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Is Facebook an emerging virtual public sphere? Understanding, confusions and contest among ‘Religious’ and ‘Liberals’ in Pakistan through the lens of Facebook.

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Summary

This study examines the Facebook role as an emerging virtual public sphere of Pakistan. A

sphere in which, contest and deliberations of ideas occur among two very segments of the

population; religious and liberals, to take over the public opinion, using various issues and topics

of public concern. They pole apart at opposite extremes but still their coexistence and pursuit of

consensus is achievable through a rational, critical discussion in an autonomous public sphere. It

is important to note, a large population of moderate-Muslims reside between these extremes. The

current study contribute in two folds: first it present an argument in favor of Facebook as an

emerging virtual public sphere, and second expose the contestation of ideas among socio-

religious segmented population of Pakistan and Facebook significance to understand it. The

polarization and segmentation of Pakistani public has historical importance and it is rooted in the

ideology of Pakistan.

After the proliferation of Internet and social media, the magnitude and visibility of these

contests have extended to the lives of the masses. Exposing to and involving them in these

contemporary debates. Involvement of ordinary public is redefining the quality of discourse and

changing the boundaries of this virtual public sphere. I attempt to analyze the degree of

participation and impact of this debate on ordinary public. At the same time, try to examine, how

public participation affect above mentioned two segments in public sphere? Both folds are

intertwined with each other and their mutual connectivity support to pave the ground for this

study. Using Facebook as an object and lens for this study not only expands and increase the

richness of the study but also offers a methodological approach to grasp firsthand knowledge on

other contemporary issues of Pakistan’s public sphere.

New millennium brought several challenges for the country. Despite various internal and

external issues, first time Pakistan’s public witnessed blessings of; free electronic media,

Increasing urbanization, and most importantly, involvement of vast public in the consumption of

global information through Internet. The low-cost digital devices, ease of web 2.0 and seamless

access has allowed the rise of internet and social media use in private and public life of public.

Internet contributes to the public awareness on common issues and intensifies free debate and

discussion, helping in the creation of an emerging public sphere. The Internet has been proven as

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an open and flexible space that makes possible direct contact of public around the world, creating

new forms of community in which social conflicts, opportunities and most concern are

discussed. The recent online discussion on Facebook among two segments of population on the

contemporary political-Islamic issues; dealing with local Taliban, blasphemy law, authority and

role of religion in politics, demonstrates the significance and importance of the virtual public

sphere. The impact and penetration of this virtual sphere in life-world and system-world is self

evident; amplification of public voice, participation of women, students in politics and public

opinion reshaping are some of many. The dominance of orthodox religious clergy in public

space, inadequacy of political sphere to engage public in a critical rationale debate and

commercialize composition of the electronic media exemplify the weakness of the Pakistan’s

public sphere and public discourse in it.

Considering these factors in mind, my claim about virtual public sphere is more relevant

and justified. Only online environment is best place to examine an autonomous public sphere,

which offers an open space, transgressing from the religious and political authoritarian

boundaries. A space which offers ordinary public to express condemnation and approval of right

and wrong, display solidarity and differences, celebrate similarities, remember and reinforce

shared history and values. It includes and facilitates marginalized public for rational, democratic

and sometime agonistic discussion to form an opinion on contemporary issues. In spite of the

fact that; this virtual public sphere is a locus of rational debate on the common good, but at the

same time, these rationales create confusion and contest among participants on the basis of their

socio-religious background, information, ideas and doctrines.

Key words:

Virtual, Sphere, Polarization, Segmentation, Islam, Pakistan, Facebook, Religion, Liberal,

Private, Public, Contest, Consensus

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Glossary

Jihad Effort, Holy war

Tajdeed Reforms

The Laaltain Light (Facebook Page)

Ghaddar Traitor (Facebook Page)

Mughal India Indian region under the rule of Mughal emperors

Ulema Religious Islamic Scholars

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Content list

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………….6

1.1. Background……………………………………………………………………....9

1.3. Aim of the Study….……………………………………………………………..11

1.4. Interweaving Two Folds…………………………………………………………16

2. Historical and Theoretical Point of Departure…………………………….……19

2.1. Theoretical Framework….………………………………………………….…….21 2.3. Functions and Characteristics of the Public Sphere……………………...……….24

