners and land trusts manage the land to achieve those purposes? What do we know about how land will be affected? What is the right balance between flexible management and perpetual conservation when everything is in flux? Conservation organizations that consider these questions will be ahead of the curve as the climate becomes more erratic. Early days There are several land trusts and conservation organizations working actively on climate change issues, but the field is still developing. New policies and workflows are just being created. More time is needed to evaluate whether these policies and practices are effective. Although the field is still developing, there are lessons learned, and meaningful insights to be gained from reviewing the experiences of others. Most research and experience has occurred in

“Everybody is learning on their feet. There is no definitive playbook.”

-‐ Abigail Weinberg

Open Space Institute

“Traditionally, conservationists have focused their efforts on protecting and managing systems to maintain their current state, or to restore degraded systems back to a historical state regarded as more desirable. Conservation planners and practitioners will need to adopt forward-‐looking goals and implement strategies specifically designed to prepare for and adjust to current and future climatic changes, and the associated impacts on natural systems and human communities”

-‐ excerpt from National Wildlife Federation’s

Climate Smart Conservation guide

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organizations with a wildlife and habitat focus. For organizations whose mission extends beyond the protection and preservation of wildlife, the question gets even more complicated. For an organization such as VLT that works on farmland access, affordable housing, recreation, and livable communities, there are very few examples of how to integrate climate change thinking into the organization. Importance of land conservation Many interviewees saw land conservation as crucial to adaptation under climate change. Land conservation could potentially provide much needed resources to people as well as important refugia and migration corridors for plants and wildlife. (Kingfisher, Martin). Some interviewees noted that the global economy is likely to contract significantly as climate change unfolds, a conclusion that is backed by research conducted by economist Nicholas Stern and many others.1 (Kingfisher). As a result, people are likely to become more reliant on local sources of food, energy, and materials. The role of land conservation in providing these resources could potentially be significant. (Kingfisher). Conserving land with multiple benefits becomes even more important under climate change. VLT has always focused on the multiple benefits that come from land conservation. Adding climate change benefits to that list of considerations is important. (Grubinger, McKearnan). For example, a conserved working forest can provide habitat, recreation, water regulation, and timber. By adding climate change, staff could also consider the carbon sequestration potential of that forest. The Gund Institute for Ecological Economics at the University of Vermont is undertaking a study to quantify the value of multiple benefits that flow from conserved lands in the state. The project will help make the economic case about the importance of conservation for climate change adaptation and other benefits. (McKearnan). Management practices to maximize these different benefits may sometimes conflict. For example, managing a forest for maximum sustainable yield of timber may result in sub-par habitat or less than maximum carbon storage. When these management goals conflict,

1 Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change. Nicholas Stern. 2006. Available at http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/4/3/executive_summary.pdf.

“Land conservation is one of the primary things we should be doing because it is consistent with all the other strategies proposed globally to adapt to, slow down, and reverse climate change.”

-‐ Erik Kingfisher

Jefferson Land Trust

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especially on fee-owned land, VLT should carefully consider how the benefits related to climate change (like carbon storage) rank against other benefits. Working in Vermont Climate change is a global phenomenon, emerging from activities conducted all over the world and affecting resources at a planetary scale. VLT focuses efforts exclusively in Vermont, so I asked people to comment on how VLT could make an impact given its limited geographic scope. Interviewees unequivocally agreed that efforts of VLT are relevant to climate change. The effects of climate change will be felt locally, and conserved land could potentially serve as a buffer against the negative effects of climate change locally. The adaptation actions of VLT could be relevant on a local scale. (Martin). VLT also has the chance to influence others in the land trust community because it plays a leadership role in the movement. Many look to VLT as a leader in integrating land conservation with social and ecological systems. (Kingfisher). VLT could lead the way in agricultural mitigation and adaptation by finding a few progressive farmers on conserved farms who are willing to try something new, then showcase the results to other land trusts and farmers in the state and region. (Grubinger). A little bit of innovation and leadership can go a long way by setting an example for others to follow. (Grubinger, Pitz). Vermont is regionally relevant for habitat, food production, energy provisioning, and water provisioning. (Grubinger). It is important to understand what role Vermont is playing in regional resilience for nature and people. (Weinberg). Some suggested that VLT should work to understand how habitat and land resources in Vermont fit into larger regional systems. (Grubinger, Weinberg). For these efforts, VLT could consider connecting with the North Atlantic Landscape Conservation Cooperative,

“It takes people working at all scales. It is great when people can work across boundaries and coordinate at a regional scale.”

-‐ Abigail Weinberg Open Space Institute

“Even though Vermont can’t tip the global scales, we have a responsibility to do our part. Vermont needs to be out front leading on this issue.”

-‐ Lauren Hierl Vermont Conservation Voters

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which provides data and support to conservation organizations in the region.2 The Northeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies is another regionally relevant group that convenes regional natural resource professionals to discuss current science.3 Another regional group working on regional systems thinking is Food Solutions New England.4 (Grubinger, Weinberg). Regional thinking is extremely important for resilience because both natural and human systems function at a regional scale. For example, Food Solutions New England found that New England could produce up to two-thirds of the food the region needs but production would have to happen at a regional rather than a state scale.5 (Grubinger). Vermont hosts some of the most important intact limestone bedrock in New England. This bedrock is extremely important for biodiversity because it supports many species and is not frequently conserved. Vermont has a unique regional role to play in conserving this particular soil type. (Weinberg).

Organizational processes The process of deciding to address climate change – and deciding what exactly to do about it – is important to the ultimate success of any changes to programming. It is important to involve the right stakeholders, identify appropriate funding, and think deeply about what to do. Different groups have brought different approaches to deciding to work in this area. From following foundation leadership to hiring new staff, there are many models for how to move forward in climate change work. Foundation leadership The Open Space Institute (OSI) offers funding for projects in “resilient” areas which OSI has identified using data from The Nature Conservancy. (Weinberg). VLT recently received one of these grants to conserve land in Windham County. This program is among the few programs for land trusts to conduct strategic conservation focused on 2 More information about the North Atlantic Landscape Conservation Cooperative is available at http://northatlanticlcc.org/. 3 More information about the Northeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies is available at http://www.neafwa.org/. 4 More information about Food Solutions New England is available at http://www.foodsolutionsne.org/. 5 A New England Food Vision. P. 26. Food Solutions New England. 2014. Available at http://www.foodsolutionsne.org/sites/default/files/LowResNEFV_0.pdf.

“The main thing is to figure out where your core areas of expertise are, focus there, go deep in those areas.”

-‐ Loring Schwarz Mass Audubon

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climate change resilience. The Doris Duke Charitable Foundation had taken a leadership role in this area, defining an entire granting strategy around climate change resilience. The foundation was proactive, creating the vision that inspired OSI to do more on climate change resilience. OSI was selected to receive a large grant from the foundation, and staff and Board members embraced the project because it aligned with their larger mission and sense of purpose. (Weinberg). Staff-‐initiated In some organizations, staff has taken the lead in initiating climate-change focused programming. For example at Mass Audubon staff were interested in working on climate change and the Board responded. (Schwarz). The climate change efforts there have grown to include climate education and moving people to action, advocacy at multiple levels, land acquisition and ecological management. A specific staff person was added to their team. She played a convening role, bringing teams of staff and board members together to rethink workflows, look at organizational strengths, and make decisions about what to do. (Schwarz). Executive leadership at land trusts could also initiate new ways of thinking and then bring the staff, funders, and members along. Land trust boards or presidents are uniquely positioned for leadership because they often take a long-term view of the future of the organization. (Ristino). Some noted that the land trust movement is in a process of maturing as they begin to manage their assets with the idea of dynamic and complex ecosystems in mind. (Rissman, Ristino). Climate change may interfere with land trusts’ ability to successfully fulfill their missions, so climate change should be a central concern to leadership teams who are focused on achieving the mission. (Kingfisher). Grassroots After conducting a grassroots listening exercise that included public meetings and private anonymous ways to comment, the Jefferson Land Trust decided to add climate change as a major factor in its conservation plan, a big-picture document that provides a vision along with priorities for the organization. (Kingfisher). Members, concerned citizens, and landowners independently and repeatedly mentioned climate change as a major issue. The framing question for the listening exercise was “what do you want this place (Jefferson County, WA) to look like in 100 years?” With that framing, discussing climate

“It takes visionary leadership, someone who can communicate about climate change and bring funders and donors on board.”

