~VII

Changing Patterns of Communication and Culture

Introduction

This chapter deals with cultural aspect of Indian village life with special

reference to Sikhera. The changes are brought by changing patterns of

communication. discussed in the following sections which are divided for heuristic

purpose as below:

(1) Religious rituals and festivals.

(2) Oral tradition viz. folklores folk songs, riddles and proverbs.

(3) Traditional media.

(4) Folk Medicine,

(5) Food habits, leisure and life sytle,

(6) Cultural artefacts i.e. folk arts, folk crafts. folk architecture and technology

adoption.

All these aspects of culture have been studied under the perspective of the

impact of mass media, magazines, cinema, urban contact. education and transport.

All these influences have changed the culture of village Sikhera.

Changes in Patterns of Communication And Culture

The changes in communication patterns of village, with the coming of mass

media have been of interest to many Indian sociologists. In India mass media was

seen as a vehicle of social change as used in other third world cbllntries like Africa,

Cambodia, Malaysia, China and other communist countries. Hence a number of

studies done are on the subject of media and its role in development. However very

few and limited studies have been done whkh deal with the effect on the pattern of

traditional communication (as classified above) with respect to the mass media.

:lOS

Here the cultural material. structure and their meaning. changes in their form and

style becomes more important.

The concept of culture refers to the ways of life of social groups or

individual. It includes how they dress. their customs. patterns of work. religious

ceremonies and leisure pursuits. It also includes the material culture i.e. goods

they create (viz. ploughs. tools etc.). The concept of culture also comprises of

norms and values. which serve as instrument of social control over it's individuals

and also for the preservation of society· itself. The framework of culture also

includes language. since language is the medium to depict and transmit it.

Language is an important medium in any society. but in a rural society it is

a medium of transmission of oral tradition from one generation to another. Folk

oral tradition is largely dependent on oral transmission for its preservation. This is

due to lack of literacy that it has not been written and is dependent on human

memory. During the group discussions it was noticed that elders talked about folk

songs and riddles which they learnt as part of education but could not recollect

those at present.

Due to the changes brought in the rural society with increased urban

contact. education, media and technological progress. many cultural artefacts and

traditions have changed or have been replaced. The rural culture is considered to

be steeped in backward values of superstition, formalities. irrational beliefs and

traditionalism, and is considered as less innovative. This has caused the present

generation in rural society of Sikhera to be attracted towards urban behavior.

attitudes and life sytles. The youth identify themselves with the urban culture. and

anything which exhibits an association with modern culture is adopted by them.

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The main source of information in villages is the mass media which has left

strong impact on the village life. Since mass media also functions. in a culture

bound society. it has penetrated through the traditional values,attitudes. norms

and customs of society. Since the traditions in the village have been transmitted

down the ages. they have the legitimate sanction of society and provide a

framework of interpretation at the present. Thus. the traditional values arc not

easy to be changed or modernized.

Religious and Ritualistic Communication

The smallest unit of communication is the house ghai. The house is also a

place where (calendric and life cycle) rituals are practised. The mass media have

indirectly made an impact on the cultural communication. This impact is evident

more in the middle and the lower castes than in the upper castes. The mass media

have given an access to the life style of the upper castes. their festivals and rituals.

Earlier religious material viz. things like Ganga]al and religious texts etc .. used in

worship by upper castes could not be touched by the lower castes. They had no

access to the rituals or religious knowledge about sacred text and method of

rituals. Now the cultural spaces have been opened. The cooperation among the

various castes practised on various rituals is no more observed due to decline in

cultural dependency of lower castes. The lower cast~ did not celebrate the festivals

like upper castes and in the upper castes festivities were celebrated with pomp and

show. A change has come about because of the introduction of market economy in

the village which led to breakdown of jajmani system. The lower and middle castes

are no longer bound to the upper castes or forced to work for them. During rites

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- de-passage, like Mundan, marriage, etc. the service castes are paid in cash. Thus

cultural dependency equations have changed.

This low co-operation among the castes in social and cutural events had

major repercussions on the religious culture of the middle and lower castes who

are now more free in performing all the rituals, conducting Kathas and organising

public events similar to those of the upper castes in their own houses. The lower

castes have gained access to the religious communication which was previsiously

monopolized by few Brahmins. Earlier participation and celebration of religious

festivals was a reserved domain and right of upper castes only. The lower and

middle castes had a peripheral role of performing menial jobs during rituals.

Success of Dalit uprising against Raj puts had great impact on the psyche of

the lower castes villagers in Sikhera. Many Radio programs and TV serials based •. !

.. on themes of equality of men, the falseness of caste barriers and the need for equal

social participation by all, have been very influential. The disallowance of holding

Kathas, taking out marriage procession, visiting temples and taking water from the

wells by lower castes and other traditional taboos were criticised. Films,

documentaries and serials explode the myth that lower castes are polluting the

society and environment, as believed by the upper castes. All this certainly has

made the lower castes realize that it was the politics of the upper castes to suppress

them under the pretext of social and ritual superiority based on religious and caste

ideology. Thus the content of media's messages had persuasive role in formation

of lower castes' identity and in generalising the myth of uppercastes' ritual

superiority: Most important of all the lower castes were deprived of education

Cl which decreased rationality and sceptism in them. With the increase of literacy

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and employment in non traditional fields like goverment and private offices, they

were no longer dependent on employment given by the upper castes.

Performance of Ritual5

The upper castes often grudge the changes in the culture of the middle

castes and lower castes. The complaint often made by upper castes is that "Our

festivals have become less ostentatious, now festivals are being elabobrately

celebrated by the lower castes. We(upper castes) are forgetting the rituals and

practices and they look for any small opportunity to celebrate".

The lower castes are more particular about the small details of the rituals as

they would make the A/pan a or figurines of god, with colours, do Puja with lamps,

sweets, incense, read Katha, do Arti on various festivals. As on Atfakar Sankranti,

they would make Khichri, they wear yellow coloured clothes on Basant Panchami

and make sweets and share among themselves. A participation of this nature was

not possible a few years back. Similar to the upper castes, now one can see that

houses of the lower castes, are nicely white washed and tidy. During the festivals

these lights and decorations are on larger scale than those done in Rajput's houses.

During Navratra the temples of the both the upper castes and lower castes are

decorated. The lower castes had devotional songs playing on the tape hired from

city. The lower castes too kept fast and put up video show at night for everybody.

Traditionally in a Ramlila the lower castes were made to stand on the periphel}7

and were not allowed to sit. Now with the breakdown of caste and class barriers,

the lower castes often sit in front and along with the upper castes.

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Availability of CulturallnformatioiJ

Other important emerging pattern of'communication is that the source of

cultural communication has become more and more secular and public in nature

and is no longer meant only for dominant and upper castes. As Milton Singer has

commented "The effect of mass media has not so much secularized the sacred

traditional culture as it has democratized it" (Singer 1972: p.p. 189). Now the

source of information about traditional and religious events also includes the

newspaper's daily almanac, sometimes on TV/Radio or the, calendar brought from

the market. In the calender, the red dates usually denote a holiday eg Sundays,

major religious days and national holidays. In Sikhera, lower castes visit the

temple in Meerut, where yearly almanac called jantri is given to any one

irrespective of caste.