2.4. The Public Sphere From Bourgeois Coffee House to Virtual Café……………...

2.4. Pakistan’s Public Sphere………………………………………………………...

2.5. Political Islam vs Popular Islam………………………………………………...

2.6. Enlightenment, Modernity, Secularism and Post Secularism..…………………...

3. LiteratureReview……………………………………………………………….

3.1. Previous Research on Internet and Public Sphere……………………………….

3.2. Previous Research on Pakistani Public Sphere…………………………………..

4. Framing Facebook as Virtual Public Sphere……………………………………

4.1. Optimistic vs Pessimistic views………………………………………………..

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Introduction

The aim of this study is to examine the segmentation of the Pakistan’s public sphere from

the perspective of the “common good” debate on two Facebook pages The Laaltain and Roshni. I

am trying to investigate virtual public sphere within the domain of politics and religion from the

angle of contest and confrontation of ideas. However, my special emphasis is being placed on the

analysis of socio-religious segmentation and polarization of the participants in Pakistan’s public

sphere. As studied by Ali B, Z 2012) “The public sphere in Pakistan has been faced with a

virulent socio-religious polarization-- two segments of the population, one apparently 'radical'

and 'religious' and the other presumably 'liberal' and 'secular'. Such rivalry has created

contentious divisions along numerous, cross-cutting cleavages in which 'religion' has again and

again proven to be the primary fault line”.

I am trying to use Facebook as an object and lens of this study to understand polarization

and concerning debate in virtual public sphere among religious and liberals of Pakistan. At the

same time, utilizing Facebook as an instrument for this study, Facebook has great potential for

recruiting participants and primary data gathering. Facebook makes it easy for ordinary users,

experts and for developers to create simple questionnaires, surveys, and applications (see

http://developers.facebook.com). Over the years many researchers have taken advantage of this

resource. Facebook has received considerable attention in a variety of research areas. Wilson, R,

Gosling, and Graham, L (2012) identify research on Facebook emanate from a large range of

fields; descriptive analysis of users, motivations for using Facebook, identity presentation, the

role of Facebook in social interactions, and privacy and information disclosure. Number of

problems and Uncertainties still exists about the efficient use of Facebook in social research;

fluid nature of content and users, overly self portrayal (Zywica & Danowski, 2008),

inappropriate content posting (Karl, Peluchette, & Schlaegel, 2010a, 2010b), research ethics

(Solberg, 2010). Facebook constitutes a new domain for social research, so it is understandable

that methods and protocols for research have yet to be developed.

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Chapter 1 is about general introduction including, research questions and research

objectives. The introduction chapter also highlights the background, current and historical

importance of this study. Chapter 2 and 3 sketch the theoretical and historical grounds from

previous studies and theories respectively on “Understanding Pakistani Public Sphere” and

“Framing of Facebook as Public Sphere”. The next two chapters deal with research

methodology, data gathering, results, discussion and last but not the least conclusion. I started

my pre-study analysis of two Facebook fan pages about six month ago. Initially, I identified four

Facebook fan pages and 6 open groups, specifically discussing religious-political issues. The

number of active users, quantity and quality of posts and comments, force me to limit my study

only for two Facebook fan pages; The Laaltain and Roshni. Now, for recruiting participants of

the study and data gathering, I created my new Facebook page, so I don’t want to put my

influence on the participants of the study with my personal detail and personality.

Since its independence in 1947 from the British colonial system, Pakistan has been facing

various ideological and contemporary challenges; along with lack of democracy and religious

extremism (Haqqani, and Haider, 2010; Abbas, 2005). The ongoing debate over the issues of

blasphemy law, interpretation of religious issues like, ‘Jihad’ and ‘Tajdeed’ and religion role in

politics have been highlighting the polarization of the Pakistan’s public, political and media

spheres. The pertaining discussion and debate on Facebook regarding above issues brings forth

the possible role of Facebook as an emerging virtual public sphere of Pakistan. That offers and

facilitates virtual space beyond imagination to think, criticize and discuss on the collective

interests and issues of common good. It attributes a surprising amount of agency and superlative

autonomy, which unshackles an individual from conventional pressures and at the same time

liberate mass public from restrictions imposed by the religious elite and authoritarian regime in a

physical space.

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Statement of the problem:

Public sphere is a virtual or physical space, where contestation, rejection and acceptance

of ideas occur by ordinary public on the basis of their rationality and critical reasoning; which is

important to understand obligations and rights of an individual and for the society to realize

common concerns and common good. This study examines the Facebook role as an emerging

virtual public sphere of Pakistan. A sphere in which, contest and deliberations of ideas occur

among two very segments of the population: religious and liberals. In spite of the fact that; this

virtual public sphere is a locus of rational debate on the common good, but at the same time,

these rationales create confusion and contest among participants on the basis of their socio-

religious background, information, ideas and doctrines.

Research Questions:

How and if, Facebook is playing a role as an emerging virtual public sphere of Pakistan?

Is it providing and facilitating alternative space (Virtual Cafe) for rationale debate and discussion

to form public opinion? Is virtual public sphere emancipating public from traditional boundaries?

