Violence/Anti-Social Effects: Social Cognitive Theory (Social Learning Theory), Copycat Effect, Desensitization, Priming, and even Catharsis COM 226, Summer

Violence/Anti-Social Effects: Violence/Anti-Social Effects: Social Cognitive Theory (Social Learning Theory), Social Cognitive Theory (Social Learning Theory),

Copycat Effect, Desensitization, Priming,Copycat Effect, Desensitization, Priming,and even Catharsis and even Catharsis

COM 226, Summer 2011COM 226, Summer 2011

PPT #7PPT #7Includes chapters 16 & 20 of Includes chapters 16 & 20 of

DeFleur textbookDeFleur textbook

Four Major Claims about Media Four Major Claims about Media ViolenceViolence

Pt. #1 -- There is a LOT of violence in the Pt. #1 -- There is a LOT of violence in the media.media.Pt. #2 -- Exposure increases risk of harm. Pt. #2 -- Exposure increases risk of harm. Pt. #3 -- Not all portrayals pose same degree Pt. #3 -- Not all portrayals pose same degree of risk.of risk.Pt. #4 -- Not all viewers are similarly Pt. #4 -- Not all viewers are similarly impacted.impacted.


Pt. #1 -- There is a LOT of violence in the Pt. #1 -- There is a LOT of violence in the media.media. Established through content analyses.Established through content analyses. National Television Violence Study (NTVS): National Television Violence Study (NTVS): 61%61%

of TV shows contain violence.of TV shows contain violence.

Pt. #2 -- Exposure increases risk of harm. Pt. #2 -- Exposure increases risk of harm. Pt. #3 -- Not all portrayals pose same degree Pt. #3 -- Not all portrayals pose same degree of risk.of risk.Pt. #4 -- Not all viewers are similarly Pt. #4 -- Not all viewers are similarly impacted.impacted.


Pt. #1 -- There is a LOT of violence in the Pt. #1 -- There is a LOT of violence in the media.media.Pt. #2 -- Exposure increases risk of harm.Pt. #2 -- Exposure increases risk of harm. Pt. #3 -- Not all portrayals pose same degree Pt. #3 -- Not all portrayals pose same degree of risk.of risk.Pt. #4 -- Not all viewers are similarly Pt. #4 -- Not all viewers are similarly impacted.impacted.

Pt. #2: Theories of Media Violence—Pt. #2: Theories of Media Violence—Does it affect viewer aggression?Does it affect viewer aggression?

Four primary explanations:Four primary explanations: A) No effects (Klapper, 1960-on)A) No effects (Klapper, 1960-on) B) Catharsis Theory (Feshbach, 1960s)B) Catharsis Theory (Feshbach, 1960s) C) Social Cognitive/Social Learning Theory C) Social Cognitive/Social Learning Theory

(Bandura, 1950s-on)(Bandura, 1950s-on)Including Copycat Effect, Desensitization, Including Copycat Effect, Desensitization, CultivationCultivation

D) Priming (Berkowitz, 1960s)D) Priming (Berkowitz, 1960s)

A) No Effects PerspectiveA) No Effects Perspective

Really, the only person who found substantial Really, the only person who found substantial support for this was Joseph Klapper, who support for this was Joseph Klapper, who maintained that television only maintained that television only reinforcesreinforces attitudes and behaviors that already existed attitudes and behaviors that already existed (1960-on)(1960-on)

B) Catharsis TheoryB) Catharsis Theory

From Aristotle, Feshbach (1960s).From Aristotle, Feshbach (1960s).Says exposure to TV violence stimulates fantasy Says exposure to TV violence stimulates fantasy aggression, defusing aggressive impulses, aggression, defusing aggressive impulses, thereby decreasing aggression in viewers.thereby decreasing aggression in viewers.Empirical evidence?Empirical evidence?

NO—evidence does NOT support catharsis! (at least NO—evidence does NOT support catharsis! (at least with media and violence)with media and violence)

Under what conditions might catharsis occur?Under what conditions might catharsis occur? individual differences (i.e., occurs for some, under some individual differences (i.e., occurs for some, under some

circumstances)? circumstances)? video game violence?video game violence?

C) Social Cognitive TheoryC) Social Cognitive Theory

From Albert Bandura (1960s)From Albert Bandura (1960s)First called Social Learning TheoryFirst called Social Learning TheorySays children and others learn through observationSays children and others learn through observationMay imitate what they see vicariously (e.g., on May imitate what they see vicariously (e.g., on television)television)Empirical evidence: Bobo doll studies, others—Empirical evidence: Bobo doll studies, others—generally support basic premise plus additional generally support basic premise plus additional assumptions, e.g.,assumptions, e.g., Rewarded and unpunished violence more likely to be Rewarded and unpunished violence more likely to be

imitated.imitated. Punished violence less likely to be imitated.Punished violence less likely to be imitated.