-‐ Laurie Ristino Vermont Law School

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change was imperative because the species, precipitation patterns, temperatures, and the suite of threats and opportunities on the land are all projected to change dramatically over a 100-year time horizon. Climate change became one of four “driving forces” that the land trust now considers with each project and opportunity. The other three are: growth and conversion; public awareness; and markets and policy. Without a grounded perspective on these driving forces, the staff and board felt that it would be difficult to achieve their mission. (Kingfisher). Avoiding a silo Interviewees emphasized that it is important to integrate thinking about climate change into most aspects of work rather than isolating the issue in its own department. (Martin, Schwarz, Weinberg). Organizations have done this with varying degrees of success. OSI received funding to issues sub-grants to other land trusts to conserve land in areas that were particularly “climate resilient,” and the organization is working to integrate climate change thinking into their own conservation work. (Weinberg). OSI would like to integrate new language into easements to account for climate change and conduct conservation more strategically. The organization has traditionally had a reactive, opportunistic approach, conserving land as it was donated rather than searching out high-value parcels. (Weinberg). OSI is also working to add climate change resilience to state-wide priorities through encouraging the New York Department of Environmental Conservation to add climate change resilience to their Open Space Conservation Plan. (Weinberg). With resilience as a goal, the plan would direct more state funding to resilience conservation. (Weinberg). At another organization, climate change staff work in a separate department from acquisitions staff and have had difficulty bridging the divide. Staff noted that while the group is effectively engaging with mitigation efforts, adaptation thinking is not being successfully added to new acquisitions. Land conservation efforts are being conducted in a “business as usual” way even though the goals of new projects could be threatened by sea level rise, species range changes, and invasive species as climate change unfolds. Mass Audubon is integrating climate change thinking throughout the organization by convening a staff team and a board team to decide what to do. (Schwarz). The team members came from different departments, and they knew how their work was previously done, which areas would be most important to change, and how to execute those changes effectively. The staff members who participated were all passionate about the issue of climate change. Although they were busy with other work, taking part in the climate change team was a personal priority for them. The process took time – about two years – to arrive at a specific set of strategies, but they expect to succeed because there was agreement and buy-in from staff. (Schwarz). Currently, Mass Audubon is seeking support to fully execute their cross cutting program.

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Mass Audubon is successfully integrating climate changes into current programming. They hired Loring Schwarz, an expert in protected areas, to serve as their Director of Climate Change Program. She brought together teams of staff and board members to consider how the organization should react to climate change. They decided on four main strategies.

v Preparing their conserved lands for the impacts of climate change.

v Educating the public about climate

change. v Engaging in policy at the national,

state, and local levels. v Leading by example, reducing their

energy use and creating green energy.

The process is showing signs of success because staff are enthusiastic and believe that addressing climate change is important. They worked to integrate climate change throughout programming rather than relegating it to its own silo. Funding for efficiency and renewable energy generation came from state programs and the Mass Audubon budget. Funding for GIS mapping and workshops on climate change education for staff at sanctuaries, came from their annual operating budget. More information about Mass Audubon’s climate change programming can be found at http://www.massaudubon.org/our-‐conservation-‐work/climate-‐change

Example: Mass Audubon

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Resources Funding The costs of incorporating climate change into conservation work varied greatly depending on what exactly organizations decided to do. Organizations have dealt with funding in a variety of ways. Mass Audubon applied for state-funded energy efficiency programs to renovate existing buildings and replace fleet vehicles. (Schwarz). OSI pursued foundation funding related to climate change. (Weinberg). Others, like the Appalachian Mountain Club, or The Nature Conservancy have taken advantage of carbon markets to generate new revenue for the conservation of large forested parcels. Organizations could consider creating a program around climate change then approaching specific donors to fund particular aspects of that programming. (Weinberg). Funding for changes in agriculture remains one of the most challenging aspects of climate change mitigation and adaptation. Many pro-climate practices come with associated costs to farmers who are already operating with thin profit margins. (Grubinger). The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service offers Conservation Innovation Grants to stimulate the development of new conservation approaches that enhance the environmental value of farms in conjunction with agricultural production.6 (Ristino). VLT could consider applying for a Conservation Innovation Grant in partnership with other land trusts or conservation organizations focused on farming. (Ristino). Such a grant could explore practices that sit at the nexus of climate, water quality, and local food systems, and fund farmers on conserved lands to test and demonstrate management practices. (Ristino). Staff capacity Most of the organizations I interviewed felt that their staff were working at maximum capacity even before adding climate change programs to the mix. There was a sense that additional staff capacity was needed whether that meant wrapping up other programs, adding staff people, or adding trainings for current staff. Any climate change strategy should acknowledge the need for added capacity in terms of both time and expertise. Mass Audubon recently sent staff to a training about how to communicate with the general public about climate change. (Schwarz). The Wildlife Conservation Society commonly hosts trainings about flexible land management under climate change.7 (Weinberg). The National Wildlife Federation has produced several useful guides about

6 More information about Conservation Innovation Grants is available at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/programs/financial/cig/ 7 More information about the Wildlife Conservation Society’s climate change programming related to the Climate Change Response Framework is available at http://forestadaptation.org/.

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“climate-smart conservation,” a term they use to describe conducting conservation with the threat of climate change in mind.8 While existing staff may not always have the specific expertise or the time to follow rapidly changing climate projections, land trusts can tap into expertise from outside sources. OSI presents an excellent model for how to integrate the latest science into the work of the organization and supplement staff capacity. OSI uses scientific advisory committees to cope with specific issues. For example, when it crafted its Northeast Resilient Landscapes Initiative it brought together experts from federal agencies, universities, and other conservation non-profits to inform mapping efforts and make general recommendations appropriate for the Northeast. The advisory committee members volunteered their time (occasionally they are paid a small honorarium). Committee members generally enjoy applying scientific knowledge to real-world problems and working with interesting colleagues. In addition to advisory committees, OSI also uses consultants with specific expertise when necessary. The organization has not had to hire new staff but is still able to apply the latest science to their work. (Weinberg). Furthermore, OSI takes advantage of existing datasets, like the resilient landscapes data developed by The Nature Conservancy, so they are building on the research of others. (Weinberg).

Adaptation: Two Views Two views of adaptation In land conservation there are two ways of considering adaptation. The first, an “inward” look at adaptation, considers the impact of climate change on existing assets or new opportunities. For example, lands conserved by VLT will change as the climate warms. Assessing the impact of climate change on existing conserved lands is important because climate change may interfere with the conservation goals of that land. Species compositions in forests may change, some rare species may not persist in their current locations, farmers may need to change the cultivars they plant. (Grubinger, Martin, Ristino). Understanding 8 More information about The National Wildlife Federation’s Climate-Smart Conservation program is available at http://www.nwf.org/What-We-Do/Energy-and-Climate/Climate-Smart-Conservation.aspx.

“Most organizations are not yet thinking about how climate change will affect their missions, goals and success. Once this happens, organizations will reorient themselves to be successful in a different kind of future.”