How Facebook amplifying and extending contest and deliberations of ideas to the ordinary

public, and how it create confusion, conflict and consensus?

The impact of the debate on larger public and degree of participation by them, how public

participation affects political and media spheres?

Research Objectives:

The objectives of this study are:

To understand the current and historical confrontation and contestation of liberal and radicals

in Pakistani public sphere.

To examine possible role of Facebook as it is providing and facilitating alternative space

(Virtual Cafe) for rationale debate and discussion to form public opinion.

To identify the level of participation from marginalized citizens like Students, women and

rural community.

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Impact and influence of Virtual Public Sphere on National Public, Political and Media

Spheres.

To predict at least some future trends of Pakistani Public Sphere.

Significance and Limitations of the Study:

This study will identify the role of the Facebook as an emerging public sphere of

Pakistan. This study would be significant to understand the current and historical contestation of

ideas among socio-religious segmented population of Pakistan. Through this research one can

understand root causes of current political and socio-religious crisis in the country. This study

will help wider readers to know how a moderate-Muslim or common man perceives and

distinguishes between religious and liberals. I am trying to find and answer questions of socio-

religious differences among public and its affect on Pakistani public sphere. There is still plenty

of work which can be included under the heading of public sphere. Limitation of resources and

time never permit me to extend this study in real demographics of Pakistan to asses’ current state

of public sphere and participation of larger public in it. Despite this problem, however, Facebook

discussion on public issues offers a reflection of current social and political processes in the

country.

First of all, a digital medium such as “The Facebook” its contents and users are subject to

rapid change. New users enter and leave, new content, stories and interests develop and abolish

quickly. Therefore, studying and analyzing such fluid environment is much difficult then real

world. A second problem is that studying the public sphere within Facebook environment makes

it hard to define the research geographical boundaries. Likewise, problem of language, echoing

and participant’s authenticity, fake accounts as in a study by Pew research center (2013) noticed

single user has multiple Facebook accounts with fake identities and profiles. Therefore, this

research will focus only on two Facebook pages and on users who actively participate in

discussion.

http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/05/21/teens-social-media-and-privacy/

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Background:

The idea of this study is to take diversity of Pakistani public as a departure point. What

Qadeer, M. A (2012) noted as difference among population in regard of life style, linguistic,

ethnic and cultural orientation. I am further extending his argument that these differences create

diversity of socio-religious classes and thinking. Roy, O (1996) defines this as “the birth of new

social classes, and the advent of contemporary ideologies”. In an optimistic thinking, these

diversities built rich and beautiful mosaic of the population but from the other perspective, these

diversities create agonistic confrontation among socio-religiously divided classes. As Ramadan,

T. (2008)) explains when you don't know how to manage diversity it ends with division and it

creates problems.

For now, I conceptualize Pakistani public sphere[s] as consisting of multiple variations

and counter public spheres involving several issues. Habermas (1992) defines in his later work

on the public sphere “A different picture emerges if from the very beginning one admits the

coexistence of competing public spheres and takes account of the dynamics of those processes of

communication-- That are excluded from the dominant public sphere”. However, Pakistani

public is more homocentric on the religion hence religion is overlapped on all spheres of life and

system-world. Religion is always the central and most important topic which governs the debate

and discussion in public sphere.

Religion has an overarching influence on all discourses in the public sphere. I am not

designating this virtual public sphere as a “Muslim public sphere” in a sense, as Dale F.

Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson (2003) identified, but there scholarly work has provided stand

point to understand about notion of an emerging public sphere. “Situated outside formal state

control, this-- public sphere exists at the intersections of religious, political and social life.

Facilitated by the proliferation of media in the modern world, the Muslim public can challenge

or limit the state and conventional religious authorities and contribute to the creation of a civil

society”.

The official religion of Islamic Republic of Pakistan is Islam. About 97 percent of

population is Muslim. More than half of the population lives in rural areas with higher poverty

percentage. Islam provided the basis for creation of an independent country to the scattered

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Muslims in British-India. According to “Two nation theory” Muslims and Hindus are two

different nations who have had their own culture, traditions, customs, language and life style

different from each other. John L. Esposito (2001) explains, Pakistan movement leaders

endorsed the Islamic nationalism call for separate Muslim homeland. “Islamic nationalism was

supposed to unite-- Muslims in a county that was in fact-a composite of diverse linguistic, ethnic

and regional cultural identities / communities and whose two wings (West and East Pakistan)

were separated by more than a thousand miles of Indian Territory. Pakistan's Muslim nationalism

was rooted in an appeal to a common Muslim heritage and call for a Muslim homeland, its

meaning the relationship of Islam to the state) has been as diverse as its population”. Islam

might prove as combining force in the case of the creation of Pakistan but after the secession of

East Pakistan as an independent country Bangladesh proved this ideology false. (see Ali T 2012;

Coakley, 2003; Bhargava R, 2005).

