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The founding villages and early palaces of Bagan- an exploration

of some chronicle and parabaik sources via computer mapping,

field survey and archaeological excavation.

Bob Hudson*

2001 Texts and Contexts Conference, Yangon, December.

Bagan is an urban centre in upper Myanmar. It reached its peak in terms of the

construction of religious monuments and political dominance over the upper

Ayeyarwady valley region between the 11

th

and 13

th

centuries AD. The origin of thecity, or at least the origin of settlement in the general area that later became Bagan, is

traditionally attributed to a confederation of nineteen villages dated to 107 AD1. The first

part of this paper summarises some recently collected data, ranging from chronicle

descriptions and oral history to archaeological survey and excavation, which has

pinpointed many of the claimants for founding village status2. It must be stressed that

these are contenders whose claims remain to be tested by further historical and

archaeological study.

The chronicles agree that the earliest civilisation in Myanmar was that of the Pyu. Four

chronicles compiled between 1672 and 1829 AD mention the founding of Sri Ksetra,

also called Thayekittaya, and all have it precede Bagan

3

. The four largest Pyusettlements, Beikthano, Halin, Mongmao and Sri Ksetra, which all enclose areas of 600

hectares or more within brick walls, have been the subject of extensive archaeological

investigation. Beikthano appears to be the earliest, according to the available

radiocarbon dates, possibly operating between the 2nd century BC and 7th century AD.

Radiocarbon dates have indicated activity at Halin between the 1st and 8th centuries AD.

Mongmao, at the south end of the Kyaukse valley, has been assigned on stylistic

grounds to the 2nd to 6th centuries. Sri Ksetra (Thayekittaya) is considered the latest,

* Bob Hudson, Archaeology Department, University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, Australia.1

Pe Maung Tin and G. H. Luce. 1923. (trans) The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma.

Rangoon University Press. (Reprinted 1960). 28-29.2

A more detailed account of this survey is to appear in Hudson, Bob, U Nyein Lwin and U Win

Maung (Tanpawady) (in press) Digging for Myths: Archaeological Excavations and Surveys of the

Legendary Nineteen Founding Villages of Pagan. In The Silver Gong is Struck: New Research in

the Art and Archaeology of Burma.British Museum, London.3

Maung Hla. 1923 The Chronological Dates of the Kings of Burma who reigned at Thayekhittaya

(ancient Prome) and at Pagan. Journal of the Burma Research Society 13(2): 82.


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between the 4th and 10th centuries AD4. The Pyu are also identified with Waddi5, a

smaller walled site west of Mongmao (Maingmaw), and a cluster of settlements around

Binnaka. The latter, located at E 96.15 N 20.5666 in the Samon River valley, appears

to have been continuously occupied from the Pyu to Konbaung periods6.

The story of Bagan was summarised in 1829 in the Hmannan Yazawin, later translated

as the Glass Palace Chronicle7. The Glass Palace Chronicle says that the Pyu

founded Yon Hlut Kyun, a name with folkloric origins, about fourteen kilometres from

Bagan on the eastern side of Mount Tuyin, in the second century AD8. The local story is

that Pyu soldiers fleeing from a war saw a hunter and his dogs chasing a rabbit. The

rabbit turned on its pursuers and drove them away, and this was taken as an omen thatsuch a place would be a site worth defending against enemies. Despite such obstacles as

a malicious flying squirrel and other aggressive faunal and floral totems King

Thamoddarit then began to build a city with the dwellers in nineteen villages9. The

Glass Palace Chronicle lists the members of this confederation as Nyaung-u, Nagabo,

Nagakyit, Magyigyi, Tuti, Kyaussaga, Kokkethein, Nyaungwun, Anurada, Tazaunggun,

Ywamon, Kyinlo, Kokko, Taungba, Myegedwin, Tharekya, Onmya (with a quibble as

to whether this should actually be Singu), Yonhlut and Ywasaik10.

Collection of data on the sites mentioned in the list of nineteen villages has ranged from a

re-examination of English and Myanmar documentary sources and inch-to-the-mile

4Aung Thaw. 1968 Report on the excavations at Beikthano.Revolutionary Government of the

Union of Burma, Ministry of Union Culture, Rangoon. Myint Aung. 1970 The excavations at Halin

Journal of the Burma Research Society. 53(2): 55-62. Sein Maung U. 1981 Mongmao, a forgotten

city. The Working Peoples Daily. Jan 21 & 23, Feb 3.There is no equivalent monograph in English

for Sri Ksetra, as for Beikthano and Halin, but research dating back to the early 20th

century (such

as Archaeological Survey of India.1909-1910 Excavations at Hmawza near Prome. Annual report of

the Archaeological Survey of India. Manager of Publications, Delhi) is neatly summarised in Aung

Thaw 1972 Historical Sites in Burma. Ministry of Union Culture, Rangoon, 16-33. The scientific

evidence for Pyu chronology is discussed in detail in Hudson, Nyein Lwin and Win Maung, in

press, op cit.5

Aung Myint. 1999 Ancient Myanmar Cities in Aerial Photos. Ministry of Culture, Yangon (in

Burmese).6 Aung-Thwin, Michael. 1983 Burma before Pagan: The Status of Archaeology Today. Asian

Perspectives 25(2): 1-21. Win Maung (Tanpawady). 1981 Binnaka Myohaung (Binnaka Ancient

City). In Burmese. Privately circulated manuscript.7

Pe Maung Tin and G. H. Luce. 1923. op cit: ix8 ibid 28-36.9 ibid 2810

ibid 29.


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survey maps to interviews with local residents, including the abbots of monasteries, who

are often custodians of local history. The locations of places that may not easily be

found again, such as abandoned habitation sites, were pinpointed with a Global

Positioning System (GPS) receiver. All site locations are reported in this paper in

decimal degrees, which is the standard form of longitude and latitude used in computer

mapping11. The sites are listed in the order of their distance from the walled medieval

elite centre now known as Old Bagan (Figure 1).

The Nineteen Villages.

Nagabo (E 94.8757 N 21.1767) is now a palimpsest of Bagan era and later

buildings, located to the east and southeast of modern Taungbi village.

Nagakyit (E 94.8946 N 21.1929) was located between the Wetkyi-in stream and

the Shwezigon Pagoda, according to an inscription in the Shwezigon that mentions a

village called Naga Kyitmaw.

Anurada (E 94.8654 N 21.1552) is today called Myinkaba, and is the only Pali

name found among the nineteen villages.

Ywasaik (E 94.8918 N 21.15) is estimated to have been near the modern villages of

east and west Phawsaw. The third palace, said to have been founded by King Thike-

tine-min in 514 AD, is believed to have been located here on the perimeter of the Baganarchaeological zone. The palace site, south of West Phwasaw village, is today marked

by an inscribed brick and concrete pillar, as are Bagans other supposed palaces.

Nyaung-U (E 94.9101 N 21.2011), a modern market town and administrative

centre, retains its archaic name. Housing developments in the area make new

archaeological discoveries difficult, though open excavations from construction work

remain potential sources of information.

Kyaussaga (E 94.8681 N 21.1277), east of the present day Thiripyitsaya village, is

south of New Bagan and on the southern bank of Ye-O-Zin stream. Thiripyitsaya is

said to have been the second capital, located near the Lokananda pagoda, a riverside

structure that prominently marks the southern extent of the city. It is credited to KingThinlikyaung (344-377 AD)12.

Kyinlo (E 94.9133 N 21.0792) is a site in a cultivated field east of Kinka on the

Bagan-Chauk road, and north of Kyaukkan. Potsherds, elephant-shaped pendants and

11

Decimal degrees = degrees + (minutes/60) + (seconds/3600).12 Pe Maung Tin and G. H. Luce, op cit: 45


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The 19 founding villages

of Bagan: possible candidates.