Role Changes in Ritual Performance

Previously, only the rites performed by the Brahmins were considered

proper. None of any another caste could conduct those functions and rituals,

because it was believed that Brahmins where the ones who knew how to read

religious texts. Secondly, since the texts were kept and maintained by them, the

BrahminS had monopolised the rights of conducting religious ceremonies and

rites. All this has changed now, as the whole process (Vidhi) of performing various

rites, the Mantras to be chanted, Bhajan songs and other ceremonial materials are

readily available in the market, which are considered to be proper and are even

used in performing Puja at home~ Literacy in Sikhera had led the lower castes'

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access to the traditional sacred literature. The mass production of audio cassettes

of traditonal Bhajans. worship and other devotional songs unknown and

inaccessible earlier, are easily available today.

The middle castes are well off and are more capable in purchasing these

things from markets for individual use and for keeping as private property. Among

lower castes only some can do so and mostly the goods bought by one family are

shared by the rest. On festivals the Chamars often take contribution from all and

give a feast to all the lower castes. This not only brings a sense of confidence

about their cultural status but also instills a sense of unity amongst them. As

lower castes are becoming sanskritized and educated their horizontal mobility is

increasing. The upper castes on the other hand are now clinging to their ritual

status and trying to maintain their superiority by diversifying their alternative

sources of income and communication.

Among the upper castes the rituals, rites-de passage are now abbreviated

and symbolically celebrated without unnecessary expenditure and fanfare. For

example. Namkaran Samskara, Upanayan Samskara, have been abbreviated. The

rituals like Dasootan. Namkaran,and Annaprashan are clubbed together or not all

the men arc invited for them. Some of the rituals like Anna prashan (when first

time child eats grains) are ignored unlike before. Now simply the child is fed sweet

with silver spoon and sometimes not even that. Fasts are not kept fastidiously as

they were kept before.

There arc no longer Keertans and Bhajans held in the evening in the temple

and less people attend such meetings. Slowly the participation has thinned down

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due to fast pace of life and busy schedule of people. Instead Bhajans are heard on

Radio and TV and religious serials and pravachan are heard or seen on them.

Only very close friends and men come to wish the festival greetings. There are no

more exchange of gifts and sweets. Most of the rituals and rites are self-conducted

by the head of family (male/female). The need for calling a Brahmin to conduct the

rites is no longer necessary. This has led to the reduction of status of Brahmins

who are visibly displeased at the loss of their social prcstige.Thus the tradtional

communications of religious information. and knowledge are replaced due to mass

exposure. leading to secularisation of message production and commodification of

cutural objects.

Stage Of Performance Of Rituals

The stage of performance of rites and festivals which used to take place in

temple is now shifted to the house. Now, many rituals before and after fasts are

performed without a Brahmin and at the house instead of at the temples. At the

end of the fasts. the offerings are given to a temple priest instead of inviting him to

the house. Similarly after Navaratra fasts. the custom of feeding young girls on the

eighth day. is no longer considered mandatory. Instead food with bangles is left in

the temple with no regard of pollution rules.

The upper castes are now more concerned about their livelihood about

children's education. increasing their agricultural land-production. savings, and

diversifying their income, though here also reservation in employment and

education is affecting the upper castes adversely. The living standard of lower

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castes has become better due to reservation. in government jobs. getting education

and holding political posts (panchayat members).

Oral Tradition In Folk Society

The study of folk culture and oral tradition contributes to the understanding

of the social change. Folk culture and tradition is cumulative social heritage and

various aspects of folk culture and oral tradition like folk tales. folk songs.

proverbs which portray contemporary life. documents. history. provide safety

valves to release pent up sentiments. They throw light on the different aspects of

social organization and provide clues to understand the interplay between culture

and personality development. R.K.Mukherjee once observed that Panchtantra till

today gives us clue to the working of people's mind and their practices. This is

applicable for riddles. proverbs and folksongs also.

The function of oral tradition in India has been transmission of social values

and ethos. At the same time it educates. socialises and serves as the media of

social control. social protest and medium of propaganda. Communication of

knowledge is also an impo~nt part of ritual function. Communication of folk

knowledge provides a framework for analysis of the present and also serves as a

binding authority for continuity of culture.

Oral tradition consists of folksongs. which are different on different

occasions like Bidai is sung when a girl leaves· her home after marriage. Sohar is

sung when a son is born. Malhor is sung wh.Ak working etc., Ballads are sung

about mythical and legendary heroes. tr;\thological legends (relating to local

hero's valour and bravery), folk tales (in Tota-'Maina, Raja-Rani forms), ·iroverbs

(Kahavaf0 the name in Hindi itself shows that it is an integral part of oral

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tradition), riddles, charms, incantations and genealogist's narrations form an

integral part of oral tradition ..

Sikhcra's oral tradition. is related to the larger tradition of its heroes.

myths, legends, proverbs, riddles and is relatively similar to that existing in the

northern Indian villages. Use of oral tradition among people of different age groups

is given in Table 7,1. The oral tradition senrcs not only hermeneutic functions but

is also used as legitimate evidence in several cases. The folk lores of Alha-Udhal_,

Satyavadi Raja Harishchandra, Nal Damyanti Dushyant-Shakuntala, Dhruv,

Bhakta Praha/ad and V ikramaditya, are the favourite folk lores which are part of

every household communication. Besides dramas based on these stories are often

enacted in the village during festivity or functions. But now these stories have

been relegated to the background and only remembered by elders of the village.

Age groups Variables of < 30 30-50 >50 traditions Male Female Male Female Male Female

Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Folk songs 37. 62. 75 25. 80. 20. 92. 7.5 85. 15. 90. 10.

5 5 0 0 0 5 o· 0 0 0 0 Folk -Tales 12. 87. 36. 63. 79. 11. 87. 12. 97. 2.5 95. 4.5

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 5 0 Fast-Tales 2.5 97. 44. 54. 61. 39. 77. 22. 62. 38. 79. 11.

0 5 5 5 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 Arti!Bhajans 36. 63. 45. 55. 71. 29. 63. 36. 88. 12. 97. 2.5

5 5 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 5 0 Riddles 36. 63. 54. 44. 77. 22. 44. 54. 37. 62. 53. 46.

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Proverbs 50. 50. 66. 34. 77. 22. 85. 15. 77. 22. 90. 10.

0 0 0 0 5 :-;iff 0 0 5 5 0 ().

Table 7.1 Use Of Oral Tradition (in percentage)

At present the younger generation is not averse to folk tales and stories as

they have grown up on these but they consider these folk tales to be imaginative

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and unrealistic. A young ]atav (Chama!) cannot relate his ancestor's working for

a chapati for one day's labour. Since youths are influenced by the mass culture,

are educated. these folk tales and lores amuse them for a short time, but the

younger generation prefers to watch cinema, TV serial or Radio programs. They

consider these stories as fabricated myths. Jaharvir_ is the Gram Devta of

Sikhera and is worshipped by persons of all castes and religions.

Almost all the elders and middle aged men and women knew about Jaharvir

but below 30 years only 45% males. 30% females know about the life story of

Jaharvir. They worship him on Thursday and on full moon day. They keep a fast

on the 9th day of Bhadon (August-September). which is known as Gugga Naumi.

This was popular fast in which the stor}' of Jahanrir is read and Pua (sweets of

Jaggery and wheat flour) are made and exchanged. This fast is almost

disappearing. Instead it has been replaced by worshipping and giving a Chaddar(a

sheet) on Thursday or when the wish is fulfilled. Only few elder women knew

about the fast. The use of fast tales and folk lores is decreasing among the villagers

as these are replaced by media tales. and stories of serials, film actor's biography

etc. This trend is more among the younger generation than in older generation.