The ‘embededness’ and embodiment of Islam in public life, political space, at town

square, rallies, public gatherings and on the national, local and now in social media landscape

make it more visible. Islam influences every sphere of private and public life. According to

Gellner E (1991) modern industrial and scientific society erodes religious beliefs-- the political

and psychological impact of religion has diminished. Islam-- is a very striking and total

exception to this.-- the hold of Islam over its' believers is as strong, and in some ways stronger,

now than it was hundred years ago.

The rise of Internet and ease of web 2.0 blurs the boundaries between private and public.

Similarly, In case of Facebook, formerly launched by college students, for internal

communication now have more then billion users around the globe. As mentioned in its mission

statement “Facebook’s mission is to give people the power to share and make the world more

open and connected. People-- discover what’s going on in the world, and to share and express

what matters to them.” The involvement of vast population of the globe emerged the Facebook

into an arena of debate and contest for seeking common good. The concept of public sphere is

being extended and penetrated deep in our personal and private life since emergence of social

media. Social media sites are not more considered as personal social networks but providing and

facilitating, platforms to communicate, promote campaigns and coordinate actions. As Lance

Bennett (2012) discuss about digitally mediated public issues “They share stories about their

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activities by posting videos on YouTube and photos on Flickr or on NGO websites. They move

together or apart on and off line, sometimes reaching consensus on common issues, and

sometimes debating the best issue frame or political strategy”.

Aim of the Study:

This study aims to address and analyze at least two major issues concerning Pakistani

public sphere; Firstly, How to define historical and current status of Pakistani public sphere. This

question covers my discussion (secondary data, literature and previous studies) from theoretical

framework of public sphere to framing Facebook as an emerging public sphere of Pakistan.

Secondly, identification of polarize and segmented public opinion and public. This part led the

discussion to the main objective of the research (primary data, quantitative and qualitative) and it

includes topics from the field of political Islam, modernity, secularism and post secularism. To

answers these questions and other relevant problems. My aim is to conduct this study by using

Facebook as an object and an instrument of research. This study combines various theories and

approaches of sociology and communication studies. For information gathering, this research use

both quantitative and qualitative methods.

In the beginning of the introduction; I mentioned, Pakistan is being facing and trying to

coup with the problem of religious extremism and lack of democracy, which contradict with the

core idea of functional public sphere. In Pakistan’s political history, there are only some

junctures where public opinion has truly altered the political landscape; one of them is former

chief justice of Pakistan restoration through nonviolent campaign and civic activism. According

to Ahmed, Z. and Stephan, M. 2010) “Poor governance, fear of regime repression and terrorist

violence are barriers to effective civic activism inside Pakistan. Yet-- a massive grassroots

campaign led by lawyers-- whose insistence on the rule of law and embrace of nonviolent

struggle captured the hearts and minds of millions of Pakistanis, helped transform the country's

political landscape in unexpected ways-- the lawyers' movement highlights the steadily growing

strength of Pakistani civil society have a potential to influence democratic change in the

country”. Political consciousness of civil society is being growing in the country but Pakistan’s

public sphere was never been considered as functional and influential in regard of participation

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and equality among public. What N Fraser (1990) called in her post bourgeois public sphere

work “weak and strong public spheres”.

The lack of public participation in “common good” debate is due to several reasons; one

of them is, prohibiting freedom of speech and expression in larger public, imposed by

authoritarian rulers and by their eternal ally “religious elite” that not only reassures but extends

this to subjugate the freedom of thinking. Talisse R 2011) more specifically talks about “liberty

of consciousness” in his study on faith and democracy. The religious elite alliance with military

has transformed Pakistan from possible democratic social state to security state. It is the irony of

today’s Pakistan. The same religious elite and clergies are biggest stack holders now in the

politics of country that never supported the idea of Pakistan, perhaps they consider entire Indian

region as Muslim heritage. Ghazali 1996) defines “Pakistan struggle leadership came almost

entirely from the Western-educated Muslim professionals. The Ulema remained, by and large,

hostile to the idea of a Muslim national state”. In spite of above mentioned Pakistani perspective,

historically the rapport among religious scholars/jurists and government never had been

considered as accommodating. Early scholars of Islam went through all sorts of persecution and

torture. Issah H. Tikumah (2008) argues one will hardly find anyone of the pioneer Islamic

scholars who did not face public torture and ignominy, prison or exile.