Bobo Doll StudiesBobo Doll Studies

Bobo Doll Studies—thoughts??Bobo Doll Studies—thoughts??

More on Social Cognitive More on Social Cognitive TheoryTheory

ALSO SEE NOTES from ALSO SEE NOTES from Bandura’s Social Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: An Introduction Cognitive Theory: An Introduction (video) (video) for more details!for more details!

Social Cognitive Theory: The Social Cognitive Theory: The Triadic Model summaryTriadic Model summary

The Triadic Model within the theory The Triadic Model within the theory suggests that learning of behaviors is suggests that learning of behaviors is governed by three bi-directionally linked governed by three bi-directionally linked systems:systems: Personal determinantsPersonal determinants Behavioral determinantsBehavioral determinants Environmental determinantsEnvironmental determinants

Personal examples???Personal examples???

Social Cognitive Theory: Social Cognitive Theory: Observational Learning summaryObservational Learning summary

AttentionAttentionRetention/Symbolic representationRetention/Symbolic representationReproduction/Transformation to actionReproduction/Transformation to actionMotivation to reproduce behaviorMotivation to reproduce behavior External incentivesExternal incentives Vicarious incentivesVicarious incentives Self incentivesSelf incentives Observer attributes (internal standards, social Observer attributes (internal standards, social

comparison)comparison) EXAMPLES OF THESE INCENTIVES???EXAMPLES OF THESE INCENTIVES???

Therefore social cognitive theory…Therefore social cognitive theory…

Sees learning as being a largely cognitive Sees learning as being a largely cognitive processprocess

And behavior is only the very end stateAnd behavior is only the very end state

Watch Watch Primetime ViolencePrimetime Violence video for a video for a review of the concerns of the 1990s and review of the concerns of the 1990s and what we knew about violence effects by what we knew about violence effects by that pointthat point

The Copycat Effect?The Copycat Effect?

Some researchers have identified simple imitative Some researchers have identified simple imitative effects, without specifying the cognitive or other effects, without specifying the cognitive or other mechanisms at work (e.g., Loren Coleman’s book on mechanisms at work (e.g., Loren Coleman’s book on The Copycat EffectThe Copycat Effect))

““Suicide clusters” have appeared since ancient timesSuicide clusters” have appeared since ancient times The writer/historian Plutarch’s account of the imitative The writer/historian Plutarch’s account of the imitative

hangings of young women in Miletus in the 4hangings of young women in Miletus in the 4 thth century century BCE. . . News spread through word of mouth and songs of BCE. . . News spread through word of mouth and songs of poetspoets

Romans, Vikings, early Christians, Jews of the Middle Romans, Vikings, early Christians, Jews of the Middle Ages, modern teens have been the focus of studyAges, modern teens have been the focus of study


Other copycat violence has included:Other copycat violence has included: Murders (e.g., Jack the Ripper, covered by Murders (e.g., Jack the Ripper, covered by

newspapers)newspapers) Murder/suicides (e.g., “going postal,” school Murder/suicides (e.g., “going postal,” school

shootings)shootings)

The role of mass media has increased The role of mass media has increased over timeover time


Sociologist David P. Phillips has devoted his career to the Sociologist David P. Phillips has devoted his career to the study of societal trends in violent and hazardous activities, study of societal trends in violent and hazardous activities, including how media-covered events can result in imitation, including how media-covered events can result in imitation, using “archival” survey-type data:using “archival” survey-type data:

First to conduct empirical studies to confirm the “Werther Effect” First to conduct empirical studies to confirm the “Werther Effect” (from Goethe’s 1774 novel (from Goethe’s 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young WertherThe Sorrows of Young Werther))

1962—Death of Marilyn Monroe. . .U.S. suicide rate increase 12% in 1962—Death of Marilyn Monroe. . .U.S. suicide rate increase 12% in following monthfollowing month

1973—Airline hijackings1973—Airline hijackings 1979—Found increase in rate of automobile fatalities following 1979—Found increase in rate of automobile fatalities following

publicized suicides. . . Also sig. by geographic region and age cohortpublicized suicides. . . Also sig. by geographic region and age cohort 1983—Impact of U.S. TV network coverage of championship boxing 1983—Impact of U.S. TV network coverage of championship boxing

matches on homicide ratesmatches on homicide rates


Sociologist Steven Stack has also Sociologist Steven Stack has also examined imitative effectsexamined imitative effects

1977 suicide of actor Freddie Prinze produced higher suicide 1977 suicide of actor Freddie Prinze produced higher suicide rates among individuals of similar age (22), ethnicity, genderrates among individuals of similar age (22), ethnicity, gender

Importantly, some of these studies have Importantly, some of these studies have identified an impact of non-news, identified an impact of non-news, fictionalfictional content:content:

Phillips (1982) identified increase in auto fatalities after soap Phillips (1982) identified increase in auto fatalities after soap opera suicidesopera suicides