Proverbs

Proverbs and other sayings which have been part of folk knowledge are also '

becoming a thing of past. The orignatmsof these sayings on weather and on eating ~

habits, which are part of oral tradition throughout in northern India ,were Ghag

and Bhaddari. The proverbs thus serve the function of communication of

knowledge in the folk society. They are related to weather, cattle, ploughing,

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sowing. manuring. i~ating, weeding, han,esting and omens and provide good

knowledge to the folk. These also give advice regarding the daily conduct of life

and social intercourse. e.g.

'Dont cultivate the barren land',

'Dont purchase the she-calf of a buffalo'.

'Don't keep the deserted woman as wife',

Thus this related to three most important things for a farmer i.e. his Khet (fields).

cattle and wife. In the present times. these proverbs are used by obove 50 years of

which (the elders) 90% are females and 77.5% are males. These kinds of proverbs

are still used by elders to prove their point to younger generation. The utility of

the proverbs regarding social aspects. still continues. in fact it guides in

socialisation process of younger generation. Proverbs on the topic of health.

medicine etc. are not used frequently as in earlier times since the medicinal

practices have changed considerably.

Now the situations and food habits have changed. Not all in the village can

afford to have milk or butter milk because of economic reason or due to time

factor. New kinds of food are entering the village. Women folk due to exposure to

city culture or to save time for tailoring or for watching TV. do not grind flour or

spices. Elders of village told that a few years back nobody ate stale food. The left

over were given to service castes and servants and fresh food was cooked. Now

fridge or ice box'-· is kept in the house in which left over Dal!Vegetables are stored.

These things are new to the culture of village and are changing the concept of

living, hence the proverbs are becoming anachronistic in the present time when

man is no longer dependent on nature.

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Riddles

Riddles, called Pahcli in Hindi, often became a way of getting introduced to

the stranger. thus it was a form of getting acquainted. It imparted knowledge to

children and also served to sharpen their wits. Riddles were more common among

children. Now children in the village arc either busy with homework or watching

TV and less time is spent on games etc. Other games like antakshari i.e. song quiz

etc. are played by elders also but now it is the film songs which are sung. Riddles

are played by young generation (36.5%) while in the school. for going to school or coming back home. in tempo bus etc. In 30-50 years of age group 77.5% of males

remember the riddles, which is the maximum among three age groups.

Folk songs

The elder people, told me that there were folksongs which taught them how

to do addition, substraction and the principle of solving problems. The history

lessons were framed in the song forms. There were meters Dohas regarding the

conversion of heights and distances and different measures etc. Songs like

C'haumasa. Barahmasa were all about the characteristics of different seasons. The

simple tunes of songs could be easiiJ' memorized by the children along with subject

matter. The Nirgun songs and couplets of Kabir, Haridas, Rahim, Tulisdas, Raidas

etc. taught the younger generation about the social norms, values and morals of

society, besides teaching them the philosophy of life. The ballads and epics

provided them with good knowledge of the life histories of worldly and mythical

heroes respectively. Often the older people remembered the history through these.

The stories of Ramayan, Mahabharat. BhagJTat Geeta were on the tongues of the

217

villagers which is a surprise. The elder people· always made and offered to

inculcate such traditions in younger ones. The folk songs are more common

9-v among women by 75%. These songs though the years have served as an alternate

/'

way to educater'j children in comparison to todays' formal education of the public/

government schools. Now they are replaced by Nursery rhymes. jing:Jes and

school poems. Similarly folk tales, folk lores have become a part of co~ics. like

Amar Chitra Katha. and other children's magazines which are based on imaginary

stories not related to culture. TV serials like Alif Laila and other serials like

Vikram and Betal etc. are shown. New serials like Tirupati, Jai Hanuman, Shiv

Puran etc. are becoming a part of mass culture. Hence the themes of oral

tradition are being adopted by mass media to gain popularity,Gn TV. Radio we

also hear folk songs on particular occasions like Baisakhi, Holi. janamashami etc.

Change in Rituals

Singer has mentioned that now there is abbreviation of the festival

celebrations. whereas they used to start days before the actual festival. Earlier in

Sikhera since Basant Panchami woods were collected for Holi on a crossing in the

middle of the village. After that day every one in the village would collect wood.

On the day of Holi the collected firewood was burnt and worshipped. In every

house also symbolic holi was burnt with cowduhg cake and fire was worshiped.

Now the firewood is collected only a few days before Holi and not necessarily from

Basant Panchami. The rituals and practices have been cut down and not observed

in similar ways as they used to be in earlier times.

The festival calls for spending money lavishly when the upper castes try to

outdo the middle castes and lower castes to show their higher status. This trend is

218

on increase in the village and the simplicity with which festivals were celebrated

before is decreasing. Among the lower castes. the festivals are limited to preparing

'Kheer' rice and poon: Sweets are bought from the city. by the rich to show ofT

their prosperity on festivals.

In the oral tradition. one thing which does not seem to have changed even

now is that the devotional or non-de,·otional story telling is still linked with the

themes and techniques to the folk and starT-telling media. It has been adopted for

spreading new meaning within the same structures. Secondly the story telling

Harikatha and 'path smay not be religious all the time. as Singer (1972) mentions

that Harikatha about Gandhi's life is presented and performed. Here again the

structures are maintained but the meaning has become non-religious. These kinds

of trends have again changed the stage of performance which were previously

more limited to temples. festivals or other religious occasions. In Sikhera. there are

Harikathas about Gugga/Jaharvir and Mattdr Baba, who are ancestors of the

village.

The enthusiasm for the performance of Ramlila. Nautanki still exists in

Sikhera. Ramlila is much more appreciated and for ten days before Dashahara

village is in an animated suspense. The performance is enacted by men of the

lower and middle castes. Women do not take part in such performences even now

as it not considered proper for women to act and stay out at night with other

men. All villagers come with their families to watch the performance. The whole

village is decorated with paper triangles on the thread and some lights are

arranged on the footpath of village and on the stage and people stay awake till

late at night.

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Hence there is technical modernization of traditional cultural media though

as in city, these are neither biases on personal basis like caste etc. nor there is

any entrance fee for most of the performances done on festivals. Puppets and drum

beaters are also hired on marriage. Now th~ latest trend is to get orchestra party

from town to perform during marriages. and other family functions. The orchestra

party is enjoyed by the villagers though elders find it vulgar and obscene. This has

replaced the Shehnai and drums. though bands are often hired for marriage

procession (barat) from the city. The oral tradition has been commercialized and

mass produced as is evident from the printed books, pamphlets available in the

market, which are read by many villagers. Folk tales are no longer accepted as

way of life since they have become and are believed to be things of past and

obsolete. Grandfathers or grandmothers are no longer associated with such tales.

Folktales remain just stories and not philosophy of life to guide the person or to be

·associated with.

Secondly, the mass culture has taken over the folk culture. Infact mass

culture has imbibed the folk culture for its own survival whereby uniformity of

culture is there and maintained at the price of disintegration of folk society and its 0

values.