Here, I would add and explain Nigel Crook (2010) notion of knowledge channeling

“elites seek to control and channel knowledge, but also manipulate the ability of people to reason

and critique”. On one side, weak and paralyzed civilian governments, frequent interventions

from military and civil establishment in politics resulting week democratic institutions, feudalism

and inequality in political process created an environment where, freedom of expression and

speech has been excluded from the public sphere. Further, Niazi Z (1994) examines the effects of

governmental coercion on the press, including the self-censorship most newspapers had to resort

to, in order to survive. State control electronic media, long life prisons and torture to labor union

leaders, opinion makers, politicians, public intellectuals, journalists and poets had created

almost suffocating degree of restriction for citizens to explicitly participate in public sphere. On

the other side, domination of religious elite and clergy in public space and in politics (Islamism).

Radical religious imprints on socio-cultural public life, symbolizing religion as universal solution

to all contemporary issues abandon the process of critical-thinking and reasoning from larger

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public. As study by Dietrich Jung 2011) “The Muslim religion is represented as a holistic unity

of social, political, cultural and economic institutions. Islam, according to their reading, is more

than just a religion; Islam is a comprehensive, unique and unifying way of life”.

Above mentioned issues are prime reason for the week public sphere and its lack of

influence on the public and as well on the authority in Pakistan. Taking above mentioned

problems in mind, I argue that Although Facebook, is in its infancy in Pakistan but still capable

of, and facilitates virtual space beyond imagination to think, criticize and discuss on the issues of

the common good. It attributes a surprising amount of agency far superlative, which unshackles

an individual from conventional family and peer pressure and at the same time liberate mass

public from restrictions imposed by religious elite and authoritarian regime in a physical space.

The enquiry about Facebook role as virtual public sphere is one of the basic goal of this

study. It is important to consider and compare the optimistic and pessimistic views about Internet

role in the context of the public sphere. Firstly, on the question of Internet particularly: Facebook

as public sphere. Secondly, question about its definition and placing in or outside the public

sphere As T Oblak 2003) observes “These ideas could be broadly divided into two parts on the

one side there are arguments that the new electronic public Sphere is merely a supplement to the

conventional public sphere (Buchstein 1997; Hague and Loader 1999; Wilhelm 2000). While on

the other hand it was argued that this was a radically new and different version of the public

sphere Roster and Knapp 1997).”

I start with a short overview of discussions with pessimistic views about role of ICT and

Internet in political public life. Dean, J (2002, 2003) claims in his study on democracy under the

conditions of ‘Technoculture’, “the notion of the public sphere is not only inapplicable to the

Internet, but also and more importantly, it damages the practices of democracy under conditions

of contemporary technoculture—an extension of capitalism”. Dean further questioned about

Internet present drift from its earlier days rhetoric of free information, universal access and

virtual democracy but also he support the Manuel Castells’ theory of capitalism in the networked

society. He refers it as “communicative capitalism”. For early day Internet promises, the rapid

growth of internet around the world and mass participation of public is an evidence of internet

promise of universal access. After growth of mobile Internet devices and emergence of Web 2.0

Internet has proved to deliver more than of what was anticipated in early days of the Internet.

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I am in partial agreement with Dean on Castells’ capitalism of network theory. Internet is

driving the profitability for corporate companies, Facebook and other social media outlets are

generating billions of dollars in advertising revenue. According to Christian Fuchs (2014) they

are part of the 1%. So why the 99% should trust them and trust that these companies will deal

with their data in a responsible manner? Recent Edward Snowden’s revelation of the PRISM

surveillance system shows the dangers of the surveillance and vigilance. As in this case, National

Security Agency (NSA) was accessing information on a total of between 18,000 and 19,000 user

accounts in collaboration with Facebook1. Christian Fuchs (2014) mentions corporate and state

control of social media as, feudalization and colonization of electronic public spheres. Block of

Internet services, censuring and filtering of content and law suits against cyber activists are some

of many.

The second question is about its definition and placing in or outside the public sphere. It

is crucial to know and define characteristics and functions of public sphere. The ideal Habermas’

public sphere and its continuous transformation must be taken into consideration. Once, the

characteristics and function of Ideal public sphere are defined than I try to compare and contrast

with what I am arguing about Facebook as virtual sphere. I open my argument with the seamless

horizontal access character of the Internet among “life world” or public, one of the most

important characteristic of effective public sphere. Internet provides opportunity and fulfills the

demand of horizontal function of the public sphere to communicate and interact not only to

national but transnational public. B. Connery (1997) argues on the basis of analog and digital

media characteristics that digital networks would transcend both the limitations and the ‘anti-

democratic’ implications of analogue technologies. He further adds “the arrival of unlimited

bandwidth in which the roles of sender and receiver blur, in which we would be able to

communicate with unprecedented freedom along both horizontal and vertical axes (citizen-to-

citizen and citizen-to-institution).