0

Tuyinhills

kilometres

5

#10

pagoda

mounds

Shenme

Taungba pagoda

Mye-thindwin

pottery site

Kokkethein

(Panidwin)

Zi-o

Myegedwin

(Mye-thindwin)

Taungba pottery site

Magyigyi

(estimated)

Bagan

Tuti (Suti)

Nyaungwun

Onmya

Taungba

Yonhlut

Ywamon

Nyaung-u

Kyinlo

Kokko

Nagabo

Nagakyit

Ywasaik

Anurada

Kyaussaga

Gu Gyaung

Phaya Hti Saung

Shwe Anadaw Phaya

Otein Taung

Letpanchibaw

Tuti (Suti) ash lens

Singu

"

Bagan monument

zone.

Places mentionedin the text.

Iron-making

furnace sites.

Bagan city wall.

300 metre contour.

Drainage.

KEY

FIGURE 1


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spherical and barrel shaped green and orange beads13 have been discovered in this

village. Archaeological excavation at Kyinlo in 1906 recovered iron implements, a stone

image of the Buddha, stone receptacles supposed to be reliquaries, and mutilated

bronze figures of the Buddha and two disciples14. Field survey has revealed two major

scatters of pottery, suggesting abandoned habitation sites, near Kyinlo.

Taungba (E 94.9656 N 21.1259) is a village near the road between Nyaung-U and

Kyaukpadaung, within view of the Tooth Relic Pagoda on Tuyin Mountain. It was

relocated in modern times due to highway construction. There are several sites of

historic and archaeological significance. The Phaya Hti Saung or Hti Ta Hsaung pagoda,

located one kilometre northwest of Taungba village, is reputed to enshrine bodily relicsof the medieval monk, Shin Arahan, who is credited with being mentor to King

Anawrahta15. It was most recently restored in 1985, and is an active religious site, with

an attached monastery. On the southern side of Taungba village is a small pagoda (E

94.9681 N 21.1193) that was restored in 1907, according to an ink inscription inside.

There is evidence to support local opinion that it was originally a medieval structure. A

circular stone slab, now used as a stepping stone at the entrance, resembles the

capstones found in old relic chambers, although it might also be a traditional monastery

entrance-stone. Part of a stone capsule or container, possibly a reliquary or a container

for offerings, was found among brick debris nearby, in a depression formed by a

disused water tank. This site appears on the 1945 British Army Survey map 84 K/16 asa monastery.

An ash lens (E 94.9652 N 21.1209) dense with potsherds was excavated and

sampled at Taungba for radiocarbon dating. The sample, OZE 765, had a radiocarbon

age of 530 40 BP, giving a calendar date range of 1300-1450 AD at 95.4%

probability16. About 300 metres west of the earthenware deposits there is a mound,

13

These beads are considered characteristic trade goods of the Pyu period- see Moore, Elizabeth &

Aung Myint. 1993 Beads of Myanmar (Burma). Journal of the Siam Society 81(1): 55-81, Aung

Myint 1999, op cit.14

Archaeological Survey of Burma. 1907 Report of the Superintendent, Archaeological Survey of

Burma. Rangoon: Office of the Superintendent, Government Printing: 9 (referred to in subsequentnotes as ASB).15 Khin Maung Nyunt. 1997 Hagiography of Maha Thera Shin Arahan and an account of the

reconstruction of Shin Arahans brick monastery. Ministry of Culture, Myanmar.16

AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) dating by ANSTO- the Australian Nuclear Science and

Technology Organisation, Sydney. Calibration by OxCal, Version 3.5, a computer program by C

Bronk Ramsey, 2000.


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apparently a pagoda ruin. There are pieces of worked sandstone among the debris. It

fits the description of a mound near Taungba village excavated early last century17.

Yonhlut (E 94.9647 N 21.1133), also known as Yon Hlut Kyun, is a name that has

been variously translated as Free Rabbit Island, Free Animal Forest, A Jungle Where

Rabbits Were Set Free, or The Place of the Hares Release. The archaic word kyun

is still used for jungle in this area, though it more generally means island. To confuse

matters, an island in the Ayeyarwady River opposite Bagan is also called Yon Hlut

Kyun18, although its claim to historical status barely goes back 50 years. The current

residents, when interviewed, appeared to have forgotten the names of the villages that

were mapped there in 1945 (Burma One Inch Series, Map 84 K/16). Field survey in1999 indicated that the location of the villages on the island, as well as the islands

shape, has substantially changed since 1945 due to regular inundation.

In 1905, the archaeologists at Bagan spent 200 rupees to erect masonry pillars marking

all of the old palace sites mentioned in the chronicles. This included a pillar at Yon Hlut

Kyun identifying it as the home of Bagan's first dynasty. The masonry pillars were

referred to only peripherally in a list of expenses sanctioned and incurred, with no

explanation as to why the particular sites were chosen19. However a handwritten version

of the New Pagan Chronicle by Saya Be reputedly contains a drawing of brick

foundations at Yon Hlut Kyun20, so the site may have been well known locally at the

time the monument was erected.In 1999, the author and U Nyein Lwin, now director of excavation at Bagan,

investigated Yon Hlut Kyun at the suggestion of Assistant Director for Upper Myanmar,

U Aung Kyaing. There was no above-ground structure visible. However the excavation

program21 resulted in the discovery of a rectangular structure made of sun-dried brick

with roof tiles, iron nails, worked sandstone pieces, a pivot-stone from a doorway and

earthenware pottery fragments that included several near-intact pots, including a 20th

century burial (indicative of continuing use of the site for ritual purposes) and kendi, or

17

ASB 1915: 718 Lubeigt, Guy. 1998 Pagan: Historie et Lgendes. Editions Kailash.19 ASB 1906:2520

This information comes from U Win Maung (Tanpawady).21

Hudson, Bob & U Nyein Lwin. 1999. Archaeological Excavations and Survey, February-March,

1999, Yon Hlut Kyun, Pagan, Burma: a preliminary report.Report to Director General of

Archaeology, Yangon. Hudson, Bob. 2000. The King of Free Rabbit Island; a GIS-based

archaeological approach to Myanmars medieval capital, Bagan. Proceedings of the Myanmar Two

Millennium Conference. Volume 3: 10-20.


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Figure 2


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sprinkler pots22 (Figure 2). The structure is located on the eastern approach to Bagan

from Mount Popa, a well-known pilgrimage site, beyond which is the medieval rice-

growing area and putative homeland of the Burmans, Kyaukse. When measurements of

bricks from a number of archaeological sites in Myanmar were subjected to statistical

comparison by multivariate analysis23 the bricks at Yon Hlut Kyun corresponded closely

with samples from Gu Gyaung, a Pyu-style monument several kilometres to the north,

and also with Bagan bricks of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Deposits of roofing

tiles were also found, along with iron nails. The nails were characteristically square in the

shaft, and turned at the top. A pivot stone, with an indentation to take a vertical wooden

doorpost, similar to those seen in pagodas at Bagan, was found while excavating asection along the eastern wall. There was at least a centimetre of wear around the

indentation in the pivot stone. Carbon was found in relative abundance, but none was

found in a context that would justify radiocarbon dating. The dating, and for that matter

the function, of the building at Yon Hlut Kyun remains an open question. Augering of the

site down to natural soil at five metre intervals failed to locate any central structure,

which one might expect if the wall had enclosed a temple or monastery complex.