Thirdly, many practices and traditions which were almost a necessity and

considered must are becoming e~iinct and obselete with the coming of technology

in society. In the village, TV and Radio are given more time than education and

socialization. Many oral traditions and cultural practices regarding agriculture,

health. medicine which were healthy and beneficial have been given up in the

name of mere superstition. Oral tradition has, however, survived in the

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geneologies that Bhats narrate which were considered as a legitimate authority

even by Indian courts. Many a time. the courts have considered the records of

Bhats as legal proof of existence or negation of relations.

Oral tradition was also a source of inspiration and conveyed the values of

honesty. valour and chivalry through the moral of story like honesty is best

policy. or patience is fruitful. Regarding the changes in folk culture. Mckim

' Mariott has given concepts of Universalisation and Parochialisation. Thus when

the 'Great Tradition' gets imbibed in local culture it gets localized. Parochialisa.t-

-~process occurs when the Sanskritic culture becomes a part of local culture.

Mckim Mariott has taken the instance of two festivals Govardhan Puja and

Navaratri as instances of Parochialisation. Thus both traditions are in constant

interaction with each other, changing each other and giving culture a dynamic

form. Earlier folk culture imbibed themes from religio-cultural traditions. but now

6YI. it interacted"more general and secular themes.

Besides these. a subculture regarding the presence of deities or their

incarnation in Sikher().. is also prevalent. There are stories about Shit/a Devi, an

incarnation of Goddess Kali who is considered responsible for the spread of small {)

pox (Pauline Kolenda, 81: 189) and Sanjhi Deviwho is worshipped by young girls

for getting good husbands. The lower castes have gradations of incarnations of

mother Goddesses. These all goddesses are claimed to be incarnation of Goddess

Durga and dressed in red cloth and worshiped by Bhagats. The sweepers have

Shakambari Devi, Garde Ki Mai who are direct incarnations of Kali and hence

Tamsic (Devilish) in nature and are dreaded for their wrath. Santoshi Mata is

another media created Goddess who is not mentioned in any religious text. She is

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folk incarnation of Goddess Durga Her • Chalisa' (forty verses of praise and worship)

Arti (final audication) ' ' were written on the basis of the film songs of ']ai

Santoshi Ma: This mother deity has become assimilated so naturaly in our

culture that hardly any body has noticed this fact. Cinema has thus played an

important role along with electronic media to create a myth and also succeeded in

integrating the fabricatiln-v with great tradition.

The concerns like, illness, serpent bite, familial and extended kin

relationship are some of the themes which appear in the Sanskritic tradition and

likewise grace the oral tradition of the rural countryside. As Singer observed that

striking aspects of continuity of culture in urban areas and countryside are

exhibited by common stock of mythologies and legendary themes. These dramas.

Kathas, folklore and mythologies are still going strong in villages as they voice the

aspirations and inhibitions of people regarding the every day danger from nature.

Most of folk lares and tradition show intervention of spiritual power in temporal

matters which provides hope and reinforces faith in god. The kinship pattern is

also exhibited in stories of fraternal affections or filial jealousy.

Besides having close association with village life, the folk oral tradition at

the same time demonstrates similarities with epics like Ramayana, Mahabarata,

and Durga Saptshati, etc. The cultural communication, hence. has a unifying

effect and reinforces singular. cultural and ideological thread which binds villages.

cities and the nation. These stories and myths bind the village with one cultural

tradition.:

Folk music is telecast in different styles and forms. although their meaning

and contexts are same. The media has become popular in village through its

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adoption of themes from folk and religious cultural oral tradition. Even the aged

watch Ramayana. Mahabharata, Jai Hanuman etc. They watch such serials as

they can identify with such topics themes and ideologies. Thus the acceptance of

new styles of Ramayana, Mahabharata have made the acceptance of new media

more possible and probable in village society. With the increase in literacy in the

village and easy availability of printed pamphlets and booklets of worship, fasts of

Shiva on Monday, of Hanuman on Tuesday etc have gained more popularity. The

printed-]antri, almanac is available to anyone of any caste from the market. which

was not so before when the lower castes were devoid of partaking in any of the

religio-cultural communication. This monopoly over, cultural communicati~

which was selectively permeable, gave rise to the local forms and deities

corresponding to the Sanskritic Goddesses and Gods among the lower castes like

Shitala Devi.

Presently. the reach of lower castes has increased due to the equal status

given by various legislations and decreasing religious attributes of caste. Now the

oral traditions concerning fast {vrat), festival {tyohar), worship {Puja) or fete

{parv) are available in the market which was not so earlier. Now Satya Na~;pyan

Katha, Durga Path, Geeta path are frequently held in lower caste's houses also.

Now the oral traditions are reduced to inexpensive booklets which are utilized

during cultural occasions. The Bhajans sung during worship, Kathas read during

fast. Mantra (Chants) are all read from books by all. Wadley in her study of

Karimpur village in Mainpuri district found that different kathas are associated

with different fasts. These Kathas are available in pamphlet forms, which are read

223

by women. mostly of upper caste or by priests during the worship. Wadley has

differentiated betwe~n 'Kathas and Kissas'. as kathas provide justification of

certain ritual acts. Kissa is a story about mythological heroes and tradition. The

oral tradition hence has myriad colours which now has become far reaching

horizontally and vertically among castes. as it has been reinforced by the mass

media, mass sale in market and increasing literacy level . There are now local

audio cassettes of Kissas available in market of Rani, Tara, Bhakt~rahalad. Raja

Harishchander, etc. The style of singing, music and singer's are taken from local

subculture which are popular. These are played during festivals. marriages and

celebrations in Sikhera. Another trend besides mass production, technological

presentation and increased reach to masses, is that the oral tradition and all the

ritual acts have also become symbolic and abbreviated in nature. There are short

cut methods of chanting only important incantations or mantras during marriage

and avoiding others. Satyanarayan Katha which took days to finish, now finishes

only in half an hour as people cannot devote more time. This trend is evident in

town and village both. Upper castes have taken up symbolic practices rather then

going through elaborate process like they sprinkle Ganga water on idol before

worshipping instead of ritual of bathing the idol. During Sawan (Aug-Sep), they

0.. give up eating non-vegetfian meals. etc. but do not keep fasts. On ]anamashtmi,

fasts are not kept but only a meal is skipped during the day, on Durga Navaratra.

only first and last fasts are observed. The rationale given for adopting such

practices is lack of time to devote to cultural practices. The cultural traditional

214

practices have changed among the lower castes also instead of sacrificing pig., they

cut a nutmeg duririf rituals.

The structures of traditional performances. were simultaneously social.

recreational. public or religious. The joint family and strong kinship performed an

important role in transmission of oral tradition. Grandmother (Dadil Nam).

grandfather (Dada/ Nan a). uncles (Mamas. Tau. Phoopha. Chacha) etc. all sen,ed

as reservoirs of oral tradition in cultural transmission. This also attracted the mass

media, which has published many books as Nanihal Ki Kahania, (stories of

grandmother's house) and Tota aur Maina. (In this two birds while talking to each

other say the story), stories sung in style of Nautanki, (the stories arc sung and

· enacted in particular style and diction with Nakkara, Dholak, harmonium) which

are enjoyed in the village.

The change in the structure of oral traditions is clear as the specialists of

traditional media though in less demand in the village are often invited in the city

.: marriage celebrations, different types of conferences arid functions. or in hotels

where they are presented as;,,); exotic items. There are special places, restaurants,

streets where they perform at their own bargaining prices. The village is no more c

an attraction for traditional artists as villagers are more pre-occupied with

electronic media and also getting less profit in village in comparison with city.