On one hand vertical characteristics of the public sphere challenge the absolutism of the

authority to confine its powers within provided limit. On the other hand, horizontal

characteristics facilitating space for contest of ideas among the public. In Habermas’ terms, one

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/14/facebook-government-data- requests_n_3445174.html

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can say that Facebook has a potential to be a public sphere and life-world of communicative

action. Public push and pull each other to form an opinion on common good for the society.

According to Salvatore & Le Vine (2005) public sphere is a site of contests among and within

public, authorities and institutions, to define obligations and rights of each entity within well

defined limits.

Interweaving Two Folds

Before proceeding deeper in the study, I feel it is necessary to discuss my selection of the

topic and preference to Facebook as an object and lens to study Pakistan’s public sphere

regarding religious and liberal divide. What is the mutual relation of the above two folds? I open

my argument by quoting Porta and Caiani (2010) concept of emerging European public sphere

“contestation is a crucial precondition for the emergence of public sphere rather than an

indication of its absence. Figure-1 explains how ideas float from one layer of the virtual public

sphere to another and from contest to consensus.

Fig-1: Emerging Virtual Public Sphere concept

First, my selection of the topic is not accidental. I am member of an extended family,

living far from my home country, friends and family, but always have feeling of “connectedness”

with them by Internet specially Facebook and Skype. These sites provide facility to communicate

and share information and media as well. It is worth mention here, on my Facebook page where I

suppose to see my families’ and friends’ personal updates, post messages and share life events,

consensus

contestation

of ideas

acceptance/rejection

on the rationality of ideas

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pictures, and videos. However beside that, they share news stories and information from popular

sites about common issues concerning general public. The social use of Facebook among large

population of Pakistan is from appealing for blood donations and advertising for lost child to

protesting drone attacks, these are the cyber equivalents of traditional handouts, wall chocking

and public protests. Facebook is now a predominant medium for mobilization around political

and social issues in the country.

Second, Giving preference to Facebook over other Internet genre for example, blogs,

video sharing, and other social media sites to study public sphere is not random. Here, I argue

about my selection in briefly but later in a separate chapter. Where, I discuss in detail about

framing Facebook as virtual public sphere. The level of social media penetration in personal and

public life is enormous. Facebook use is currently ubiquitous in the country among young adults,

who consider Facebook a default mode of communication. In terms of the number of active

users, social networking sites have tremendous influence. Facebook alone has 1.1 billion (as of

July 2014) active users globally. In Asia, it is fast becoming one of the region’s leading social

networks. Currently it has 59.6 million users in the region. In Pakistan, there are 29,128,970

Internet users as of December, 2013, 15.3% penetration, per ITU and 10,084,880 Facebook

subscribers on Dec 2013, with 4.2% penetration among total Pakistani population.

People who formerly considered as illiterate in sense of computer handling and use now

can operate computer and use Facebook very easily, thanks to GUI and web 2.0 ease of use.

Facebook came up as a multipurpose tool, having characteristics of all internet genre.

Commenting, picture video sharing, gaming, virtual life, and more made Facebook converge

junction of entertainment, education, and information on contemporary issues. Facebook poses

an attraction for common man to professionals.

Now let me turn to the other fold of the study, regarding religious and liberal divide.

Environment of the Internet for religion and for religious is not new. The relationship of media

and religion is historical, and complex in nature but worth to understand, on one hand from

centuries, religion is using the media to communicate and propagate, its doctrine, ideology and

message, to now living in a world where (Michael Ryan and Les Switzer, 2011) religion is

http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia.htm#pk

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represented and communicated, experienced and understood through the media-- According to

Campbell H (2012) Internet never changed the religion but the way we see religion. She further

examines about religious identities and shifting of religious authority as a concept from religious

clerics and scholars to an individual.

Huff, E Toby (2010) analyzes the historical perspectives of resistance by Muslims for new

technologies “In the case of Islam, from historical point of view Muslims have tradition of

opposing new technologies-- prevented the use of the printing press, both in Ottoman lands and

in Mughal India”. But in case of Internet 2013) states “Internet is contributing to Muslims what

printing press did to Christianity in sixteen century”. Esposito, John L, 2010) states “As in

Christianity, change in Islam is not limited to debates in theology and law but also involves

struggles in politics and society, and at times violence and terror. Most of us have forgotten that

Christianity struggled mightily over many centuries to bring about change”.

I am not opposing notion of “reciprocal effect of religiosity on Internet use” (Greg G.