Myegedwin (E 95.0024 N 21.1337). The present village of Mye-thindwin is only

150 years old, but the area is claimed in local folklore to have been the birthplace of

Bagans first king, Thamoddarit. There is evidence in local fields of earthenware pottery

manufacture. Numerous abandoned furnaces for smelting iron have been located nearthe neighbouring village of Zi-o (E 95.0411 N 21.1087, Map 84 O/4). The

unrestored Gu Gyaung pagoda complex (E 94.9888 N 21.1504) near Mye-thindwin

features a stupa on the western side of a small temple There is also a brick foundation of

a third structure, eight by ten metres. The complex sits on a brick platform, twenty-six

by twenty-two metres, and there is evidence of an enclosure wall. Temple doorways

open to the east, north and south. The roof of the temple has collapsed and the structure

is filled with rubble, but the temple appears to have had a vaulted chamber with no

central pillars. A brick base that presumably supported a Buddha image abuts the

western wall, indicating that the image faced east in the conventional manner. A

sandstone spire about a metre high, with seven multi-tiered umbrellas, was found hereand is now in the Bagan archaeological museum. The relic chamber in the stupa, broken

22

See Myint Aung 1969 The contribution of libation jars to defining historical periods. Tetkatho

Pyinnya Padetha 4(2): 35-46 (in Burmese).23

Wright, R. V. S. 1994 The MV-NUTSHELL program for multivariate archaeology.Author,

Sydney.


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open in times beyond the memory of the local people, is lined with stone, and has a

capacity of more than one cubic metre.

Kokko (E 95.0195 N 21.0989) was abandoned, according to local records, in 1878

and families transferred to neighbouring villages, including Mye-thindwin. Locals believe

that Myin-kwe-min, said to have become king at Bagan in AD 716, was the son of a

wealthy man from Kokko. On an unexcavated mound of potsherds up to two metres

high, remains from the Bagan and Ava periods have been recovered. In this general area

near Shenme there are two mounds (Map 84 K/16 E 94.9868 N 21.0795), each

about twenty metres in diameter, containing bricks as well as pieces of shaped and

pecked sandstone. There are two other groups of apparently early pagoda ruinssoutheast of Shenme. These include a pair of mounds about eight metres in diameter (E

94.9947 N 21.0848), and a small monument known as the Shwe Anadaw Phaya (E

95.0006 N 21.0888). Restored in 1973, the Shwe Anadaw Phaya has a ruined

pagoda mound beside it, containing dressed sandstone reminiscent of the capping of a

medieval relic chamber. The presence of sima stones, which customarily mark the site

of ordination halls, suggests that it may have been the site of an earlier monastery.

Kokkethein (E 95.06267 N 21.03181) is claimed by the people of Panidwin to be the

original name of their village. It is one of several villages in the eastern hinterland of

Bagan with a substantial presence of old furnaces for extracting iron from natural iron

nodules in the soil.Tuti (E 95.0163 N 20.9850), modern Suti, has at least three fields nearby which

contain old potsherds. A hint of antiquity is contained in the name of the village

monastery, Than-bo or iron smelting. There are old iron furnaces nearby, and local

people report digging up bronze bowls with lids.

Nyaungwun (E 94.9905 N 20.9597), the present Tetma village, is near the

southernmost tip of the Tuyin mountain range. Its older name was Nyaung Bin or

Banyan Tree village, on account of big banyan trees that once surrounded it. Around the

village are old and ruined furnaces for smelting iron.

Ywamon (E 95.0707 N 21.2861) is an abandoned settlement known today as

Shwetaung Ywahmine, near Letpanchibaw (E 95.0627 N 21.2828). Parts of a

circular brick wall can be see here, somewhat eroded by the river. In 1978 and 2001,

excavations by the Archaeology Department revealed evidence of Neolithic, Bronze

and Iron (Pyu) Age activity. Artifacts found included potsherds, domestic utensils, stone

and bronze weapons, beads, ear plugs and stone rings. The evidence suggests


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continuous occupation, or regular re-occupation, from prehistoric times through to the

Bagan and Konbaung periods.

There is disagreement in the Great Chronicle, the New Chronicle24 and the Glass

Palace Chronicle25 as to whether Onmya (E 94.8675 N 20.9065), or Singu (E

94.8675 N 20.9065) should be in the canonical list of nineteen villages. Conveniently

for the purposes of regional settlement analysis, at least, both are in the same

geographical area in relation to Bagan.

There remain several claimant villages with dubious or unknown locations. Magyigyi,

according to local informants, is a name that appeared in a stone inscription which had

been removed from a pagoda near Old Bagan that was washed away by theAyeyarwady river. On the strength of this, Magyigyi has been assigned to a hypothetical

spot in the river, at E 94.8562 N 21.1808. Tazaunggun, according to the New

Pagan Chronicle, was near Myingyan, a considerable distance upriver from Bagan.

Tazaung (E 95.3291 N 21.4426) may be the place the chronicles author had in mind,

but field survey has found no apparent link with antiquity. A village elder in Nyaung-do,

which is on the eastern side of Tuyin Taung, suggested during a visit to collect oral

history that Tazaunggun had been on the west side of the Ayeyarwady opposite Bagan.

Tharekya were described as not existing now in the New Chronicle, and no

claimants have so far been found.

Several issues come to the fore in the light of this preliminary investigation into whetherthe nineteen founding villages of Bagan are mythological, historical, or something in

between. The activity in Bagans eastern hinterland is intriguing. Ritual buildings at Gu

Gyaung, Taungba and Shenme appear to date from some part of the Bagan monument

construction period, and further investigation might find them a more clearly defined

place in the timescale. The geographical location of this cluster of villages would also fit

Stargardts model of first millennium settlements locating themselves along secondary

streams, rather than major rivers, to enable more efficient control of water resources26.

A recent discovery is the presence of an estimated 1,000 iron-making furnaces in the

eastern region, notably near the villages of Zi-o and Panidwin. These are as yet undated,

but they suggest substantial economic activity at some time in the past. The structure24 The historiography of the various chronicles is discussed at length in the introduction to the

Glass Palace Chronicle (Pe Maung Tin and Luce op cit: xvi).25

This argument is summarised in Pe Maung Tin and Luce, op cit: 2926

Stargardt, Janice. 1990 The Ancient Pyu of Burma: early Pyu cities in a man-made landscape.

PACSEA Cambridge


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found at Yon Hlut Kyun remains a puzzle. The mytho-historical view is that it should be

the palace of King Thamoddarit, as described in the Glass Palace Chronicle, although

it does not immediately appear to be related in terms of its layout to palaces of the

historical era, or for that matter to other buildings of the Bagan period.

The dimensions of Bagan.

In the second part of this paper, I would like to present and briefly comment on a

parabaik, or traditional folding book27, which contains a description of Bagan that

includes a record of its dimensions. The translation

28

is based on two copies of the samedocument, apparently dating back to at least 1790 AD. A version owned by the late

scholar, U Maung Maung Tin, which contained the first few pages, including the

measurements of the city, was brought to my attention in 1999. A complete version was

later located in the library of the Archaeology Department at Bagan. Metric

measurements, dates in years AD, and some brief explanations in parentheses have

been added in an attempt to enhance and clarify the meaning of the original. Gaps have

been left where words or sentences in the document could not be clearly deciphered.

Complex and difficult to follow listings of the genealogies of men and buildings are dealt

with here by leaving the translation as literal as possible. It is hoped that English-

speaking scholars will find this document a useful resource.27

Parabaiks, folding books made from paper, survive from the Konbaung period, 1752-1885, onward

(Herbert, Patricia. Burmese Court Manuscripts. The Art of Burma: New Studies. Marg

Publications, Mumbai. 1999). Existing examples of palm-leaf documents from Myanmar have been

dated to the fourteenth century AD (Singer, Noel F. Palm leaf manuscripts of Myanmar (Burma).