-‐ Shaun Martin World Wildlife Fund

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the changes that are coming will allow land owners to react appropriately including taking some action now, for example special plantings along riparian areas to keep streams cool because some plantings can take several decades to fully mature. (Kingfisher). This type of adaptation has been advocated by the Land Trust Alliance, the National Wildlife Federation, and the National Park Service.9, 10, 11 The “inward” lens of climate change adaptation deals primarily with existing assets and opportunities. The central question is “how might climate change affect this parcel?” The second type of adaptation looks beyond the organization at wider social-ecological systems in which the land trust is embedded. This “outward” look at adaptation asks “how can conservation be used to help social-ecological systems become more resilient?” For example developing a robust local food system, conserving a diverse range of geologic features, or conserving land in flood plains to reduce flooding downstream will help natural and social systems survive and thrive under climate change. The “outward” lens is used by organizations such as the Open Space Institute and The Nature Conservancy.12 The “outward” looking lens calls on land trusts to be strategic about future conservation projects, targeting projects in areas that will particularly aid in resilience. This division is somewhat artificial, but is a useful tool for considering the purpose of different adaptation actions. For example knowing that climate change will result in more inundation on a certain farm might cause the farmer to think about installing tile drains (an “inward” look). Knowing that food insecurity will be greater under climate change might cause a land trust to conserve more farms (an “outward” look). Inward Look – current assets and potential projects Several interviewees pointed out the importance of considering how climate change will affect current assets and new projects. (Kingfisher, Martin, Pitz). This includes understanding how species may respond to climate change, what about a specific landscape makes it valuable for biodiversity even as the climate changes as well how benefits to people from the land will change. (Weinberg).

9 Climate Change Toolkit. Land Trust Alliance. Available at http://www.landtrustalliance.org/climate-change-toolkit#b_start=0. 10 Climate-smart Conservation: Putting Adaptation Principles into Practice. National Wildlife Federation. 2014. Available at http://www.nwf.org/News-and-Magazines/Media-Center/News-by-Topic/Global-Warming/2014/05-014-14-New-Guide-Provides-Conservation-Guidance-in-a-Changing-Climate.aspx. 11 Using Scenarios to Explore Climate Change: A Handbook for Practitioners. U.S. National Park Service. 2013. Available at http://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/upload/CCScenariosHandbookJuly2013.pdf. 12 Conserving the Stage: Climate Change and the Geophysical Underpinnings of Species Diversity. Anderson, Ferree. 2010. PLoS ONE 5(7). Available at http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011554

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It may be easier to gain broad public support for adaptation than for mitigation. Mitigation often requires that people make adjustments to their lifestyles that may be difficult, and the benefits seem few and remote. Adaptation on the other hand is a naturally self-interested activity. (Martin). The natural link to adaptation comes from what people are seeing and experiencing on the land. For example, farmers are already seeing warmer winters and increased drought and flood events. This is a natural point of entry for discussions about adaptation and climate change more broadly. (Martin). Integrating adaptation into the day-to-day operations of an organization is much more complicated than mitigation activities. (Martin). In this “inward” lens, an organization might add climate change as one consideration when drafting new easement language or stewardship staff might suggest that a farmer take steps to keep dairy cows cool during increasingly warm summers. It should be embedded in the workflow the of the stewardship staff and conservation staff in subtle, but significant ways. (Martin). This type of adaptation is very specific to location and circumstance. Individual towns, families, and parcels will be affected differently, so it requires a hyper-local approach. (Martin). This type of adaptation is iterative, complex, uncertain, and ongoing. Conservation science strives to capture and represent complexity in research, modeling, and fieldwork. (Weinberg). Even with this nuanced approach, unknown and surprising effects will likely occur as climate change unfolds. (Martin). As the climate changes, complex ecological and social systems will react in unpredictable ways. Rather than undertaking a large-scale, one-time effort to do adaptation planning, integrating adaptation into the day-to-day operations of the organization will help manage this subtly, complexity, and uncertainty. (Martin). If stewardship and conservation staff are regularly thinking about climate change in their work, climate adaptive measures will arise organically as staff are better prepared to respond quickly to changing circumstances on the ground and incorporate new information into their management plans. (Martin). Even if circumstances are changing in unpredictable ways, conservation science suggests that conserving a variety of geologic features may protect biological diversity. (Weinberg). Scenario planning is another useful tool for considering how climate change might affect the assets of an organization. In these structured exercises, organizations develop plausible stories about what could happen in the future given the latest scientific knowledge. (Martin). Scenarios are not predictions or forecasts, but rather plausible ways the future might evolve. Many scenarios include not only climate change, but other

“No one can say with certainty how the future will play out. But you can manage uncertainty by identifying actions that will bring benefits under multiple scenarios and avoid actions that may limit our options in the future.”


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variables such as socio-economic change, development, and funding changes. As the National Park Service phrased it: “scenario work explores and describes characteristics of several plausible futures, enabling managers to consider how to define and meet their goals (desired conditions) under changing, and new circumstances.”13 Scenario work is an excellent tool to explore organizational responses to circumstances that involve uncertainty and are outside of the organization’s control. Because the severity, timing, and exact impacts of climate change are unknown, scenario planning can help organizations prepare for it.

Several conservation organizations have been considering how climate change will affect specific species of importance. The Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program recently produced a climate change vulnerability index for important species in the state.14 The index will help conservation staff understand which species are most at risk and could guide future conservation or management decisions. (Pitz).

13 Using scenarios to Explore Climate Change: A Handbook for Practitioners. U.S. National Park Service Climate Response Program. 2013. Available at http://www.nps.gov/subjects/climatechange/upload/CCScenariosHandbookJuly2013.pdf. 14 The Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program’s list and a full report about it is available at http://www.naturalheritage.state.pa.us/ccvi.aspx. The tool used to create the list is NatureServe’s Climate Change Vulnerability Index tool available at http://www.natureserve.org/conservation-tools/climate-change-vulnerability-index.

Scenario planning considers uncertainty by establishing upper and lower bounds in areas of concern, then crossing these axes to develop plausible scenarios. Managers then imagine how they would respond to that scenario. National Park Service’s hand book Using Scenarios to Explore Climate Change. P. 19.

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The World Wildlife Fund has conducted several studies of the vulnerability of specific important species to climate change. For example, they assessed how vulnerable snow leopards would be to changing climate and found that the most important conservation actions for snow leopards are monitoring changes in the availability of prey, and better enforcing protection in movement corridors and refugia areas.15 Assessments for North American species such as monarch butterflies are now in progress and an educational toolkit on wildlife and climate change is being prepared for high schools and universities in partnership with the North American Association of Environmental Educators. (Martin). Other organizations are using a coarse-filter approach to protecting biodiversity. (Weinberg). Conserving a set of core habitat areas with corridors connecting those cores along with conserving a variety of geologic types, microclimates, and elevation gradients may conserve biodiversity. This approach may capture a range of species rather than focusing on a single species. (Weinberg). The North Atlantic Landscape Conservation Cooperative is among these groups. Outward Look -‐ Assisting social-‐ecological systems in resilience As climate change unfolds, human and natural systems will need to adapt in order to survive and thrive. With larger social and ecological systems in mind, conservation could potentially be conducted to ease the process of adaptation. Species will stand a greater chance of survival if they are able to move to new ranges, take advantage of refugia locally, and connect with other populations to increase genetic diversity. Society will be better able to adapt if we protect clean air, clean water, and stable soils as well as provide food and energy locally. (Kingfisher, Ristino, Weinberg). However, significant conflicts in land use may arise as local production of food and energy increase. (Ristino, Schwarz). Some areas will be better suited to protection for species or are too fragile to support agriculture. (Ristino). Both natural and human systems will require land for adaptation under climate change, so finding the highest and best use of the land will require careful consideration. Land conservation has an important role to play in maintaining the natural infrastructure that will help larger social and ecological systems to adapt to climate change. However

15 More information about the World Wildlife Fund’s adaptation programs is available at http://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/wildlife-and-climate

“The best land trusts think of land acquisitions more strategically, and look into the future.”