Hence the stage of performance has changed. · The keertans and bhajans are

performed by specialized professional groups in urban areas which are mostly from

other villages or cities. In Sikhera, many such keertan mandalies have been

organized by women, who often go to city to perform keertan, bhajan and on

225

occassions of marriage and childbirth etc. Till few years back almost every woman

knew bhajans. keertans and traditional religious songs. but now it is reduced to

few professional women who sing it. In the coming yearsthere would be the

reduction in number of women who can sing folk song as the younger generation

has become more involved with education. TV. film songs and other professional

things. Hence professionalism in cultural specialists is a rising trerid. The

importance of Bhagats. and others have not decreased since the concept of evil eye.

evil spirit. possession have long existing in the village for long.

The oral traditions like epics. Nautanki. jataka tales. Panchatantra. Tota

maina etc. are used by the government agencies and Non-government agencies in

villages to popularize the new techniques and practices like smoke less chulhas.

fertilizers. machines. family planning methods etc. Hence the folk structure

remains the same but the meaning of message is transformed. Hence the folk or

traditional communication is utilized for bringing development and change in the

country side.

TRADITIONAL RECREATIONAL MEDIA AND TV/ RADIO

The difference between mass media and traditional media

Traditional media entertainment are puppet shows (Kathaputh). Nautanki,

Sa.ng, folk songs. fairs and festivals. The traditional and folk artists. like Nats

(acrobats). Sangis. travelling troupes, puppeteers, tatfQ:oers. are also important

media which were important channels of ±raditional media.

Like the rest of folk life. traditional media too has undergone change with

the coming of mass media. like newspaper. TV. Radio. It would not be true to say

226

()

that the traditional form of recreational media have been replaced by the mass

media. To some extent. the themes of traditional media their structure and form

' have changed but they have proved to be flexible enough to survive. The

technology has made the mass production of the entertainment media possible and

programs can be transmitted to mass audiences quickly and in practically any

location.

Mass media, which includes radio. TV. cinema. magazines. newspapers.

pamphlets are more oriented towards mass consumption and mass sale and

therefore look for themes which are more popular. Hence the popular culture is

mostly media hyped which is enjoyed by the rural and urban masses. The

existence of mass media is dependent on its commercial value. They cannot afford

to be limited or cater to one section. caste or linguistic group of society but always

seek to maximize the audience for continuous performances of their media. To

become popular entertainment is more important for media industries. The themes

which occur in mass media are more secular. and about popular emotions of love.

hatred. jealousy. anguish. etc. It could be argued that oral literature from ancient

days till now is full of these emotions. But the difference lies in the style of

presentation and the non-religious treatment of theme. which is not evident in the

folk media.·

The mass media to a large extent have taken universal themes and

situations of victory of truth and love and presented them in the present context

for movies. Many folk tales from different regions of the country have also found

their way in mass media.

227:

Secondly mass media is more impersonal and has become important source

of social change for lower castes whose status or caste is immaterial in their

accessibility to information about anything. Hence mass media is more enjoyed by

lower castes and it is also associated with many programs which are concerned

with their development and improvement. as given by the state controlled media.

The lower castes go to cinema halls and sit along with other castes whereas during

a Sang (drama by travelling performers) performence in village they mostly have

to stand at back and not allowed to sit with upper castes. Similarly a few years

back, they could not get access to the information regarding the calendric rituals

in general. Only a few literates among them could calculate according to the

moon. They could not keep a copy of Ramayana. or Mahabarata. or sing bhajan.

or harikatha. or enter the Savama (upper caste) temple. But now. besides the

Constitutional and legistative measures. mass media, and mass publishing have

made their access to the cultural material possible. Now they have a separate

small mandir in few Dalits houses and in literate houses there are often recitation

of kathas and Geeta Path out of pamphlets and books bought from market. There

is a Sahaj Yoga Path Shala opened by Jai Bhagwan (Sunar) who conducts classes ()

for men and his daughter takes classes for women and girls irrespective of their

castes.

Calendar Art

Calendar art has an unmistakable role to play in the life of folk people.

Calendar art has brought the themes of Great Tradition in an impersonal medium

to the folk society. The cultural information is no longer limited to the temple

priests and few people of upper castes; through calendar and holidays on festivals.

228

the cultural tradition has become a part of life for lower castes also. The calendar

art has become an important feature of all the houses specially in the lower castes.

Mostly it contains pictures of deities. or scenery. or photos of popular temples.

places and sometimes even cine 'stars'. Some calendars are made according to

Hindi dates. on the back side they have birth signs along with gems. stones to be

worn. Most of them have different mantras which could be recited for happiness.

wealth. good marriage. etc. There is also information about the symbolic meaning

of the dreams like if one sees green-colour it brings happiness. if one sees ants it

brings bad luck and so on. The symbolism is related and studied under the

influence of Indian religion as green in Hindu mythology is associated with

happiness. fertility and benign things. whereas an ant is related to Saturn

(Shanichal) which is suspposed to bring misfortune. They also contain information

about what colours should be worn on what days according to name and Rashi

(moon sign according to the date and month of birth). These calendars were found

--,in upper castes (60%) and middle castes (30%) and in lower castes (18%)

houses, mostly because lower castes were not aware of such calendars as the

households are semi-literate and still people in the village trust the oral word more

than the written source. If their friends or relatives tell them about a fast or

festival. the villagers would trust them more.

Recreational Media :

The change is also seen as the traditional recreational media of nautanki,

puppets,Sangs etc. also perform in urban areas where themes are more secular.

social and 'ritually neutral'. Hence they perform the same stories for getting more

audience in the village also. During such shows in the village all the generations

229

ardently watch new plays and nautankis about separation. love.;, social harmony.

communal problems and other such problems.

As the structures of Indian society have adopted fo new situation and

modcrniz~themeselves, similarly traditional media now has increased its audience

by making audio.video cassettes. Now the Nautanki if not seen often in villages.

can be heard on Radio in the afternoon and early evenings. But those who listen

to it are mostly elder farmers not the younger ones. The times of the Bhajans

which arc about little tradition of the region like Jaharvir and Mattar Baba are

mostly based on the tunes of film music. When one Jogi was asked why film

music and tune are used for a Bhajan or devotional song. he said that "this

ensures that people remember the Bhajan as it sounds attractive and they could

))

associate with Bhajan as if they have heard them before. The tune is familiar

hence people can sing it instantaneously and in the villages it is common to copy

. the bhajans sung in the films. The Keertans, organized in the temples and also in

the houses during family celebrations. are mostly based on film music. The folk . .,

songs sung in the films are used for dancing in the ladies sangeet. or in Baraat

(marriage procession) during marriage celebraJion. Thus the folk has adopted the

popular culture as much as the mass media has taken inspiration from folk culture

and tradition.

The older generation has formed groups especially among women (mostly

widowed). to hold sessions of keertans and Geeta or Ramayan Path in each other's

house. The Keertan groups are mostly caste based in which Rajput women are

major performers though Khatik. Dhimar, and other middle castes women also

230;

come and sit. Dalit women who are very keen to participate sit on the door step,

when the upper caste women do Path and keertan. Women sing old bhajans and

devotional songs. some of these bhajans are based on fiim tunes. This shows the

influence of mass communication on folk media.