Arts of Asia 1991 21(1): p 138). However the palm-leaf form, reproduced and preserved as gold

sheets, appears much earlier, in the middle of the first millennium AD (Stargardt, J. The oldest

known Pali texts, 5th-6

thcentury: results of the Cambridge Symposium on the Pyu golden Pali text

from Sri Ksetra, 18-19 April, 1995. Journal of the Pali Text Society 1995 31: p 119-223). A definitive

study of traditional documents can be found in Thaw Kaung, U. Myanmar Traditional

Manuscripts and their Preservation and Conservation. Myanmar Historical Research Journal 1:

241-273. 199528English translation by U Thaung Lwin.


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A Brief History of Bagan.

The capsule summary regarding the glorious golden city of Bagan which

is graceful, significant and auspicious as well as a symbol of good fortune,

has been compiled and presented, Venerable Sir.

Guatama Buddha, The Most Enlightened One, who had attained four

different kinds of incomprehensibility, six different sorts of power and

prowess, four different states of endlessness and infinity, eightfold holy

(or) noble path, the ten powers, the ten enlightenment factors, the six

different kinds of hues of the rays, who was also the Incomparable Lordof the human beings, terrestrial and celestial beings and the Brahmas (or)

Gods, paid a visit to Tantkyi golden hill-range, across the Ayeyarwady

River, on the right and western side of the river, accompanied by his 500

Buddhist disciples (or) Buddhist holy saints, and set foot on top of the hill.

Gautama, The Most Awakened and Exalted One, made a prophecy (or)

boon as regards the bright prospects of the future for the holy city of

Bagan29

.

According to the Myanmar traditional typical abbreviation pronounced as

kyar-oh-ann, Bagan, formerly known as Arimaddhana-Paukkan, holy

city of Paukkan, royal capital endowed with conquest over the five

reigning fierce animals and fast-growing gourd (or) squash climbing-plants, was established by King Pyinbya on the sixth waxing moon (day)

of Pyartho, tenth month of Myanmar traditional lunar calendar,

corresponding with January of Gregorian calendar, in the year 211

Myanmar Chronological Era (849 AD) on Thursday approximately at 3

am, that is to say, past two strikes (or) chimes, 7 phawars and 1 philar,

according to the Myanmar ancient unit of telling the time. The citys

circumference in Myanmar measurement units was 1142 tar which is

equal to 23,982 feet30

as regards the length and width of the town, with

29 The prophecy is related in Pe Maung Tin and G. H. Luce, op cit, 29.30 23,982 feet in circumference is much too big, and I suggest that the figure is erroneous. Luce

suggested that 1 tar(or ta) was equal to 7 cubits (Luce, G. H. Economic Life of the Early Burman

Journal of the Burma Research Society 1940 30(1): 291-292). I have taken this to mean the 20.62

inch Egyptian (52.37 centimetres) Royal cubit. See Flinders Petrie, W. M. The Pyramids and

Temples of Gizeh.London; Field & Tuer, Ye Leadenhalle Presse; Simpkin, Marshall & Co.,

Stationers' Hall Court; Hamilton, Adams & Co., Paternoster Row. New York: Scribner & Welford,

743 Broadway. 1883. Chapter 20. By this reckoning 1 tarwould equal 3.6659 metres and the

circumference of the city would be 4,186 metres or 13,734 feet.


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pyitsin, tuyindaing, pyahoh, pavilion, the Myanmar traditional typical

parts of a city, with three-moated canals and the passage-ways for the

royal forces in time of danger and strife. (The city was founded)

following discussions and consultations with four wise monks and the well

educated ministers. The surface of the golden, glorious royal city of

Bagan was like that of the royal drum made of cow hide. A grand gala,

graceful, magnificent ceremony was celebrated in a majestic, grand

scale, successfully with good, rich, and rewarding omens of value,

treasure, and precious gems.

The four wise monks were Ta-ma-lein-dah Thera, Ananda Thera,

Uttara-ziwa Thera and Sabada Thera . The four wise ministers werePrince Seint, Hoora-phyu (a court-astrologer wearing white clothing),

Hoora-nyo (a court-astrologer wearing brown clothing) and Yarza-

thingyan, who was a native of the village of Inbyin, a name which was

later changed to Linnbin village. The golden glorious ancient city of

Bagan was laid out with 1142 Myanmar ancient linear measurement of

tar which equals 23,982 feet (in circumference). There were 12 door-

ways. The Tharawut gate was two tar (7.33 metres) deep and one tar

(3.67 metres) wide31

. It was guarded and protected by the Betthadin nat

(spirit). The Thatpa-yan-gar gate32

was well guarded by two nats, Master

Handsome, the Black-smith, and his beloved younger sister, the Golden

Face. The Thara-pay gateway was protected by the Shwepathin nat.

There were 253 tar (927 metres) from the north-east corner through to

the south-east corner, and 149 tar(546 metres) from the Thatpa-yan-gar

gate-way up to the royal palace site and this portion (or) face was taken

care of by Prince Yaegathu, Pyi-soe-zeiya-pinn, Tsa-chi-nanda-thu and

Tsoe-kae-theinkha-yarzar, and these four persons were given

assignments. The eastern face of the royal city site was 50 tar (183

metres). The eastern face Phaya Thartann doorway was guarded by the

Zabu-tanhsaung nat.

The Nga-myee-khatt gate was protected by the Kara-wei nat. The

Nyaung-byu gate was guarded by the Zambu-thabyay nat. From the

northwest corner to the northeast corner was 318 tar (1166 metres). It

31 The parabaik describes every gate as being one tarwide and two tardeep. Repetition of this

description has been omitted.32

Also known as the Tharaba or Saraba gate, this is the main entrance to the old city from the east

today. It is item number 1634 in Pichard, Pierre The Inventory of Monuments at Pagan (Volume 6)

1996 KISCADALE EFEO UNESCO. Statues of the brother and sister nats flank each side of the

entrance, in shrines that the Inventory suggests are later additions.


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was 101.5 tar (372 metres) from the Nga-myee-khatt gate to the royal

city site and this part (or) face was assigned to four persons, namely

Prince Si-thu, Tharay-nanthu, Tsa-chi-napataw-thiha-pakyan, and Tsoe-

kae-theinkha-pyitsie. The northern face of the royal palace site was 20

tar(73.4 metres). The northern face Tharzi gateway was guarded by the

Zambu-tamut nat. The Wi-rula nat guarded the Mingala-dazeik gateway.

The Myin-byu-shin nat took care of the Ma-kyithar gateway.

From the southwest to the northwest was 253 tar (927 metres) and 149

tar (546 metres) from the Mingalar-dazeik gateway to royal palace site.

This face (or) side was given to 4 caretakers, namely Prince Pyan-chi,

Pyi-zoe-nayin-sinnthu, Tsachi-maha-thamann and Tsoe-kae-manaw-yarzar. The western face of royal palace site was 50 tar (183 metres)

and the western face phaya and Win-manar doorway was guarded by

the Nga-nwae-thin nat.

The Ma-taunt-tah doorway was protected by the Wi-nila nat, and the

Nga-zwae-thin nat guarded Kula-lei-nu gateway. From the southeast to

the southwest was 318 tar (1166 metres) and it was 101.5 tar (372

metres from the southern city wall to the southern wall of the palace

enclosure). This part had four caretakers, namely Prince Htauk-shoo-kar,

Pyi-soe-minnyin, Tsachi-narga-wuttana and Tsoe-kae-mah thein-zee. It

was 20 tar wide at the southern face of the royal palace site and the

southern side phaya.