Armfield and R. Lance Holbert (2007) but New methods of communication have formed and

utilized by Muslims around the world, for Islamic knowledge sharing and expression in the age

of digital media what Sunier T (2010) noted traditional forms of religious knowledge and

conveyance no longer match young people’s life and Jon W. Anderson 2003) addresses this as

Pious middle classes are extending patterns of religious expression, seeking, and piety into new

channel. Muslims feel, more than ever, the need to reflect on the religion and its education on

contemporary issues and reconcile with their experience. The traditional knowledge and

interpretation of Islamic text is insufficient to reach and guide believers. New technology

provides opportunity to access diverse set of knowledge at local and at global level. Annelies

Moors (2006) described this as bypassing of traditional religious authorities by highly educated

and literate Muslim individuals who can access and read central Islamic text by themselves.

Prior research by Ali B, Z 2012) has indicated that, these two contesting segments and

their views are largely irrelevant to ordinary people and for lived Islam (popular Islam) which is

very personalized, localized and contextualized phenomenon for individual believers. It is far

different from and is neither representative by religious nor liberals. I claim, after the blend of

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private and public due to proliferation of Internet and social media, the magnitude and visibility

of these contests have extended directly into the lives of the masses. Exposing and involving

them in these contemporary debates. Involvement of ordinary public is redefining the qualities

and boundaries of this virtual public sphere. Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson (2003)

explain it as a new sense of public is emerging throughout the Muslim-Majority states and

Muslim communities elsewhere. It is shaped by increasingly open contests over the authoritative

use of the symbolic language of Islam. New and Increasingly accessible modes of

communication have made these contests increasingly global, even local disputes take

transnational dimensions. These Increasingly open and accessible forms of communication play

a 'significant role in fragmenting and contesting politics and religious authority.

Historical and Theoretical Point of Departure:

Theoretically my point of departure is taken from Habermas’ “The Structural

Transformation of the Public Sphere (1989). In which, he typically idealized the public sphere

with Western democracies of postmodern society and culture. Habermas theory is still a good

reference for most scholarly work approaching the issue of public sphere. However, I am not

using this classical model as a template for this study and at the same time the multi nature of

this study requires numerous theories across the multidisciplinary fields. Simultaneously, these

theories have strong ties with public sphere theory. As J Gerhards, and D Rucht (2002) describe

more generally about link between theories of the public sphere and democratic theory.

Accountability and responsiveness in the decision-making process is the core of the democratic

theory; theories of the public sphere focus on the role of public discussion and debate in

facilitating or hindering this process.

This study contextualizes, Facebook role to facilitate larger public for debate and

discussion on common good, by the help of the public sphere concept. Fuchs (2008, 2014c)

elaborates The public sphere is just one way of achieving this aim, there are other social theory

concepts (such as ideology, capitalism, power, democracy, participation, control, surveillance)

that need to be used together with the notion of the public sphere in a theory of the Internet and

society.

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The ever transforming and dynamic nature of public sphere always insist to redefine its

meaning as Alan McKee 2005), explains “The public sphere is not, of course, a sphere. It’s a

metaphorical term that is used to describe the virtual space where people can interact”. The

growth and developments of democracy and new communication technologies provides enough

space to re-define meanings of the public sphere and employ it with contemporary democracy

and culture. The public sphere challenges the absolutism and alters the structure of power. Public

equipped with rights and know their responsibilities. As (Thompson 1995) defines “[T]he

transformation of the public sphere has to be examined in terms of the wider context of macro-

structural transition processes. Thus, the history of the public sphere should not be treated as a

free-floating development divorced from wider social processes; rather, it should be conceived

of as integral to these processes”.

On-hand problem of concern is about compatibility of public sphere theory for this study.

The phenomena of engaging and idealizing public sphere only with western democracy and

culture, and its detachment from war and conflicts are noted by various scholars. As Z Gambetta

2004) observes, “From a Habermas’s point of view, war and conflicts are the diametrical

opposites of the process of deliberation that constitutes the ideal public sphere”. However, my

argument is different from this, contest and confrontation of ideas among public is essential to

produce multiple solutions and methods on the basis of rational debate and critical reasoning.

These solutions and methods are guide larger public for struggle against absolutism and

traditional authority. As Eley 2002) defines in the absence of secularism, "The emergence of

a bourgeois public was never defined solely by the struggle against absolutism and traditional

authority, but addressed the problem of popular containment as well. The public sphere was

always constituted by conflict”.

Although, my argument is in favor of its western centric nature but it is not unique only

to the western context. Eickelman D and Salvatore A (2010) discuss about later Islamic societies

had witnessed the role of public engagement and participation in “common good” debate and it

fluctuated by course of history. The concept and history of public sphere outside western

democracy and culture is also well studied by Charles Taylor (1993), Calhoun C (1992) and

Eisenstadt S (2002). They re-affirmed its traditional characterization and at the same time they

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also examine, from various angles, its comparability with long-term developments traceable in

other civilizations like India and china.