The traditional media had humble origin and its audience was restricted to

the community where it was performed. This authentidty is lacking in the mass

media. The folk media and art are being integrated in mainstream media and

communications. The incentive of being more popular has made folk media to

compromise with the inherent critical quality which was present there.

Technically the folk performances'strategy has improved and the profit motive has

hit the folk media: cLue to which the spontaneity in the folk culture and art is

becoming extinct presently. The old media had their origin in the religious

traditions which were valued for their humanizing social influence. The songs of

Mirabai and Kabir's couplets are all evidence of the spontaneous devotion to social

cause and the communication done in simple and "plain style. The artists of

traditional media have always kept in mind the social milieu in which they

perform. They had their roots in the authentic folk culture and were in fact part of

the social institution. They reflected the aspirations and values of the society in a

dramatized way. The modem entertainment media has made conscious use of the

traditional artistic element and time honoured perennial modes. which had power

to attract masses.

Due to this assimilation of folk media modes and style by mass media, the

folk media is reduced to the 'position of adjuncts of traditional public festivals and

private religious family functions'. The presence here was also because of their

231

symbolic integration with festivals. Since the folk media and traditions have their

roots in religious observances. they did not become totally extinct. Their forms

and techniques are still retained and thrived by their hereditary practitioners as a

matter of family pride and obligation and passed from generations to generation.

Bhats

In Sikhera. two Bhats serve Rajput houses at present. Their sons have

taken up separate occupation and are not well versed in this tradition. This

signifies that their sons would not be taking up this profession since ascriptive

occupation has low status creteria in Sikhera to them, The symbolic importance of

the folk artist and function in the society has been made redundant by the

developed technology and modern institutions. This is true for all the professional

castes which have lost their symbolic significance and are replaced by things that

could be bought from market. viz. instead of earthen pots steel utensils and plastic

·cup plates are being bought to use during functions which reduced the work of

Kumhar. The occupation of Dhimar (Kahar) is replaced by the water taps and doli

is replaced by car or other vehicles. Thus the songs which were sung by Kahar and

their associated culture has been lost with no documentation. The Bhaksors who

used to play drums and serve as the musicians at the social events have left the

village due to absl;ence of means of livelihood. Similarly many rituals and

practices and songs about agriculture are redundant. sin,ce these are no more

considered useful in face of technological innovations which have been introduced

in agriculture.

The nuances of the old methods were there. as they were not very

egalitarian and democratic like mass media. It is true. that now style of life is

232 ·.

better, comfor:table, durable and much more dependable than before but it is at the

cost of folk culture. It is not only the case of this village but of almost all Indian

villages.

Effect of mass media on traditional media

Due to the changes and transitions taking place in the village, the themes

that are being utilized by traditional media are similar to those shown in mass

media. Recently in Sikhera, two performances were done by repertoire of drama

troupes organised by a local school, cultural groups which were on the availability

of poor medical facilities in the village and about untouchability in rural society.

Such skits and street performan~re appreciated by the villagers. Sometimes even

advertisements use mythological figures according to modem time like Ram talks

to Hanuman on phone; Bharat comes on train to take Ram back to Ayodhya; Sita

has Maggie in Lanka; or as in Krishna Leela, gopis wash clothes in washing

machine, to avoid Lord Krishna from stewing their clothes. These signify

imaginative transformations and by showing the acceptance of these new

consumer goods by deities it increases the possibility of the villagers to purchase

these consumer goods.

There are structural changes in traditional media as women in Sangi

troupes, Nats and troupes have increased in numbers . In the. village, earlier

Ramayan was enacted only by male members but now women also opt to enact in

them from nearby villages. This definitely attracts lots of villagers. The traditional

media, involving only human performances, are becoming technologically

superior. The traditional media utilises electronic gadgets and instruments in

making musical tunes, etc.

233.

In past, the various recreational forms in village were enjoyed only by few

upper caste males. Women were deprived of any such recreation as it was a taboo

to do so and women were not allowed to go out. Now they are able to entertain

themselves at home by radio, TV,magazines etc.

Earlier the recreational media were limited in number and were an

occasional form of recreation. Mostly thetewere occa~ons of marriage, family

function etc. but now entertainment has become an every day activity and the

attitude towards entertainment in the village has changed; Now there are indo.O'Y

games like (arrom Board. playing (ards, snake and ladder, comics, TV' Radio. to

watch which are seen as better substitute for occasional Nautanki. The popularity

of the new formsof recreationar~ enjoyed by the lower castes and upper castes in a

similar manner, infact new forms of recreation are, free from sacred or pollution

element and do not reinforce social hierarchy in any form. In traditional

performances lower castes had to stand behind and could not sit or stand with

upper caste. Thus the lower castes consider radio and TV as better means of

entertainment than Sang. Nautanki, etc.

Traditional media structures like puppetry, are used and popularized by the .()

mass media in children's programmes and other shows. Similarly Nautanki and

other styles are used by the government to popularize the government schemes in

the village. The success of such performances have been 90% since these forms

are identifiable and popular among village folk. As the performers are villagers,

they even explain the importance of such policies.

Thus traditional media has definitely played an important role in

development of secular themes of nationalism, secularism, communal harmony,

234

removal of untouchability. importance of education. family planing etc.in Sikhera.

The modern commercial entertainment media has borrowed the themes and forms

of presentation to get legitimacy from the population staying in the villages. The

old traditional media have been reduced as an adjunct to colorful and hi-tech mass

media.

In the mass recreational domain films remain as unexplored media. It is

limited to few youths in the village. Though older generations of Sikhera still find

peace in recitation of folk lores. tales. and Harikatha. the elder generation of the

village do not appreciate the mass culture. When the youth of school stage

cultural performances during annual festival for the village. the elders often

express opinion that dramas with themes from epics. puranas. or folk tales are

more entertaining. However the youth prefer to dance to film songs rather than on

folk songs. Unlike the elders. youth are seldom interested in oral traditional media;

they prefer to read film magazines. listen to radio and watch TV and films.

The entertainment by the means of traditional media was basically a

communitarian and social way of recreation. Now with coming of magazines.

books. TV. Radio it has become highly personal, relative and isolated form of 0

entertainment. This also has changed the social structure as people are becoming

less aware and motive of community and social interaction has been reduced to

certain occasional celebrations in the family. This has encouraged secondary

impersonal relationships in the villagers which was not seen before.

Changes in Folk Medicine

The folk culture has a unique way of dealing with the problems of health

and the concept of hygiene has been different from the urban-modem sense. The

235 '

folk culture has rationalized health problems like, occurrence of Small Pox.

Jaundice. Typhoid, Malaria, fits, leukemia. leprosy resulting from the wrath of

gods. These are all understood in the context of religion. which only can provide

the answer to these diseases. This has lead the villagers to suffer. Due to

unawareness and disbelief in mo der.n means of treatment by villagers the high

rate of mortality of children and of women during delivery is quite common. The

folk medicinal treatment can be divided into

1) Magico-Ritual folk Medicine and 2) Herbal Medicine.