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land trusts will be required to think strategically about whole ecosystems rather than about single parcels or projects. (Ristino). Land conservation can play a unique role in maintaining robust and flexible ecosystems, but this can be difficult if land trusts are stuck in a reactive mode, responding to opportunities as they emerge rather than seeking to conserve land in important ecological areas. (Ristino). To be more strategic in acquisitions, land trusts need leadership who care about the issue, staff who share in the vision, and effective GIS mapping of areas that contribute most to specific adaptation goals. (Ristino). Conducting strategic, rather than reactive land conservation may require land trusts to raise additional funding and maintain a higher-profile presence in areas they are targeting. (Rissman). The increased demand on staff time may mean that land trusts need to think about the opportunity costs of conserving sub-par lands. Donations might come in for areas that are of little value, but those easements take time to evaluate and craft. Land trusts may need to turn down some opportunities in order to allocate enough staff time to strategic, high-value conservation. (Rissman). VLT already considers the ecological and social impact of its work through affordable housing, community access, large-scale conservation, and conservation science. Considering how current work contributes to climate change adaptation and how future work could do so more effectively would amplify the impact of VLT’s conservation and stewardship. Adaptation in natural systems Emerging studies in conservation biology, spearheaded by The Nature Conservancy, are beginning to shed light on how to preserve biological diversity under a changing climate.16 Conserving land in key areas could help species survive. By offering grants to other organizations to conserve land in resilient landscapes, OSI hopes to demonstrate how to conduct conservation with climate science in mind. Organizations receiving grants from OSI will select sites for conservation based on the latest climate science. (Weinberg). Resilience mapping was conducted by The Nature Conservancy, then OSI issued grants to organizations to

16 Conserving the Stage: Climate Change and the Geophysical Underpinnings of Species Diversity. Anderson, Ferree. 2010. PLoS ONE 5(7). Available at http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011554

“Sustaining connectivity safeguards native wildlife and plants from the impacts of habitat fragmentation and climate change.”

-‐ excerpt from the mission statement of the Staying Connected Initiative

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conserve land in “resilient” areas. The central components of resilience in this study were landscape diversity, connectedness, and geologic diversity. (Weinberg). Conservation organizations should consider downscaling data to include important local landforms. (Weinberg). In Vermont these unique landforms might include vernal pools and small fens that would not show up through remote sensing. Applying this view of resilience writ large may miss some important details that should be considered to help wildlife adapt to climate change. Coarse-filter mapping efforts are important, but cannot fully capture the diversity of land forms or the methods of travel and procreation of all species. For example, some features that are particularly important in Vermont, such as vernal pools or fens, cannot be captured by remote sensing. Coarse filter spatial modeling may miss these important features. Field work, and tapping into local knowledge are extremely important for good conservation work and for climate change adaptation. VLT is planning to apply for a catalyst grant from OSI to make the coarse-filter data from The Nature Conservancy specific to Vermont, perhaps capturing some of the natural features that make Vermont unique. (Weinberg). At the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, staff are working on landscape-scale planning for resilience in the face of climate change. (McKearnan). They participate in the Staying Connected Initiative which focuses making landscapes in New England more connected so that wildlife can migrate, maintain genetic diversity, and have access to larger habitats. They are also training towns about the importance of conserving habitat and connectivity so that wildlife can adapt to the effects of climate change. (McKearnan). In 2016, Vermont will be required to submit a Wildlife Action Plan to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The previous plan, drafted in 2005, mentions climate change, but the new plan will address it in more detail and will include adaptation planning. (McKearnan). Adaptation in social systems Another area commonly discussed was the role that land trusts can play in reducing flooding during extreme storm events. (Grubinger, McKearnan). The Agency of Natural Resources in Vermont is taking a two-pronged approach to flood resilience. On the one hand, they manage the stream alteration permitting process to set bounds on what towns or land owners can do to fill, dredge, install rip rap or otherwise modify stream corridors especially during

“Conservation can be used in a proactive way to address community and ecosystem vulnerability to flooding.”

-‐ Sarah McKearnan Vermont Agency of Natural Resources

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emergency response.17 (McKearnan). On the other hand, they are engaged in long-term risk mitigation which involves restoration of river corridors and moving toward greater equilibrium for rivers. This could make future flood events less severe. Land conservation could play a large role in this longer-term effort. (McKearnan). Targeted land conservation in flood areas, wetland areas and forested headwaters could reduce the risk of flooding downstream which could protect farmland and soil, transportation infrastructure, residences, downtowns, and businesses in Vermont. (Grubinger, McKearnan). The first step to establishing greater stability in river corridors is to collect and maintain high-quality data and mapping of river corridors using both field work and remote sensing. (McKearnan). Modeling like this was initiated after a 2012 summit involving Agency of Natural Resources staff, VLT and others. The resulting tool, the Vermont River Resilience Sensitivity Tool developed by Roy Schiff, could be used by the Agency of Natural Resources and other partners such as Regional Planning Commissions, towns, watershed groups, and smaller conservation organizations. It cannot be a stand-along tool however, and more mapping and field work is needed to fully understand river dynamics in the state. (McKearnan). More work needs to be done to pull the mapping and planning efforts together for hazard mitigation plans, conservation planning, and town land use plans. More thinking is needed about how to apply new data effectively to state, local, and Act 250 permitting processes. (McKearnan). A flood resilience and land conservation initiative involving VLT, the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Vermont Natural Resources Council, the Vermont River Conservancy, and others met regularly for about two years, then stopped meeting in December of 2013. The groups could consider resuming meetings to better inform land conservation for flood resilience. (McKearnan). In addition to flooding, considering the impact of climate change on ground water resources may be important. (McKearnan). Precipitation patterns may become unpredictable under climate change, with greater flooding during some periods and drought during others. As a result planning for clean, fresh water to be available year round for communities, agriculture, and wildlife is important. (McKearnan). The situation may be exacerbated by phosphorous and nitrogen pollution in surface waters, especially in Lake Champlain. (McKearnan). When the state has a better understanding of the ground and surface water resources and how climate change might affect them, there may be some role that land conservation has to play in ensuring the protection of aquifer recharge areas, surface water quality, and public water supplies. (McKearnan).

17 This authority is granted under 10 V.S.A. Chapter 41. Revised stream alteration guidelines are available at http://www.vtwaterquality.org/permits/htm/pm_streamalt.htm.

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In 2008, Jefferson Land Trust reached out to the community that they serve in Jefferson County, WA to conduct a comprehensive planning effort. Community members consistently mentioned climate change as one of the major issues facing the county. In response, the land trust identified four ways to use conservation to preserve the community’s way of life in the face of climate change.

v Develop and implement critical wildlife corridor conservation campaigns.

v Develop and implement a landscape-‐scale forestland conservation program.

v Support creative solutions to water resource scarcity and quality for habitat and agricultural uses.

v Expand trail corridor network to increase connectivity between towns and recreation areas.

The land trust now uses their conservation plan to evaluate new projects, manage existing lands, and work with other NGOs. Jefferson Land Trust also completed a carbon sequestration project and now discusses climate change with visitors in their natural history programming. Jefferson Land Trust’s Conservation Plan can be found at http://www.saveland.org/linkFiles/web_forms/2010_JLT_ConservationPlan_LoRes.pdf

Example: Jefferson Land Trust

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Mitigation Mitigation is about avoiding the unmanageable effects of climate change. Without aggressive mitigation action, we will lose our ability to adapt to change as temperatures continue to rise above 2C global average increase. (Martin). Most organizations interviewed for this project are committed to mitigation either through land management, developing renewable resources, or reducing their own emissions. (Kingfisher, Martin, Schwarz). Leading by example In the past ten years Mass Audubon reduced their own carbon pollution by 50% to show that they were committed to climate change mitigation. (Schwarz). Following professional energy audits at their buildings, Mass Audubon sealed air leaks, added insulation, replaced desktop computers, servers, refrigerators, freezers, light bulbs, air conditioners and other appliances. As of 2009, all of Mass Audubon facilities have purchased green electricity through non-profit Mass Energy, and photovoltaic arrays have been installed at all sanctuaries with nature centers. The organization replaced all 10 sedans in their vehicle fleet with hybrids, held more meetings via teleconferencing, and installed electric vehicle charging stations at one of their education centers. (Schwarz). There is a commitment to continue reductions in the coming years. By investing in these activities staff felt that their message would carry more weight if the organization was “walking the walk.” They felt they could better provide experienced advice about household-sized actions that members could take. (Schwarz). A new campaign called Make the Switch is based on Mass Audubon’s own experience purchasing green electricity; it encourages utility customers to purchase renewable electricity through Mass Energy, a green energy program in Massachusetts. (Schwarz). Mass Audubon also educates visitors at 21 education centers, as well as their general membership, about the importance of climate change and their efforts to slow it. They use communications materials, provide educational programs and interpretive “green” trails at several sanctuaries, and display data about real-time solar productivity. (Schwarz).