After King Pyin-bya had unified these twelve places of the city of Pauk-

kan, called as Ari-maddhana, conquest over huge, fierce, reigning animals

including fast-growing gourd, (or) squash climbing plants to become one

seat in the year of 211 Myanmar Chronological Era (849 AD), the 14th

monarch of the Bagan Dynasty, King Popa-tsaw-rahan-gyi lessened the

Chronological Era according to the ancient traditional numerological

belief, known as kha-hsah-pyinsah.

In the Myanmar Chronological Era of 53, at the time of King

Narapatisithu33

, in the aforesaid four sides of the city, the edge of the

eastern Nyaung-mya-ywa-gyi was identified as being at the level of a

town, and presented to Prince Yae-ga-thu. The edge of Taung-ba-lu-

ywa-gyi was graded as a town and offered to Prince Tse-thu and it was

in the southern side. On the northern side, the edge of Chauk-taung was

rated as a town and given to Prince Pyan-chi. To the northeastern side,

33

This king reigned in the late 12th

century AD. The date 53 MCE would be 691 AD. It may be a

misprint. (Year AD = Year MCE + 638).


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the edge of Let-htoke was classified as a big village and presented to

Prince Htawk-shoo-gar.

King Narapatisithu brought the Shin-byu and Shin-jla Phaya (images of

the Lord Buddha) although in some chronologies it was King Alaung-

sithu who carried the Phaya. On the way back to the golden glorious city

of Bagan, at the port city of Man-aung, the ruler was under the influence

of conceit not to pay obeisance to the powerful king of Paukkan and he

held the pot around his neck and it was filled with water and he

descended to the river water and committed suicide. Afterwards, the

King of Paukkan struck the water with his powerful wand from the front

of the Karaweik barge, and the corpse of the ruler of Man-aung floatedto the surface34

. Two beloved daughters of King Man-aung were

presented to the Paukkan King and the King made a fantastic return

riverine journey, upstream. These two cherished daughters of King Man-

aung were promoted to medium-ranked ones and they were presented

with a line of nine villages in the upper part to the elder sister and a lower

line of nine villages to the younger sister. Up until now, the descendants

of King Man-aung, who came from ancestors known as Malla, and the

chieftains, are still existing. Nga-kyaw-tarn was offered to Tsit-chi-yoe

Nanda-thu-ta-yoe. Up till now, there exists a line of tradition well kept

generation after generation. The southern side was presented to Tsit-chi-

yoe Nara-patei-thiha-pakyan. The good traditional line still exists. Maha-

tha-man was added with Man-minn-thar-lei-yoe who was well looked

after and supported separately by townspeople as well as village folk.

Therefore Maha-tha-man was known as Minn-thar-paung, which implies

prince who was added in unison with another prince and there still

survives regarding this line of generation. The five exterior localities

which surround the city are named Tsi-gu, Ywa-tha, Taung-zinn, Ta-

ywin-daing and Nga-tha-yauk. These are existing up to the present,

generation after generation. The religious edifice linked to four princes

Yae-ga-thu, Tsi-thu, Pya-chi and Htauk-shu-gar is Pyi-soe, which

signifies chieftain of a city and they built the Pyi-soe pagoda and the

names of these four chieftains are Zei-ya-pin, Na-rin-thinn-htu, Tha-ray-

nan-thu, and Taung-minn-yi, the sacrosanct monument erected by four

Tsit-chis who were solider heroes, namely, Nan-da-thu, Na-ra-pa-tei-

thiha-pa-kyan, Ma-ha-tha-man, and Na-ga-wut-ta-na, the sacred pagoda

concerned with four authorities, namely Thin-kha-ra-za, Thin-kha-pyit-

tsee, Ma-nao-ra-za, Ma-nao-thein-zee, Tsit-pin, Tsi-bin, Hton-tha-myar,

34 See The Glass Palace Chronicle, op cit, p 116-120, for more of this complex tale.


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Na-ti-ra-za at Tsit-pin, Pauk-kha-ra-ni-ra-za at Tsi-bin, U-da-ka-ra-za at

Hton, Nan-da-wa-ra-za at Tha-myar and these four pagodas relating to

the demarcation of the Ayeyarwady River, Ah-yway-ma-ti at Aung-tha,

Khint-ga, Htan-po, Nga-kyaw-ga-doh at Aung, Hmon-bo-ga-doh at Ah-

yway-ma-ti, La-bin-ga-doh at Khint-ga, Taung-pon-ga-doh at Htan-po,

Nga-thet-bin, Nga-thet-ya, Nga-kaung-mae, Nga-kaung-phyu and these

four village head-men built their respective pagodas, Hseit-ta-yoe, Ti-ta-

yoe, Hmaw-kunn-tain-ta-yoe, Khun-nit-kyo-myae-taing-tayoe, That-bah-

ra-za pagoda at Hseit-ta-yoe, Wa-neiz-za-ra-za pagoda at Ti-ta-yoe, Ot-

ta-na-ra-za pagoda at Hmaw-kunn-tain-ta-yoe, Bon-mah-ra-za pagoda at

Khun-nit-kyo-myae-taing, and there exist 99 villages in total number,apart from four localities at the four edges and four parts in a row and

five surrounding towns.

There is an ancient prophecy which reads the great, magnificent

Ayeyarwady River is making her flowing at the foot of the Si-khon-daw

Pagoda, which means the Great Pagoda situated at the sandy side of the

river. The Golden Stupa is held in great veneration, for sacred relics of

the Enlightened One were enshrined inside it, and also at the place where

the golden, glorious city of Pauk-kan is located, where a long line of fifty-

five monarchs ruled over the city, the seat of the dynasty, and golden

glorious royal capital which has inhabitants living in 99 villages in total

number. The prophecy says that the monarch will rigidly follow the rules

that a king of justice should possess on account of the flowing of the

Ayeyarwady River close to the Golden Pagoda Shwe-tsee-gon. There

will be a white acacia tree growing on the northern side of the Great

Pagoda. There surely will appear a king of justice like Maho-sa-dha, who

was a previous existence of Gautama Buddha noted for great wisdom, at

the time when the tree will be grown to the size at which the mighty

elephant known as Ga-za-gi-ri can catch hold of it with its strong trunk.

That ruler of justice will appear at the place located to the eastern

cardinal direction of that tree and that very king will rule over the golden,

glorious city of Pauk-kan and people from all walks of life will be

prosperous and the people eof Pauk-kan surely will have peace and

development, and paddy rice and other staple food will be plentiful. It will

be in () of the Myanmar Chronological Era that the Great King will be

chosen as king among men and the royal throne will be ascended by him,

according to the authentic chronologies, ancient legendary accounts and

as far as I know, as much as I can, to the best of my ability making

logical conclusion by judging from the most reliable sources and I have

made my presentation under the golden feet of the royal monarch. May


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the genuine, real, authentic dispensation, teachings of the Most

Enlightened One last and prevail for always.