Medicinal Age Group(years) treatments Below 30 30-50 Above 50

Male Female Male Female Male Female Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes

Household 30 70 45 55 17.5 82.5 45 55 92.5 7.5 82.5 (Herbal/Folk) Magi co- 20 80 55 45 22.5 77.5 37.5 62.5 5 95 25 religious BMS (Doctor) 42.5 57.5 7.5 92.5 44.5 55.5 12.5 87.5 12.5 82. 2.5

5 MBBS (Town) 5 95 Nil Nil 12.5 87.5 5.5 94.5 3.5 96. 2.5

5 Vaccination 2.5 97.5 2.5 97.5 2.5 97.5 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Table 7.2 Practice Of Different Medicinal Treatments (1."' ~t~e-)

Magico-Ritual Folk medicine

No 17.5

75

72.5

72.5

Nil

The use of charms, mantras. ']har-Phoonk, Nazar (evil eye) jadu-Tona or

Tantra are seen as more efficient and easily available remedies in the village .

These are considered as time tested and trusted ways of curing and preventing any

ill of the individual. In Sikhera, it is common to avoid staring at new baby by an

onlooker, since it might get ill due to 'Nazar, of an onlooker hence after the t

visitors leave, the mother or any elderly person, takes seven red chilies, salt. Haldi, ,..

circulates them over the child's head seven times. spits on it and bums them in fire

236·. !

with which the evil effect of evil eye is supposed to be burnt. This is considered as a

remedy to remove the ill effects of evil eye Nazar. Other remedy is that. the child is

made to wear black amulets and put black Kohl dot on forehead. A Kaundhini or

black thread is also tied on lower torso of a male child to prevent hernia. This is

also a totka (remedy for evil eye).

Bhagats

Bhagat literally means devotee. Bhagats are considered as religious

mendicants who through their spiritual powers and shaminisitc practices can treat

people of different ailments. Bhagat is a Dalit. mostly Balmiki. possessed by goddess

Durga's spirit and is called on the onset of measles. small pox. mumps. typhoid etc.

They believe that these diseases are caused by the anger (Prakop) of mother

goddess and hence have to be appeased by offerings (Ahooll). On the onset of small

pox, Sitala Devi is worshipped by the Bhagats. Sitala Devi is brought and fed, some

seeds (of a local plant) are thrown around the patients cot and Neem leaves are

hung on the door, Earthen pot with fire is buried near the sick person's cot. He is

fed with raddish juice and butter milk.

0

Besides the above practices, Bhagats recommend offering of a miniature

palaquin filled with various items such as seven kinds of sweet smelling things.

seven kinds of sweets, hen. and bangles to be after waving \ -· ... ,< ( wama) 0\'er

sick person's body. The patient is also given powder of sitala pearl out of her

garland to reduce the heat of the body since the boils are taken as symbolic of j,JYath

mother'~ They consider that any medicine taken during Bhagat's treatment would

anger the mother, hence no medicine is given during such ailments. Often children

get fits which are also interpreted as mother's anger. (PaulineKolenda in her study

in Khalapur village. near Lucknow has also refcred to same mother goddess

complex).

Balmiki's and Chamars often go for pilgrimages to these Devi's shrines and

temples. One is in Kharan Pakana, and the other is in Sikri, which are not very far

from Sikhera. These shrines are popular among Harijans They often make a wish

(mannat) to visit the shrine if the sick person becomes healthy. The B: ~hagats of

near by villages and Sikhera village have made these shrines popular. Infact there

is a whole hierarchy of Bhagats, in which they have gradation of Bhaghats

sometimes a Jogi is also a Mahan! in such temples.

Bhagats are the chief priests who have the power to be possessed by the

. mother goddess spirit. To an extent they can be called exorcist as by William Crook

who states that " the exorcist is usually not a Brahman but member of one of the

lower castes who. has original powers to understand spirits and their 'ways' ..

Bhagats are devotees of mother goddess and they are so assiduous in their worship

that they gain, not only immediate personal ends. but a continuing relationship ino

which the deity fulfills the devotee's requests made on behalf of others. especially

the ill". These devotees are specialists in identifying malevolent spirits and also

exercise control over them who cause maladies. This is done either through

possession or through chants (mantras) and magical rituals. They communicate

with the spirit. try to find the cause of its anger or possession and condition on

238

which it will leave the individual without causing any harm. Often the offerings

arc to be made in form of things to eat. liquor or sacrifice of animal (usually pig).

Transcendental medicine practi6Cd by pirs (muslims ascetics) and tantrk:5

(Hindu Shamans) is also a part of oral tradition. They treat the sick through

chanting mantras and performing religious rites. which are supposed to have

benign effect on the village.

JOGJS

Jogis are the devotee s of the Gugga or Jahavir cult who is the legendary

Rajput hero. Jogis are considered as clean caste and Rajputs have Pucca food in

their houses. Jogis receive alms from almost all the houses they visit. They are

followers of Gorakhnath a famous Yogi from Gorakhpur. Jogis look after

Jahanrir's shrine in the~iU~e..The shrine ofJaharvir is in the north west side of the

village where people offer satin sheets. incense and flowers on fulfilling of wishes

or before starting new business etc.

jhar phoonk in Sikhera is done by Mokam, Kana Baba, and Maithana. The

whole process involves to beat the possessed person with broom. symbolic of

beating the spirit and to compel it to go out of that person's body. They chant

Hanuman Mantra. they get ash from Hanuman Mandir of Balaji which they blow

on the face of possessed. People queue up in front of their houses to ask answers

regarding their problems like of lost child. stolen money. illness etc. In return they

offer fruit, money etc. One question is asked for Re One. There is a Muslim who is

the Hakim and gives Yunani medicine to the villagers. However he is erratic in his

treatment as he goes out of village for months.

Herbal Medicine

239

In Sikhera, there is no primary health care centre. There is one compounder

Subhash Sharma who has opened a clinic in the village. Women seldom go there,

only males with children visit this clinic. Women mostly rely on traditional

medicines like Ayurvedic and on jhar Phoonk. 1ona(Evil Ey~. Jogi and Bhagats.

Health in the village is a matter of much concern. The concept of eating

clarified butter (ghec), white butter, butter milk, curds is associated with folk

societies. Even the poorest in the village has , t'·h•s1, · own cattle. There is a rich oral

tradition which guides villagers regarding their health as when to eat what and

what not to eat. The proverbs on health have been transmitted from older

generation to younger generation and~ll prevalent in the village. These proverbs

have unquestioned authority and when quoted by the older person,are accepted as

a rule and followed by younger ones. The older generation considers diseases and

problems like heart attack due to urban food habits of eating junk and stale food

and disregard to nature viz having curds at night. having bath after meal. eating

·late at n .ight etc.

When a person suffers from typhoid .his cot is surrounded with seeds of

same 'Harre' a kind of fruit seeds. These are available with the general stores in

the village, Villagers are not aware of the way these seeds help in the recovery but

practise this as a part of tradition. Malaria is treated with decoction of tulsi, and

ginger in tea, dysentry is treated with husk of isabg ol with curds and sugar,

cholera is treated with orange juice. Heat stroke is a common problem which is

treated with a concoction of panna ie drink made out of unriped mangoes. Jeera,

~ugar and mint.· Common 'Jold is treated by roasted guavas and ginger with honey

l!l..hcL sweet basil (tuls1) etc are given. Since these are parts of tradition which are

never questioned however irrational they might seem, these still operate at large

in the village despite the claims of modernity in urban area and development of

medicine. During the course of Ante Natal Care. the child is always treated with

240

home made Ghutti concoction preparedfr~r"'herbs. This is now commercially made

and is available. The advertisements of 55 5 Ghutti can be commonly seen on the

walls in Sikhera with a healthy child who has a close resemblance to 'Farex baby'

on the T.V. Similarly, women are fed with ghee. nuts, and a con:t:oction 'Sandha'

i.e. fried flour with dry fruits nuts etc and 'Kadha'a black herbal concoction which

is necessary for the health of mother after child birth.