“If you’re going to protect nature, you have to work on the greatest threat to nature. We reduced our own carbon footprint by 50%. We are showing that we are walking the walk.”


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Mass Audubon is also active at the state policy level to ensure emissions reductions through the Global Warming Solutions Act, and initiatives that promote renewable, sustainable energy. (Schwarz). In 2013 they issued a statement about the offshore wind project Cape Wind that read in part “the Cape Wind Energy Project will not pose an ecologically significant threat to the birds and associated marine habitat of Horseshoe Shoal and Nantucket Sound. As an important component of our support for responsible development of clean, renewable energy and to reduce the worst effects of climate change, we support this project.”18 (Schwarz). Mass Audubon implements a robust adaptation program via resilient land management and land acquisition. (Schwarz).Their Ecological Management staff worked with The Nature Conservancy (TNC) to downscale the resilience data from the TNC Terrestrial Resilience mapping for Massachusetts so that practitioners can use it at a local level. A grant from the Open Space Institute funded this work.19 (Schwarz). The Vermont Agency of Natural Resources is working on guidance for better siting renewable energy facilities. Renewables sited in natural areas, in high-elevation areas, on farmland, and in important habitat areas are important for moving the energy system to a low-carbon model, but should be carefully sited to avoid negative impacts. (McKearnan). Vermont could lead the way in developing criteria that evaluate small-scale impacts and strike the right balance between natural resources values and mitigation of climate change. (McKearnan). Siting renewables is extremely important, and VLT may want to consider allowing more renewable energy development on conserved lands especially when it is sited responsibly. The World Wildlife Fund works closely with companies to help them reduce their carbon pollution and adopt renewable energy. Companies use their buying power to scale up renewable energy and provide more affordable access to renewable technology for their employees.20 World Wildlife Fund also works closely with cities to transition to using renewable energy while simultaneously preparing for climate-related threats like flooding.21

18 The complete statement from Mass Audubon about Cape Wind is available at http://www.massaudubon.org/content/download/7685/142415/file/Final-position-on-Cape-Wind-2013.pdf 19 More information about Mass Audubon’s efforts to downscale The Nature Conservancy’s resilience data is available in their latest Losing Ground report at http://www.massaudubon.org/our-conservation-work/community-outreach/sustainable-planning-development/losing-ground/losing-ground-fifth-edition. 20 More information about World Wildlife’s private partnerships to curb climate change is available at http://www.worldwildlife.org/partnerships/climate-savers.

“The longer we wait to prepare for the future, the fewer options we have.”


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AllEarth Renewables is not a conservation organization, but they have devised an innovative program to reduce the carbon pollution of AllEarth employees. The company offers a $6,000 annual bonus to employees and then “charges” them against the bonus 15 cents per kilowatt hour equivalent for energy that they use on electricity, driving, and heating.

Employees have responded by reducing their driving, carpooling, insulating their homes, and building renewable energy systems. Staff are excited about the program, and a feeling of competition makes reducing energy use a fun part of office culture. AllEarth public affairs director, Andrew Savage, said “the exciting thing is that as soon as we launched the program, everyone was strategizing in the office and in the lunch room about how to get the biggest bang for the buck, and how could they help each other."

Example: AllEarth Renewables

Land-‐based mitigation strategies Most mitigation solutions discussed in the media or by policy makers involve reducing energy use or replacing fossil fuels with renewable resources. While these are important strategies, there are many mitigation strategies that do not directly involve energy use. many of the most accessible and cost-effective climate change mitigation strategies are based on land use practices. (Pitz). A recent report by McKinsey and Company showed that management of soils, livestock, and forests could contribute significantly to reducing global CO2 emissions.22 Land trusts have a significant opportunity to put some of these management techniques into practice in demonstration projects and on larger fee-owned land. (Pitz)

21 More information about World Wildlife’s Earth Hour Cities program is available at http://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/earth-hour-city-challenge. 22 The Carbon Productivity Challenge: Curbing Climate Change and Sustaining Economic Growth. McKinsey and Company. 2008. Available at http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/energy_resources_materials/the_carbon_productivity_challenge

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Carbon sequestration Several interviewees mentioned carbon sequestration projects as an extremely important action land trusts can take to mitigate climate change. (Pitz, Weinberg). Conserving large forested parcels not only sequesters carbon but offers the co-benefits of habitat preservation, recreation, and scenic beauty. (Weinberg). The Nature Conservancy’s Working Woodlands project allows landowners of forested parcels to enter into long-term non-development agreements in exchange for Forest Stewardship Council certification, certification of carbon storage credits, and a majority share of forest carbon revenues when the credits are sold by The Nature Conservancy’s partner Blue Source. The revenue from carbon credit sales covers the cost of certification. (Weinberg). There are other efforts to aggregate small parcels into projects saleable in carbon markets. The Northwest Neutral program seeks to connect landowners of small forested parcels

This cost curve shows climate mitigation options by cost. The width of the bars shows carbon savings. The height shows cost. Many strategies are based on land management practices, so land trusts could contribute significantly.

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with direct retail purchasers of carbon offsets in the Pacific Northwest.23 The Jefferson Land Trust conducted a demonstration project for the Northwest Neutral program to show that selling carbon credits is a viable way to manage for revenue on their own working forests, without cutting down the carbon sequestering trees. (Kingfisher). The Jefferson Land Trust sold carbon credits directly to the private non-profit lending institution Shorebank Enterprise Cascadia which was seeking to offset its carbon footprint. The deal was brokered through the Northwest Neutral program. In the terms of the deal, a 30-acre working forest will be managed to sequester and store 400 metric tons of carbon over a 100 year period. In exchange, the land trust received $20/ton. The deal was unique because Jefferson Land Trust was able to deal directly with a private firm seeking of offset its emissions in the voluntary market. The parcel size was relatively small compared with projects typically entered in carbon credit markets.24 (Kingfisher). This innovative approach may make it easier to raise money for future conservation because the land trust could avoid the cost of becoming officially certified to sell in a formal carbon credit market and smaller parcels can be used. The deal also demonstrated to other landowners of small parcels that substantial revenue can be generated from the sale of carbon credits. (Kingfisher).

Communications Positive response All of the organizations interviewed for this report said that they had experienced almost no negative feedback from stakeholders, funders, or members when they decided to work on climate change. (Hierl, Kingfisher, Martin, Schwarz, Weinberg). When asked how they thought VLT stakeholders might respond, most interviewees reported that stakeholders would be surprised that VLT was not doing more already on climate or that they would respond positively. (Hierl, Martin, Weinberg). Even when stakeholders commented anonymously, the Jefferson Land Trust did not receive any negative feedback when they were considering addressing climate change more directly in their conservation plan. The Board of Directors was also extremely supportive. (Kingfisher). OSI stakeholders were broadly supportive when the organization undertook a new major project to fund conservation specifically directed at building resilience for climate change. (Weinberg).