In the year after 236 years after entering Nirvana of Gautama Buddha, a

group of Buddhist missionary monks headed by Venerable Ot-ta-ra-thera

introduced and established the purest form of the Buddhas Teachings by

way of the elder Buddhist monks at the golden glorious city of Thaton

known as Thu-dhamma-na-ga-ra in the region of Ra-myin-nyah, Thu-

wun-na-bhum-mi. Also at the same year of 236 years after the final

passing away of Gautama Buddha, in the island of Ceylon a group of five

Buddhist arahats, holy saints, led by the Venerable Ma-hein-dah

introduced and established the Teachings of Buddha for purification,perpetuation, and propagation of Buddhas dispensation. Over fifty years

after Gautama Buddhas maha-peri-nirvana, in the royal glorious city of

Tha-yay-khit-ta-ya, two brothers, Su-la Tham-ba-wa and Ma-ha Tham-

ba-wa unified and formed a city state. Their son, known as Dut-ta-baung

became king in the year of 121 Buddhist Dispensation Era (423 BC). He

united and founded Thi-ri-khit-ta-ra-ra-ma city in collaboration, in

cooperation and coordination with the holy hermit, Indra Lord of thunder,

the naga (dragon or serpent), and garuda (mythical bird) and he became

the great king after having a coronation ceremony. Starting from Suta-

Tham-ba-wa and Ma-ha-Tham-ba-wa and second consecutive reign,

there was a king known as Thu-pyin-nya-na-ga-ra-hsein-na in the year of

624 Myanmar Chronological Era. This became the year which was

appropriate to subtract from the Myanmar Chronological Era35

by the

number of 622 and only the remaining number of 2 was reckoned. That

king expired in that very year. The number of the years which had been

subtracted was 622 and in the year of 2 (the remaining year after

subtraction) Myanmar Chronological Era, Tha-yay-khit-ta-ya city ceased

to be the royal capital. Afterwards, there became three different ethnic

groups, namely, Thet, Pa-deik-kha-ya, and Pyu. The Thet returned to the

city of Thet-minn-ka-ton. Members of the Pa-deik-kha-ya race went

back to their homeland () The prince who was known as Tha-mot-da-

rit, nephew of Thu-pyin-nya-ga-ra-hsein-na, the king, () became the

ruler of this region in the place which was called Yon-hlut-kyun. The

cluster of 19 Pyu villages were Yon-hlut-kyun, Nyaung-U, Na-gae-hso,

Na-ga-kyi, Ma-gyee, Anu-ra-hta, (),Ywa-hsaik, Kyinn-pi, Kyauk-tok,

35

This may be an error on the part of the author or someone involved in a later transcription. It

more likely refers to a calendrical transition from the Buddhist (Sasana) Era, which begins in 544 BC,

to the Sakka Era, which begins in 78 AD


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Tse-ku, Nyaung-wun, Athet-yah, Ta-tauang-kyun, Kok-ko, Taung-ba,

Myei-gae-dwinn, Ya-da-thein and Sha-bok. These 19 villages were

founded by King Tha-mok-darit. The royal line of Yon-hlut-kyun was

Tha-mok-da-nt, Ya-thae-gyaung, Pyu-saw-di, Hti-Minn-yin, Yin-minn-

paik, Paik-thin-li, Thin-li-gyuang. Out of the 7 ruling kings, Pyu-saw-di in

the year 121 Sakka Era (199 AD)36

ascended the throne and named the

royal city as Ari-madd-da-na, the city of conquest over five fierce

enemies. The 7th ruler of Bagan Dynasty Thin-li-gyaung transferred the

seat to Kyauk-za-gar village and called it Thi-ri-pyit-sa-ya. During his

reign, the rains of treasures poured down. The patron of the guardian

spirits Master Handsome and his younger sister were placed in MountPopa. They came from Thinn-dwae, Tagaung, in Upper Myanmar. His

son, known as Thin-li-poe, and the son of Thin-li-poe, called as Kyaung-

tu-rit, then Thi-htan, Tu-tha-ra-mon, and Thaik-taing ruled over the city

and they were six in number. During the reign of the sixth king, King

Thaik-taing, the royal site was shifted to Tanpa-di-pa, the third royal city

from Thi-ri-pyit-sa-ya. Originally it was known as Ywa-saik. A line of 21

kings ruled over the royal capital city from King Thaik-taing to King (),

and the seat was in Tan-pa-wa-dy. At the time of the monk, teacher of

Thin-ga-ra-zas wife (several lines undecipherable).

The calendar was corrected during the reign of King Thin-ga-ra-za, a

former monk. In the year of 211 Myanmar Chronological Era (849 AD),

representing the Myanmar term kya-oh-aing after relacing each word

with numbers, King Pyin-bya moved the royal site to Ma-gyee village

from Tan-pa-wa-dy and named the glorious royal capital Pu-ga-ra-ma.

Twenty-three kings from King Pyin-bya ruled over the city of Pu-ga-ra-

ma. The eighth ruler from King Pyin-bya was King Anaw-ra-hta and in

the year of 419 Myanmar Chronological Era (1057 AD), in the month of

Ka-son, Ve-sak, this great king among men introduced and established

the purest form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism, the ways

of the elder Buddhist monks, which he brought from Thaton. He later

renamed the royal city Pon-na-ga-ma. He was also known as Anaw-ra-

hta-minn-saw , and was regarded as the great able guardian king or law-

ka-nat in Myanmar language. He brought the whole canonical sacred

scriptures of Buddhist doctrine and the order of the Buddhist monks from

36

This is a little later than the traditional date mentioned in the Glass Palace Chronicle.

Interestingly, the Hsipaw Chronicle puts the founding of the 19 villages about a century after the

Glass Palace Chronicle date, at around 221 AD- see U Sai Aung Tuns paper, Shan-Myanmar

Relations As Found in the Hsipaw Chronicle, Texts and Contexts Conference, 2001.


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the city of Thu-dhamma-na-ga-ra, that is to say, the holy city where real,

authentic, genuine Buddhism flourished, and the city was popularly known

as Thaton. The powerful founder-king Anaw-ra-hta introduced and

established Theravada Buddhism for purification, perpetuation, and

propagation of the realistic teachings of the Buddha in the golden glorious

city of Ari-madd-da-na. In the year of 163 Buddhist Dispensation Era,

corresponding with Myanmar Chronological Era of 419 (1057 AD), on

the 10th waxing moon of Da-boh-dwae, corresponding with February, on

Thursday and when the moon was shining along with Kyatt-bi-ka

constellation, at the times when the crab zodiac sign is at its lag, from the

astrological point of view, King Anaw-ra-hta built the great goldenpagoda of Shwe-zi-gon after enshrining the frontal bone, the left

collarbone and a duplicated form of the sacred tooth-replica of Gautama

Buddha. The sacrosanct relics are imperishable, kept in a gem-studded

casket. Afterwards, the great king Anaw-ra-hta erected pagodas on top

of Tant-kyi-taung, Tuyin-taung, Tha-lyaung and Pyet-kyei-taung37

. He

enshrined four duplicated forms of the sacred tooth of Gautama Buddha

in the stupas. The king also built the Shwe-hsan-daw pagoda38

, housing

the sacred hair relic of Gautama Buddha, to the southern side of the royal

holy city. King Anaw-ra-hta erected another pagoda, the Lokananda, on

the southern side of the royal capital, Thi-ri-pyit-sa-ya. Nineteen years

after the building of the Shwe-zi-gon pagoda, the great founder king

Anaw-ra-hta ascended to the upper realm of the celestial beings at the

age of 74.