Theoretical Frame Work

In this chapter first, I will try to discuss the basic theory and concept of public sphere, its

ever evolving and transforming definition throughout the history in the context of expansion and

development of democracy, social political milieu, public participation and advancement of

technologies, particularly in media and communication. Habermas (1989: 60) explains it with

reference to British public sphere development in early eighteen century with the development of

press and its ability to confront with crown and state. A short overview is presented here and

then in later part a brief discussion on the relation of public sphere, media, religion, modernity,

secularism and conflict will be presented in theoretical way. The work of following authors is at

the centre of my study; Jurgan Habermas, Charles Taylor, Casanova Jose, Abdolkarim Saroush

and Talal Asad, to explain both the theoretical and the philosophical dimensions of the public

sphere and role of socio-religiously divided actors in it.

It is self evident that advancement of communication technologies has been altered the

horizon of the public sphere. Its functions and qualities contract and expand accordingly. The

ever transforming nature of the public sphere provides pliable approach to employ it in

multidisciplinary studies. Scholar from diverse fields of studies conceptualized public sphere

within their study and context. Public sphere as a concept has its own popular, philosophical and

academic meanings. Floating from popular every day description as Furedi (2004) describes,

“information availability to the public: we say that it’s in the public sphere” to pure philosophical

links with enlightenment as quoted by Clemens (2005:374) “at the core of the philosophical

legacy of the enlightenment lies a vision of rational individuals governing themselves through

collective deliberation. By means of critical discourse, self-interested or private individuals

reflect on common concerns and discover the nature of the public good, justice, and truth”.

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I am choosing meaning of public sphere between popular and pure academic definition as

the nature and scope of my study rely on the analysis of the Internet discourse. For the Purposes

of this study I adopted the definition of the public sphere put forward by Asad T (1993). He

defines that “The public sphere is not an empty space for carrying out the debates. It is

constituted by the sensibilities memories and aspirations, fears and hopes of speakers and

listeners. Also and by the manner in which they exist and are made to exist.

Studying public sphere within digital and boundless virtual environment of Internet offers

entirely new meanings of the concept and makes its characteristics and meanings more fluid and

vibrant rather than rigid. According to Alan McKee (2005) the concept of the ‘public sphere’ is a

metaphor that we use to think about the way that information and ideas circulate in large

societies.

Jürgen Habermas, An influential philosopher, sociologists and public intellectual.

Habermas had long association with school of critical theory. Habermas's (1992a) conception of

the public sphere promotes a rational theory of democracy. Specifically, Habermas (1973) is

concerned with the legitimating, or "generalized willingness to 'comply'. His more than fifty

years scholarly work explores connections between public sphere, democracy, reason, modernity

and post secularism. He coined the concept of public sphere. He traced its roots in eighteenth-

century (post printing) Europe’s tea, coffee houses and saloons. Where, economically strong but

politically marginalized citizens (bourgeois; lawyers, scholars, doctors, pastors, teachers,

manufacturers, merchants) take part in conversation regarding the common good of society. His

book was first published in 1962 and translated in English in 1989 “The Transformation of the

Public Sphere”.

An adequate amount of supportive and critical scholarly work has been presented after

English translation of the book. The major criticism contributed by feminist writers on the

exclusion of the women from bourgeois model of the public sphere. The nature and scale of my

study never permit me to include these topics. According to the classical definition “Public

sphere is a realm of our social life in which such a thing as public opinion can be formed [and

distributed]”. Habermas idealized (over simplified) public sphere as autonomous, free from

government and from other system-world institutions’ intervention with open access to all

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members of the society who form public opinion and act as public when they deal with matters

of general interest.

The structural transformation of the public sphere can be considered as a manifestation of

the historically contingent nature of social order. Both the rise and the potential demise of the

public sphere indicate that the transformative potential of public realms of intersubjectivity

cannot be separated from the developmental nature of society. Put differently, the transformation

of the public sphere has to be examined in terms of the wider context of macro- structural

transition processes. Thus, the history of the public sphere should not be treated as a free-floating

development divorced from wider social processes; rather, it should be conceived of as integral

to these processes (see Thompson 1995: 71). Questions remain, however, as to what the main

features of the structural transformation of the public sphere are and why they are sociologically

significant. It is important to understand the relationship of media and Public sphere, as public

opinion shapes and distributed by media.They are tightly interconnected and have very nature of

both consensus and contestation at the same time.Then, try to see the link between public sphere

and religion and in later part try to examine, how public sphere has evolved in Pakistan?

Functions and Characteristics of the Public Sphere:

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