23 More information about the Northwest Neutral program, run by the non-profit Northwest Natural Resource Group, is available at http://nnrg.org/resources/northwest-neutral/. 24 More information about the trade is available on the Jefferson County Land Trust’s website at http://www.saveland.org/News/News_Detail.aspx?processID=69.

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Research suggests that the public wants to hear about climate change from sources they trust, and that messaging focused on actions or solutions will be successful with audiences most concerned about climate change.25 VLT may be such a trusted source, meaning that the public or landowners are more receptive to hearing about climate change from VLT than from the national media, for example. (Hierl, Schwarz). Unique communications opportunities Land trusts have a unique opportunity to communicate about climate change. Land trusts, more than other organizations, understand long time horizons. (Weinberg). The effects of climate change are projected to intensify greatly over time frames of 30-100 years. Land trusts are accustomed to thinking about conservation “in perpetuity,” so their memberships and audiences may be more receptive to hearing about effects that to others seem distant. (Weinberg). The land trust community consists of a wider political spectrum than some environmental non-profits. Some interviewees thought that a significant opportunity exists for land trusts to reach out to conservatives, especially hunters, anglers, and farmers. (Martin, Weinberg). Land trusts could serve as a bridge to conservatives by conducting “light touch” education campaigns, raising specific issues (such as supporting stricter EPA carbon pollution standards), and pointing out how climate change will affect important local land. (Weinberg). However, research suggests that a plurality of conservatives in Vermont believe that climate action is important. (Hierl). Vermont may be in a unique position to address climate change because members of both parties agree that addressing climate change is important. (Hierl). A survey conducted for Vermont Conservation Voters by a private polling firm showed strong support across party lines for clean energy, energy efficiency, and climate action. (Hierl).

25 Climate Change Communication Guide: Knowing and Interacting with Your Audience. U.S. National Park Service. 2014. Available at http://www.climatechangecommunication.org/sites/default/files/reports/NPS%20Climate%20Change%20Communication%20Guide%202014%20-%20online.pdf

“There is an assumption that no one wants to hear about climate change, but they do want to hear about it from trusted organizations. It’s a whole new venue for bringing on board a new suite of people.”


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Communications best practices There are several best practices in climate change communications, and many of the organizations interviewed for this report had experience communicating with various audiences about climate change. National studies and studies of general audiences do not speak to the challenges of communicating with a land trust audience, or an audience in Vermont specifically. To get to know the VLT audience, and what might be interesting for them, some survey or focus group work may be needed. When discussing climate change, many suggested that staff use examples that people can relate to or have experienced themselves. (Martin, Pitz). Discussing climate science, modeling, probability, or data in too much detail likely alienates people or causes them to lose interest. (Martin). Asking people about their everyday experiences is an effective way to start the climate conversation, especially in relation to environmental hardships

Vermonter’s support climate action across party lines. This poll was commissioned by Vermont Conservation Voters and asked about support for clean energy, energy efficiency, and climate action as a package. Polling about land-‐based climate change solutions in Vermont has not been conducted.

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like disasters. Staff could begin by asking questions like “how long did it take you to recover? What do you wish you had then? What can we do to make sure we are better prepared for the next extreme event?”26 (Martin). Columbia University’s Center for Research on Environmental Decisions recommends eight principles to consider when discussing or writing about climate change. 1. Know your audience. 2. Get the attention of your audience by pointing out the effects of climate change that will be local and happening soon. 3. Use vivid imagery and individual experiences rather than too much scientific data. 4. Do not overuse emotional appeals because they will cause numbness in your audience. 5. Address uncertainty head on and talk about the precautionary principle. 6. Tap into group identity to create a sense of cooperation. 7. Encourage people to take action in groups, using group psychology to increase response to appeals. 8. Make behavior change easier for your audience.27 Discussing the co-benefits of climate change mitigation and adaptation may be an effective strategy. (Pitz). Some benefits of mitigation include cleaner air, better health, more local jobs, energy independence, exhibiting leadership, and economic resilience when energy prices rise. Some benefits of adaptation are more preparedness when disaster strikes, reduced damage to infrastructure, greater survival rates of species, more robust recreation opportunities, better fishing, hunting, and trapping. Communicating with farmers There are management strategies in agriculture to both mitigate climate change and adapt to its inevitable effects. VLT would need to consider how to discuss these management strategies with farmers.

26 More information about environmentally sustainable disaster response is available at http://green-recovery.org/. 27 The Psychology of Climate Change Communications: A Guide for Scientists, Journalists, Educators, Political Aides, and the Interested Public. Center for Research on Environmental Decisions, Columbia University. 2009. Available at http://guide.cred.columbia.edu/pdfs/CREDguide_full-res.pdf.

This cartoon discussing co-‐benefits by Joel Pett that first appeared in USA Today in December, 2009, has been circulated again and again.

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Farmers may be among VLT’s more conservative audiences, but more evidence is needed about their opinions locally. Farmers on conserved farms (or potentially conserved farms) may differ significantly from the stereotype of the conservative farmer. However, nationally, the American Farm Bureau Federation opposes regulation of carbon pollution in any sector, going so far as to claim there is ambiguity about whether climate change is caused by human activity.28 (Ristino). Even the Farm Bureau acknowledges that “adaption strategies and tools can be utilized to face the challenges of more inclement weather and a changing climate.”29 Perhaps the most effective way to reach farmers is by discussing adaptation strategies and relating directly to their observations of phenology, hydrology, and extreme weather events. (Grubinger, Ristino). Many of the strategies offer other environmental benefits, or even economic benefits. VLT could offer technical bulletins, trainings, or conversations with stewardship staff which suggest some of these management techniques because of their other benefits. (Grubinger). VLT may be in a unique position to discuss climate change directly with farmers. Many farmers are already seeing the effects of climate change on the land in the form of longer growing seasons, increased precipitation and flooding, and increased damage from pests. VLT could connect the dots as a way of encouraging more action from farmers both in terms of management techniques and political action. (Hierl). In either case, the first step is to identify discreet strategies for farmers to mitigate and adapt to climate change and consolidate that knowledge in a digestible format. VLT could consider working with UVM extension, NOFA, and commodity groups such as the Vermont Maple Sugar Makers Association. There are several research projects underway as well as collections of best practices that VLT could help to disseminate among farmers working on conserved lands. (Grubinger).

Agriculture Impacts to production Farmers will face increasing challenges under climate change with important impacts to their bottom lines. For example, hot humid days in summer can lower milk production in dairy cows by 10-25%. (Grubinger). In the decade 2000-2010, average annual temperatures have increased by 3° F in lowland areas of Vermont, where most farms are

28 Global Climate Change. American Farm Bureau Federation. 2015. Available at http://www.fb.org/issues/docs/climate15.pdf. 29 Id.

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located.30 Temperature extremes in both winter and summer have been increasing as well. With hotter summer days, dairy cows are at risk of lower food intake, decreased milk production, and lower reproduction rates due to fatigue.31 Some adaptive practices can alleviate fatigue. Farmers should consider planting shade trees, passively ventilating their barns, and providing ample water throughout the day. (Grubinger). Other impacts to production in agriculture include lower yield of cool-weather crops, reduced grain yield, lower fruit yields for spring-blooming crops such as apples, new or increased pests which overwinter more successfully.32 Farmers may be able to cope by changing cultivars, using row covers, composting, or using cover crops. (Grubinger). Over the longer term as climate change intensifies, some of these adaptation strategies may not be successful for crops traditionally grown in Vermont, but those changes are projected to unfold over several generations, so farm families will have time to adapt. In addition to risks to livestock and crops, the underlying soil is also at increased risk under climate change. The northeast is projected to get wetter on average and to experience more frequent and severe storm events. Vermont has experienced a 74% increase in 1-day very heavy precipitation events since 1958.33 As precipitation increases, soil may be lost to erosion. VLT could help farmers prepare for this impact by discouraging row cropping and encouraging erosion control techniques. Also, conserving forested land and wetlands upstream from farms likely reduces the severity of erosion during storms because water is absorbed and slowed. (Grubinger). 30 Vermont Climate Assessment: Considering Vermont’s Future in a Changing Climate. P. 22. The Gund Institute for Ecological Economics, The University of Vermont. 2014. Available at http://dev.vtclimate.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/VCA2014_FullReport.pdf. 31 Climate Change and Agriculture in Vermont. Presentation at NOFA winter conference. Joshua Faulkner. 2014. Available at http://www.uvm.edu/~agroecol/Faulkner_Farming%20and%20Climate%20Change%20Overview_NOFA%20Intensive.pdf. 32 Id. 33 Id.