The four holy Buddhist monks who came and visited the golden glorious

city of Bagan during the reign of King Anaw-ra-hta were Shin-ma-ha-kit-

tsee, who resided to the north of Lei-gaing-kyaung monastery, Shin-anu-

rud-dha, who lived to the eastern side of the Minn-ta-yar-shwe-kyaung

monastery, Shin-ma-ha-Buddha-go-hsa who resided to the north-western

side of the Ma-myaw-ra-za Temple and Shin-u-pa-li, who resided to the

western side of the U-pali Ordination Hall. The Myanmar term lei-

gaing-kyaung which became the word lei-gaing refers to the four

venerated Buddhist monks. During the reign of King Kyan-sit-tha, the U-

pa-li monastic centre was renamed Tha-man-ta-rit, and the Pa-thein-

37

The first two sites, mountaintop pagodas on the western and eastern sides of the city, are well

known. The locations of other two have eluded this author- the Lokananda and the Shwezigon are

more commonly viewed as the citys other two main boundary markers.38

There is a useful discussion of this pagoda, now mainly used as a viewing-platform for tourists,

in Strachan, Paul. 1989 Pagan: Art and Architecture of Old Burma, Kiscadale. P 42-44.


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kyaung was built by the governor of Pa-thein (Bassein) and named after

him during Na-ra-pa-ti-zei-ya-thu-ras reign. After King Anaw-ra-hta

had passed away his elder son, crown prince Saw-lu, ascended the

throne of Bagan. He was crowned in the year 440 Myanmar

Chronological Era (1078 AD). During his reign, the Mons under Nga-

man-kan revolted. After fighting against Nga-man-kans forces, King

Saw-lu built a pagoda at the top of the hill which is situated at the right

side of Pinn-chaung creek at the mouth of Aye-yar-wa-dy River. The

pagoda was in the shape of Kya-thut-oh, the part of the pagoda

resembling the lotus petal, with four entrances. The king enshrined a

number of Buddhas sacred relics, and after completion of the pagoda, hepaid reverence after he had hoisted the sacred umbrella. He had a

coronation ceremony and became king of Bagan only after placing the

sacred crowning part of the pagoda. After six years, King Saw-lu was

executed by Nga-man-kan. In the year of 446 Myanmar Chronological

Era (1084 AD), Klan-pok-ta, also known as Min-kyan-yit-thar, ascended

the throne of Bagan. He spent most of his time on serious domestic

affairs for four years. In the fifth year, he rebuilt the great pagoda known

as Ze-ya-hkon (Shwe-zi-gon). In the year of 421 Myanmar Chronological

Era (1059 AD) and thirty years after that, the pagoda had been small. In

the year of 451 (1089 AD), known in the Myanmar language as Tha-ra-

wun year, on the 13th waxing moon of Da-zaung-mon, the eighth month

of the Myanmar traditional lunar calendar, corresponding with November,

on Wednesday, he enlarged the Pagoda, which was built of blocks of

sandstone rather than bricks. In the year of 452 Myanmar Chronological

Era (1090 AD) which was Ba-ra-paik year, on the full-moon day of the

15th waxing moon of Kason, the second Myanmar month, the King

finished the building of the Grand Shwe-zi-gon Pagoda. He erected four

standing Buddha images facing the cardinal directions. The images were

made from an amalgam of five different metals. He also constructed four

pavilions, made from blocks of sandstone and bricks, beautifully and well

done. He also made an ordination hall, a reclining Buddha statue, parts of

four different kinds of zedi, and different statues of Thi-kyar-minn, Indra,

Lord of thunder and chief of the celestial beings, and statues of other nat

spirits. He erected the great precinct, (or) enclosure wall, guarded by

chinthe (figures of heraldic lions). The interior great enclosure wall was

made for the purpose of offering oil-lamps by the Rakhine (Arakan)

Buddhist monk. This monk was the preceptor of King Minn-gyi-tswa-

saw-kae, who was the descendant of the royal line of the Bagan Dynasty

and the second ruler of Ra-ta-na-pura Inwa (Ava) city. The golden


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glorious city of Inwa (Ava) was established and founded by this king,

who was a very great, powerful, and mighty ruler of prowess and who

also was well-known as Tha-doe-minn-phya. Thus, it was mentioned by

the old well-learned and well-versed experts that the interior enclosure

wall was constructed for the purpose that oil-lamps would be lighted. The

year of 452 Myanmar Chronological Era was the same year, expressed

in a parabaik, or ancient traditional folded document, in which the gold

umbrella became the crowning part of the great Zei-yah-khon Pagoda,

and Kalan-pok-taw, also known as King Kyan-tsit-tha, built the

significant Ananda Temple. This great king of justice also erected the

Na-ga-yon Temple, Pae-ya-da-na Temple, Minn-oh-chann-tha Pagodaand other religious edifices as a token of performing meritorious deeds.

In the year of 473 Myanmar Chronological Era (1111 AD) the great

benevolent king of justice entered the age of 81. He was called Rin-nya

Kalan-pok-taw, also known as King Kyan-tsit-tha. He passed away, or

as the Myanmar language puts it, ascended to the upper realm of celestial

beings. After King Kyan-tsit-tha had entered the abode of the celestial

beings, the crown prince, who was the beloved grandson of King Kyan-

tsit-tha as well as the great-grand-son of King Naw-ya-hta (Anawratha)

attained the royal coronation ceremony and obtained the name of Na-ra-

pa-ti-zei-ya-thu-ra, popularly known as Alaung-si-thu, in the year of 473

Myanmar Chronological Era.

After thirty years, in the year 57339

Myanmar Chronological Era, in the

year when the Mi-ga-thi constellation tilted, on the 4th waxing day of Ka-

hson, Ve-sak, the second Myanmar month, corresponding with the Ve-

sak constellation, on Saturday which coincided with the Tha-ra-wun

constellation, King Alaung-si-thu who attained the name of Thi-ri-tri-ba-

wa-na-ti-bi-ta-ya-pa-wa-ra-pan-di-ta-dhamma-ra-za and who possessed

great prowess, and who was well-known in the title of Na-ra-pa-ti-zei-

ya-thu-ra and who was the greatly embraced grand-son of King Kyan-

tsit-tha and also great-grand-son of King Naw-ra-hta-saw, built the

famed, sacrosanct edifice of Shwe-gu in the golden, glorious city of

Bagan. This holy temple was amazing and finely-proportioned. It

resembled the golden pagoda, with magnificent Buddha image, which

was dedicated to the great, venerable Buddhas right-hand disciple, noted

for great wisdom, next to Gautama Buddha, who was known as Ashin-

tha-ri-put-ta-ra. Sacred relics from the body of the holy Buddhist saint

were enshrined inside this temple and a life-size statue of the disciple was

39 This is presumably a misprint in the original document-503 MCE/1141 AD would be more likely.


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also sculpted. After he had performed the meritorious deed of building

the Shwe-gu sacred temple, the great, powerful king performed another

work of merit by building the imposing, impressive, captivating, and

magnificent temple of That-byin-nyu, which implies the All-knowing

Wisdom of the Buddha, The Most Enlightened One. The temple

resembled the Pok-va-yon pagoda complex, which was constructed in

dedication to the venerated Buddhist disciple, who was the left-hand saint

of Gautama Buddha and was noted for his supernatural psychic powers.

A great donor, a lay woman, known as Wi-tha-kha, contributed a large

amount of money at a cost of ninety million, after having sold a precious

ornament known as Maan-li-ka. The mighty king enshrined the sacredrelics and replicas from the Holy Ones body and made the Buddha

image, the size of which was the same as that of The Buddha, The

Omniscient One, in the attitude of preaching His sermon to the celestial

beings, as well as to the lay human beings. In addition, the great king

performed the meritorious deed of erecting a huge bell, made from the

purest bronze, weighing five thousand viss, to the south-eastern side of

the That-byin-nyu Temple. The throne name of the great monarch, was

Thi-ri-tri-ba-wa-na-ti-bi-ta-ya-pa-wa-ra-pan-di-ta-dhamma-ra-za. He

was also called Na-ra-pa-ti-zei-ya-thu-ra-dhamma-ra-za, as well as King

Alaung-si-thu. After performing the meritorious work of building the holy

temples of Shwe-gu and That-byin-nyu and other religious edifices, the

king entered the upper realm of the nats, the celestial beings, at the age

of 74 (in 1167 AD), 26 years after 503 Myanmar Era, the year in which

the Shwe-gu Temple was built.