Phillips & Paight (1987) found increase in suicides after TV Phillips & Paight (1987) found increase in suicides after TV movies about suicidemovies about suicide

DesensitizationDesensitization

Bandura sees this as part of Social Cognitive TheoryBandura sees this as part of Social Cognitive Theory

Others have studied it separately, e.g., DeFleur’s Others have studied it separately, e.g., DeFleur’s Creeping Cycle of Desensitization (textbook):Creeping Cycle of Desensitization (textbook):

All media, news or entertainment, have a profit motiveAll media, news or entertainment, have a profit motive Attractive media products emphasize the controversial—sex, Attractive media products emphasize the controversial—sex,

violence, vulgarityviolence, vulgarity In the U.S., there are few legal restraints on this; rather, cultural In the U.S., there are few legal restraints on this; rather, cultural

norms define what is tolerablenorms define what is tolerable Young audiences rule!Young audiences rule! Thus, the “cutting edge” must become more extreme, more Thus, the “cutting edge” must become more extreme, more

sensationalsensational [We can assume that people become [We can assume that people become accustomedaccustomed (i.e., (i.e.,

desensitized) to this “extreme” violence, sex, etc.]desensitized) to this “extreme” violence, sex, etc.]

Cultivation?Cultivation?

Although George Gerbner coined the term Although George Gerbner coined the term “Cultivation Theory” (recall—Gerbner’s “Cultivation Theory” (recall—Gerbner’s “Mean World Syndrome”), such cognitive “Mean World Syndrome”), such cognitive or perceptual effects were named as part or perceptual effects were named as part of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theoryof Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Remember that Bandura noted that TV Remember that Bandura noted that TV violence “shapes viewers’ images of violence “shapes viewers’ images of reality”reality”

D) Priming TheoryD) Priming Theory

From Berkowitz and colleagues (late 60s)From Berkowitz and colleagues (late 60s)

Understood in terms of cognitive associations (recall—Understood in terms of cognitive associations (recall—cognitive schema)cognitive schema)

Says violent content “primes” related thoughts, placing Says violent content “primes” related thoughts, placing hostile cognitions at the forefront of the mind.hostile cognitions at the forefront of the mind.

Empirical evidence generally supports the theory, e.g., Empirical evidence generally supports the theory, e.g., Anderson & Ford (1987)—experiment linked video game Anderson & Ford (1987)—experiment linked video game

violence to hostility and anxietyviolence to hostility and anxiety Bushman & Geen (1990)—experiment in which those who Bushman & Geen (1990)—experiment in which those who

viewed a more violent movie listed more aggressive thoughtsviewed a more violent movie listed more aggressive thoughts Bushman (1998)—experiment finding video violence related to Bushman (1998)—experiment finding video violence related to

aggressive word choiceaggressive word choice

Pt. #2: In summary, then: Does media Pt. #2: In summary, then: Does media violence affect viewers?violence affect viewers?

Answer: YES!Answer: YES!Surveys, experiments, longitudinal field Surveys, experiments, longitudinal field studies, and meta analyses all point to a studies, and meta analyses all point to a TV violence TV violence aggression link. aggression link.Overall effect size larger than:Overall effect size larger than: Condom use and HIV (-.18)Condom use and HIV (-.18) Passive smoking and lung cancer (.16)Passive smoking and lung cancer (.16)



Pt. #3: Aggressive responses are Pt. #3: Aggressive responses are MORE likely to occur when MORE likely to occur when

violence is:violence is:

Realistic.Realistic.

Sanitized.Sanitized.

Justified.Justified.

Committed by attractive or similar Committed by attractive or similar others.others.

Rewarded.Rewarded.

Humorous.Humorous.

Realistic Violence (vs. fantasy)Realistic Violence (vs. fantasy)

.vs

???

Sanitized Violence (vs. Sanitized Violence (vs. consequences)consequences)

.vs

Justified Violence (vs. Justified Violence (vs. unjustified)unjustified)

.vs

Rewarded Violence (vs. Rewarded Violence (vs. punished)punished)

.vs

Committed by Attractive or Similar Committed by Attractive or Similar OthersOthers

Humorous violenceHumorous violence



Pt. #4: “High-risk” media violence Pt. #4: “High-risk” media violence consumers include…consumers include…

1. 1. Younger/less cognitively developed individualsYounger/less cognitively developed individuals2. Those with certain traits/personality predispositions2. Those with certain traits/personality predispositions Trait aggressionTrait aggression IrritabilityIrritability PsychoticismPsychoticism3. Those with social or emotional problems3. Those with social or emotional problems Bullies and VictimsBullies and Victims Lack of parental influenceLack of parental influence4. Those who consume a lot of media4. Those who consume a lot of media5. Those without alternative models5. Those without alternative models

Documents

Violence/Anti-Social Effects: Social Cognitive Theory (Social Learning Theory), Copycat Effect, Desensitization, Priming, and even Catharsis COM 226, Summer