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Agricultural mitigation Farming is a major source of green house gas emissions. Fossil fuel is used to manufacture agricultural chemicals and fertilizers, power machinery, and store and transport food. Animals produce methane, a green house gas 20 times more powerful than carbon dioxide. Livestock manure releases nitrous oxide, a green house gas 300 times more powerful than carbon dioxide. The addition of nitrogen-based fertilizers to the soil is the largest source of nitrous oxide emissions in the United States.34 There are important steps farmers could take to help reduce the climate impact of agriculture. Farmers could reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers by applying only the optimum amount required for growth. (Grubinger). They could use low or no-till methods that require less operation of heavy machinery and sequester more carbon. These methods are reversible, so if the farmer decides to till in the future, the carbon would be released again. Farmers could reduce the size of livestock herds, choosing to specialize in value-added products that require fewer animals. (Grubinger). Rather than adjusting practices at the margins, farmers could totally rethink their approach to agriculture. One method that has been suggested by the Rodale Institute is “regenerative organic agriculture.” Regenerative organic agriculture not only reduces the impact of agriculture, it can sequester carbon from the atmosphere, further mitigating climate change. (Pitz). Practices such as conservation tillage, use of cover crops, and applying compost to fields in order to fix carbon in the soil could have a dramatic effect on climate change if deployed on a large scale.35 Farm run off constitutes a significant contributor to non-point source water pollution in the state of Vermont. (Ristino). Practices that help to mitigate climate change, such as perennial cropping and lower levels of fertilizer application also help to protect water quality. (Ristino). Currently VLT references state regulations in farm easements, but could require higher standards of management for both water quality and climate. (Ristino). Conservation easements on farms are one way to ease the financial impact of water quality regulations that may emerge as part of Vermont’s TMDL process.

34 Overview of Green House Gas Emissions: Nitrous Oxide Emissions. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2014. Available at http://epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases.html. 35 Regenerative Organic Agriculture and Climate Change: A Down-to-Earth Solution for Global Warming. Rodale Institute. 2014. Available at http://rodaleinstitute.org/regenerative-organic-agriculture-and-climate-change/.

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Easements that lower the tax burden could help farmers afford to comply with new regulations. (Ristino). Mitigation strategies are more controversial for farmers than adaptation strategies because adaptation will generally have a positive effect on production. Mitigation may require investment while payback is not always clear. Some of these techniques will save money, such as reduced fertilizer and fossil fuel use. Others may not, like the increased labor needed for organic farming. (Pitz, Grubinger). How VLT engages with farmers on the issue of mitigation is more sensitive than adaptation. Communications should be carefully crafted to avoid coming across as judgmental or alarmist. (Grubinger). Given that VLT does not prescribe management techniques to farmers, a “soft” approach would be needed to address on-farm emissions. VLT could partner with willing and interested farmers on a conserved farm to conduct a demonstration project to inspire other farmers to consider mitigation practices. (Pitz). The application for the farmland access program could include a “managing for climate change” section where farmers discuss how they plan to minimize their climate impact. (Grubinger). Local food systems VLT could have a role in promoting local, diversified food systems. (Ristino). By conserving farmland, VLT would be protecting those resources from future development. In the future when food resources are projected to be more restricted worldwide, Vermont would be in a better position for self-reliance. (Grubinger). Other land trusts are considering this issue as well. For example the Jefferson Land Trust is concentrating on conserving farmland located near population centers and along major transportation corridors so that food can reach people with minimum disruption in the future. (Kingfisher).

“VLT could create a climate-‐friendly farming fund to provide financial compensation to farmers who take on additional expenses related to adaptation or mitigation for the common good of all of us.”

-‐ Vern Grubinger University of Vermont

“We can’t call ourselves conservation organizations and have a tremendous amount of pollution coming off of conserved farmland.”


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Using conservation as a tool to build local food systems may require that land trusts change their traditional land protection strategies. For example, they may need to embrace smaller parcels closer to viable markets, and conserve parcels with a variety of agricultural uses. (Ristino). If land trusts move in this direction, they should pay special attention to their fiduciary responsibility to protect conservation values. Conservation values and farming can conflict, and land trusts must make careful decisions when conflicts arise. (Ristino). In addition to conserving farmland, there are other steps VLT could take to help develop a robust local food system. By offering affordable farmland, VLT could incent younger farmers to enter the practice which could preserve agricultural knowledge, stimulate entrepreneurialism, and bring more climate change awareness to the farming community. (Ristino). Conservation has a definite role to play in making farmland more affordable, but keeping young farmers in the business is challenging. By encouraging value-added products, VLT could help farms become financially sustainable. (Ristino). Food access for the middle class is also an area that needs work in the state. There are good existing programs for low-income Vermonters including gleaning programs and relationships between farmers and local food banks. There is also abundant local food available to high-income Vermonters through Community Supported Agriculture and farmers’ markets. Middle-income Vermonters do not currently have enough access to fresh, local food. VLT could consider ways that their farmland access program might address this issue. (Grubinger). Low-‐elevation land use conflicts Low-elevation calcareous soils provide the basis for some of the most biologically diverse ecosystems in the region. These areas are also highly desirable for human settlement because the underlying soil type is ideal for farming. In New England a very small percentage this soil type is conserved compared to higher percentages of granite soil types in higher elevations. (Weinberg). Focusing on conserving this soil type may help protect biodiversity under climate change, but could cause conflicts with agricultural uses. In many cases conservation for climate resilience benefits both people and nature. For example conserving large forested blocks for water quality protection also benefits wildlife. However, in the case of low elevation calcareous soils, there is a conflict between the goals of promoting biodiversity and promoting local agriculture. (Weinberg). There is an ongoing tension between which land is best used for farming and which land should be kept “wild.” VLT could start by developing specific criteria for which land is best used for which purpose. (Grubinger). In a study on regional food independence, Food Solutions New England found that the region could produce about two thirds of the food it needs, but that there would be significant trade offs in land use. For example grain production could take place in

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southern Vermont, but large swaths of forest would have to be converted to farmland.36 The region would need to deploy an integrated planning process, and tough choices about land use would have to be made. (Grubinger). Regional independence in food systems could greatly impact natural systems and diminish climate adaptability in other areas, such as flood resilience or habitat conservation. (Grubinger). If sustainable farming practices were used, this impact may be reduced. For example if permanent pastures were used instead of row cropping. (Grubinger). One potential way to cope with this conflict is to encourage diversified farming with allowances on the farm for habitat and movement corridors. (Grubinger, Weinberg). By carefully crafting farm easements, VLT could allow for greater biodiversity on farms than mono-cropping and farming right up to stream banks allow. There may be ways to continue human use while preserving biodiversity in these areas by allowing marginal farmland to revert back to natural habitat, creating naturalized corridors along stream banks, or otherwise making farming landscapes permeable to wildlife. (Weinberg). One of the only programs to compensate farmers for maintaining wild stream buffers and natural habitat areas is the Natural Resources Conservation Service’s Conservation Stewardship Program. VLT could lobby for more state funding or initiate crowd funding to compensate farmers for setting aside natural habitat. For example the Bobolink Project in Vermont uses community donations to compensate farmers who alter the timing of hay harvest. Harvesting hay later in the season allows for grassland species to use hayfields during important reproductive times.37 (Grubinger). There may be alternative farming methods such as perennial cropping in buffers or using tree coppicing to produce biomass fuel that would provide both a revenue stream to farmers as well as viable habitat for wildlife. (Grubinger).