There was a long line of 55 kings who ruled over the glorious city of

Bagan, which was known by five different names: Ari-madd-da-na, Thi-

ri-pyit-sa-ya, Tam-pa-wa-dy, Pon-na-ga-ma, and Pu-ga-ma. Out of these

55 rulers, the great king Na-ra-pa-ti-zei-ya-thu-ra, popularly known as

King Alaung-si-thu, had got two grand-sons, Minn-yin-na-ra-thein-ga and

Na-ra-pa-ti-si-thu. These were the sons of King Na-ra-thu. Na-ra-pa-ti-

si-thu erected the Su-la-ma-ni temple, the Gaw-daw-pa-lin, the Dham-mi-

ya-ladd-da, the Dham-ma-yan and a number of temples as well. His

regnal name was Thi-ri-tri-ba-wa-na-ti-ta-ya-pa-wa-ra-pan-di-ta-

dhamma-ra-za. During the reign of King Na-ra-pa-ti-si-thu, five

venerated Buddhist monks arrived in Bagan from Ceylon. These five

missionaries were known as Hsa-ba-da Thera, Ta-pa-nein-da Thera, Thi-

wa-li Thera, Ananda Thera and Rahula Thera, and they performed their

religious duties for the sake of the Dispensation of the Buddha, The Most

Enlightened One (several lines missing).


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21

The grandson of that king, known as Na-daung-mya, constructed famous

religious edifices such as Cei-da-na Zedi, Ma-ha-bodhi Zedi, Hti-lo-minn-

lo Zedi and several other monuments. The famous king who built these

three prominent zedis was known as King Zei-ha-thein-kha. His elder

son, King Kya-zwa, was deeply absorbed in the purification, perpetuation,

and prolongation of the teachings of the Buddha and compiled the

historic, thought-provoking treatise known in the Pali language as Pa-ra-

matt-hta-bein-du kyann. The grand-son of King Kya-zwa was King Thi-

ha-pa-tei who built the great Min-ga-la Zedi to the southern side of the

city of Bagan. A high-ranking royal court official who served under King

Thi-ha-pa-tei compiled the authoritative, comprehensive text Ti-ka-let-thann-than-yoke kyann, which means the text which was measured as

one small finger in thickness. This was a commentary and introduction to

the famed Kit-tsee kyann. In the city of Pan-ya, King Thi-ha-thu-ra-

dhamma-ra-za, known as Hsin-byu-shin, erected the pagoda known as

the Pan-ya Shwe-zi-gon. The eminent envoy, Tsa-tu-rin-ga compiled the

comprehensive text, which was a commentary on the dictionary known in

Pali as Abi-dan-ti-ka kyann. He served under King Hsin-byu-shin.

The preceding document was finished in the year of 1152 Myanmar

Chronological Era (1790 AD). The next manuscript was finished in the

year 1237 Myanmar Era (1875 AD). The third written parabaik was

finished on Saturday on the 7th waning day of Tha-dinn-gyut, the seventh

month in the Myanmar traditional lunar calendar. The document, made

from one kind of palm leaves, was written, copied and the record was

completed in the evening of the last (14th) waning day of Na-yon, third

month in the Myanmar traditional lunar calendar, on Monday, in the year

of 1279 Myanmar Chronological Era (1917 AD).

Discussion and future prospects.

This document, while in part a retelling of earlier traditional stories, whose analysis we

will leave to the textual specialists, contains some valuable technical information. Themeasurements of the city, despite what may be a few misprints or reproduced errors, fit

the existing city walls fairly well (Figure 3). They suggest a rectangular site, with four

walls, which supports the hypothesis that a western wall may have been washed away


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Tharabagate

#

Existing city wall and moat

1990s excavationof elite complex.

AyeyarwadyRiver

1166metr

es

Possible originalpalace

0

927m

etre

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183m

etre

s

73metres

The dimensions of Bagan and location of itsoriginal palace, according to the parabaik.

Possible extentof original wall

500

metres

2500

Figure 3


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Ananda

Shwesandaw

City wall and moat

Mahabodhi

Bagan periodelite complex.

Palace?

Bupaya

AyeyarwadyRiver

That-byin-nyu

Gawdawpalin

The four quarters of Bagan as they were assignedto governing princes and protected by designatednats, according to the parabaik.

11th Century buildings



0.4

kilometres

#

0.20

Figure 4


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22

by the river at some time in the past40. The parabaiks location of the original palace in

the geometric centre of the city is of course suggestive of a symbolic Mount Meru,

with four slopes forming cosmological hillsides leading up to the royal (and holy)

centre41. The apportioning of responsibility for different parts of the city to management

committees of men and nats also has cosmological implications It suggests that the

quarters of the city were divided into four rhomboid zones, based on a side of the main

wall and the relevant side of the central elite centre (Figure 4).

The description of a new allocation of governance in the city at the time of King

Narapatisithu is interesting in that the western side of the city does not get a mention.

Absence of evidence is not much evidence at all, but if we were to hypothesise that thedocument contains some valid historical information, could we ask if this was because

the western wall had been washed away by that time?

The Brief History of Bagan must be viewed in the light of the existing archaeological

evidence. Only half a dozen structures (Figure 5) are attributed to the 11th Century AD

by the Inventory of Monuments at Pagan42. They cluster in the northern and southern

portions of the city, though there are not really enough of them to suggest a pattern. The

radiocarbon dates43 that are now available relate to activities on the eastern side of the

city, including a site excavated in the early 1990s that is widely assumed to be a palace

complex (Figure 5). The carbon dates suggest that there was wall-building activity some

time during or after the period 1020-1300 AD, that an earthenware-lined latrine was inuse just outside the present wall some time between 990 and 1210 AD, and that in the

elite compound, in which a teak post a metre wide, from a tree that dated to between

980 and 1250 AD, was used as construction material, there was also a substantial fire

no earlier than 1300 AD.

None of this evidence supports a ninth century origin for the city. However proponents

of the ninth century hypothesis can still take heart from the parabaik. The information

in the document has been put to a practical test, with promising results. An excavation

40

See Thin Kyi, Daw. 1964 The Old City of Pagan. Essays offered to G. H. Luce, Volume 2.Artibus

Asiae.41 Thanks to Dr Waldemar Sailer for pointing this out when the paper was read in Yangon in 2001.42 Pichard 1992-1999, op cit.43 Grave, Peter and Barbetti, Mike. 2001 Dating the City Wall, Fortification and the Palace Site at

Pagan. Asian Perspectives 40(1). The authors point out that plateaux exist in the radiocarbon

calibration curve for this period, seriously broadening the calendar age ranges. However their

results essentially point to construction no earlier than the thirteenth and possibly during the

fourteenth century.


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990-1210 AD(latrine

outside wall)

0.4

1030-1300 AD1020-1220 AD

(ash lensunder wall)

#

Tharaba gate

Dimensions of the cityaccording to the parabaik.

kilometres

0.2

1990s "palace" excavation.

0

1220-1300 AD1300-1440 AD(fire damage)

980-1250 AD(teak fragmentin posthole)

2000-2001

excavation

'

Radiocarbon date ranges and possible11th Century buildings at "Old Bagan"

Bupaya

AyeyarwadyRiver

Existing city wall and moat.

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Documents

villages_parabaik