Legal Frameworks Principled adaptation in easements Several interviewees pointed to a need to thoughtfully craft the terms of easements so that they accounted for the process of ecological change related to climate change and other processes. (Rissman, Ristino, Weinberg). The historical assemblages of species on the land are projected to change dramatically under climate change. The activities that are possible on particular parcels may also change. For example skiing, ice skating, or snowmobiling may not be possible if winter temperatures in Vermont become too warm. Easements which were crafted to protect a specific set of species, or allow a particular activity may become out of date as circumstances change. (Rissman). 36 A New England Food Vision. Food Solutions New England. 2014. Available at http://www.foodsolutionsne.org/sites/default/files/LowResNEFV_0.pdf. 37 More information about the Bobolink Project is available at http://www.bobolinkproject.com/

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Easement terms should be written to recognize that change is inevitable and allow for successful management of the land even as change occurs. Both the preamble and the substantive terms can include language that indicates the easement is intended to protect the current natural community to the greatest extent possible or other communities naturally arising there. (Ristino). There are several important tools that land trusts use to practice adaptive management. Management plans, retaining management rights, ecological monitoring provisions, and careful amendment processes are examples of tools land trusts use to manage land differently over time in reaction to changing circumstances. (Rissman). Land trusts and state attorneys general will need to design the right decision processes that are likely to enhance conservation outcomes. (Rissman). Under changing circumstances decisions will need to be made. The central challenge is to determine who will make these decisions, how transparent will that process be, and what oversight will be required. (Rissman). Tools for principled adaptation Management plans are an important area where land trusts should consider building in flexibility to react to climate change. (Rissman, Ristino). Management plans should include language that recognizes the likelihood of change to natural communities and spells out procedures for coping with change. (Rissman, Ristino). For example, if a landowner expects a proliferation of Emerald Ash Borer, what are the procedures they should follow before they are allowed to log ash trees extensively as a preemptive measure? Management plans should also include regular time lines for being updated so that they remain relevant. (Ristino). Some land trusts retain active management rights over easements. They retain the right to maintain trails, conduct monitoring, remove invasive species, or conduct restoration work. These easements are generally more expensive to the land trust. (Rissman). These active management rights may become more important as the climate changes because they could allow the land trust to react by intervening directly. (Rissman). Ecological monitoring provisions should be included in easements with an ecological protection goal. (Rissman). Many current easements do not include provisions to allow

“Management plans may provide…options for climate change adaptation, but they need to be carefully bounded within organizational decision processes to ensure that their terms enhance conservation purposes.”

-‐ excerpt from Adapting Conservation Easements to Climate Change, Adena R.

Rissman, et al. 2014. Conservation Letters.

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ecological monitoring by land trust staff.38 As the climate changes and as change occurs for other reasons like nearby development, flooding, or invasive species, the purposes of the easement may not be fulfilled if a specific natural community is not able to persist on the land there. (Rissman). Ecological monitoring, in addition to regular stewardship, allows land trusts to keep abreast of changes to their assets. (Rissman). Amendments to easements are a particularly controversial topic. No organization can anticipate all future conditions, so having an amendment process in place that maintains the integrity of the conservation process is key to adaptive management. (Rissman). Land trusts could consider putting in place an amendment policy that would notify the state attorney general of changes as well as enlist an objective panel to evaluate potential amendments. (Rissman). Some experts felt that amendments should only be allowed if they maintain or enhance the conservation purpose of the easement, which makes carefully crafting the conservation purpose even more important. (Rissman, Ristino). Land trusts also use laws and policies that are coded into the easement as potential management tools. Easements that reference best management practices established by the state are one example. Lobbying efforts by the land trust or changes by policy makers can change these laws and policies, so they are a source of both flexibility and uncertainty in the easement. (Rissman). The most flexible easements allow changes when they are mutually agreed to by the land trust and the land owner. These types of easements have not yet been widely challenged in court, so the legality of this practice is in question. Land trusts are increasingly building in this level of discretion, but too much flexibility may undermine the public trust and the conservation purpose of the easement.39 (Rissman). 38 Adapting conservation easements to climate change. Adena R. Rissman et al. Conservation Letters. 2014. Available at http://www.landtrustalliance.org/climate-change-toolkit/adapting-conservation-easements-to-climate-change 39 Id.

Most conservation easements do not contain provisions that will allow for principled adaptation as shown in this figure from Rissman et al., 2014.

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Balancing flexibility, protection, and complexity The need for flexibility should be balanced against the land trust’s obligation to provide for the public good by protecting land in perpetuity. (Ristino, Rissman). Land trusts should consider consulting with the state’s attorney general before making the terms of their easements too flexible rather than being faced with legal challenges or public relations issues down the road. (Rissman). The conservation purpose section of the easement should be sufficiently broad so that if a specific natural community, species, or activity cannot persist on the land because of climate change, the easement will still remain relevant. However the purpose should be specific enough to provide a basis for conservation enforcement. (Rissman). This language might mention specific species or activities, but use the phrase “included but not limited to” to indicate that other species or activities may become important in the future. (Rissman). One reason that land trusts are so successful is that they maintain good relationships with landowners. They can serve as a vital conduit for information about climate change and for best management practices. This form of “soft” power is critical to climate change adaptation, but relationships that are too close could get in the way of maintaining the public interest in the land. (Ristino). The public sacrifices tax revenue to facilitate land conservation, so there must be a strong sense of the fiduciary responsibility that land trusts have to protect the public interest including strong boards and clear procedures when easement terms have been violated. (Ristino). Too much flexibility built into the easement can undermine this fiduciary responsibility. (Ristino). If managing for change is an important goal, the easement should reflect that because soft power and relationships are not controlling on land owner behavior. As one interviewee put it, “you cannot take soft power to court.” (Ristino). As the terms of easements become more specific, the requirements of land owners may also become more complex. For example, allowing a meander corridor for a stream requires that land owners know about the corridor in the event of a severe flood and that they do not add berms or rip rap to the stream bank. These very specific requirements make the easement more complex for the landowner and more difficult for the land trust to manage. (Ristino). The right balance between simplicity and adequate protection must be

Most conservation easements have multiple purposes as shown in this figure from Rissman et al., 2014. Land trusts should specify how these purposes should be interpreted in the context of climate change especially when they may conflict.

Easement Purposes

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struck by thoughtful acquisitions and legal staff. (Ristino). Deeds should be written clearly with the responsibilities of both parties clearly spelled out to avoid confusion. (Ristino). Most conservation easements have multiple purposes. In a study of 269 easements, Rissman et al. found that most easements have an average of seven purposes.40 When these purposes conflict, both the landowner interests and the public interests are subject to an uncertain process of negotiation. Climate change can interfere with the ability of a conservation easements to achieve its purpose. Under climate change, these conflicts may become more pronounced.

Interviewees Grubinger – Vern Grubinger, University of Vermont, Extension Professor Hierl – Lauren Hierl, Vermont Conservation Voters, Political Director Kingfisher – Erik Kingfisher, Jefferson Land Trust, Stewardship Director Martin – Shaun Martin, World Wildlife Federation, Senior Director of Climate Change

Adaptation McKearnan – Sarah McKearnan, Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Special

Assistant on Climate Change Pitz – Andrew Pitz, French and Pickering Creeks Conservation Trust, Executive Director Rissman – Adena Rissman, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Assistant Professor in the

Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology Ristino – Laurie Ristino, Director, Center for Agriculture and Food Systems, Associate

Professor of Law, Vermont Law School Schwarz – Loring Schwarz, Mass Audubon, Director of Climate Change Program Weinberg – Abigail Weinberg, Open Space Institute, Director of Research

40 Id.

Documents

VLT_best_practices_report