Snake Bite Treatment

The specialists who remove snake poison are called 'Sayan a' or · Gadu' in

Sikhera. To treat snake bitten person. they often chant mantras smear ash on

patient's forehead and make a cut on the bite and suck out some blood. Sayan; ·as

in Sikhera do not accept money and take sweets or grains from patients. People

from city and some times from nearby villages also visit these Sayanas. Sayanas

consider their healing power as god's grace. Till now villagers remember only two

deaths due to snake bites (out of which one person is said to be seen alive). In the

village a;s J in other parts of Northern India the snake bitten person is never ,'. '

cremated instead he is immersed in the river as there is hope of person's revival.

There is an interesting saying in the village which differentiates between snake bite

and scorpion bite Bichchu Ka Kata Rota hai,

Sanp Ka Kata Sota hai.

i.e. if scorpion bites. the bitten person cries and if snake bites. the bitten.. person

sleeps.

Astrology

241

Besides these. astrology is also resorted to by villagers. Brahmins in Sikhera

have made a good business out of it since they have commercialized their

knowledge about stars and janam PatTi (horroscope). Earlier they used to sit in

temples and oblige their Yajamans and were paid in kind due to personal relations.

Now they have long queues in front of their houses. The horoscopes are seen

impersonally. They ask for expenses for Puja to be done or the person is asked to

feed a number of Brahmins on a certain day or give water to Tulsi or light a 'diya'

beneath pipal tree. Astrology is the major concern of villagers who consult

Brahmins before buying cattle, for marriage or for visiting relatives and for health

problems.

Change in medicinal practices

The antiseptic used till now was Haldilturmeric)and sometimes a cut was

simply filled with plain mud .This has now been replaced by Dettol. band aids and

other medicines which are seen in houses. One negative impact of using medicines

had been that sometimes without . · knowledge of expiry dates, and knowing the

actual name of the medicine it is given on resemblance. This has led to reaction

and serious illnesses in the village. -

The allopathic medicines are known as Angrezi Dawai which are disliked.

S,.~etimes people visit city doctors for fractures, and disc~ like, typhoid. cholera,

dysentery, gastroentritis and r -- · fever. This change is due to the propaganda by

the panchayat in the village. Free medicines like Paracetamol. Quinine,

Entroquinol are given in a mobile primary health centre. Medicines, like Anacin.

Digene, Dettol Savlon have become household names. Vicks is often used on burns

and cuts also. Amrutanjan. Chyavanprash arc some Ayurvedic medicines used by

villagcrs.There are four BMS doctors who <m: practiling in the rillage who arc ?7101'\.e.

,·isitcd often than MBBS doctors in citY. A -

For childbirth. almost all the upper castes' rich visit town doctors for

delivery and the lower castes still get their house midwife who is professional and

works in a city nursing home. Hence the ritualistic caste dependency during and

after child birth is broken down due to new em·ironment. Mass media have made

an impact in attitude towards health. especially in the tPulse Polio' Program 80%

of women and men have visited the doctor with their children. Now going to the

doctor is neither apprehended nor discouraged. Many government medical officials

and representatives come to village for making health facilities available to

villagers. They often present their case with the help of local folk artists. who sing

local folk songs or present a small skit. There are roluntary organizations working

in the village viz. Gram Vikas Sanstha. Gramin Uddhar Sanstha in field of imbibing

village. with sense of health. hygiene and sanitation and teach the necessity to get

children vaccinated. Villagers and visitors from outside bring information about

the medical facilities outside the village. Th~ attitude of villagers regarding usc of

modern medical facilities and visiting town doctors 15· influenced by structural

reasons. like commutation and conveyance a\·ailablity. fear of going to unknown

place. and impersonal professionalism in town. Besides it,one more important

reason is that city expenses arc much higher than what is charged by their village

Hakim. Ojha or BMS doctor.

Nevertheless. the rituals and rites are being dissociated. with increasing

rationalism and sceptism. in every day life of villagers and the problems regarding

2-n

health and hygiene are openly discussed. This attitudinal change has come

primarily through TV jingles and the Wall writings on village houses and shops

with slogan of 'Hum do. Hamare do: The advertisements regarding family

planning methods were highly criticized by villagers for showing such things

explicity. but now these are accepted and watched by all villagers as more TV sets

are being bought in the village. Radio programs have also made an impact

regarding literacy and health of a girl child and woman.

The villagers themselves pressurize the Panchayat members to get DDT

sprinkled and use of odomos is also seen. Rural Development officials constantly

monitor the situation in village. Mostly they form a committee of volunteers from

the village who go to each house and educate them how to prevent malaria.

typhoid. small pox etc. and how these are caused by a particular. mosquito or

virus. Advertisementsregarding the iodised salt which are being shown on TV were

. told verbatim by ch\~ren when asked. Similarly the literacy mission advertisement

"Purab se Surya Uga' is liked by all villagers since it has a rural touch and

background.

However message0 coded in most of such advertisements is not recognized

immediately which is one of the difficulties discussed by Doob, and Benglcy also

when the farmers or villagers do not associate readily with objects shown on TV.

During the prevalince of Dengue fever, when close up of dengue mosquito was

shown, villagers could not imagine of such mosquito and thus one villager,

commented that the village does not have such big mosquitoes as shown on TV

without realizing that a closeup of mosquito is big not the mosuito itself..

.244

The cultural practices during small pox. jaundice. fits. eplcpsy. etc. arc still

followed. Fit is not seen as mental (neuro) disorder and is a stigma for any one

suffering from it. as the person is considered unreliable. ridiculed and has no

credibility in society. Diseases like fits. sleep walking. cataract or weak eyes are

kept a secret. especially in case of young unmarried girls and boys.

Food habits

The food habits and method of cooking ha~been changing in Sikhera. Over

the years the chulha has been replaced by the cooking gas. the cooking gas is

called c:-Jw{k. In some houses there is a biogas plant which is used to provide

Se\lel'\ electricity to the house.f~Rajputs. five Brahmins. five (:hamars. two Bhangi·s. two

Dhimars. two Khatiks and four Kumhars have LPG chulfts for cooking food. . ~

The Brahmin women still are particular about cleanliness since it is related

. to caste status. Rajputs are not as rigid as Brahmins about their cooked food.A~ew

Rajputs have become vegetarians under the influence of Arya Samaj or Mattar

Baba. (a legendary hero of the village). Anil Sharma who works in the city in the

computer workshop accepted that he has non-vegetarian food in restaurant with ()

his friends though he does not eat meat on Tuesday and Saturday. This is not

disclosed to any of the family members as it is not acceptable in his caste. Raj puts

have pucca food with the lower castes including. Ahir, JS~tik Kumhar. Nai. etc.

during functions. Similarly Kuchcha food is also shared within certain castes.

Figure 7.1 shows which caste accepts Kachcha food from which caste and Figure

7.2 shows which caste accepts pucca food from which caste.

245

Acceptation of Kuchcha Food From:

1 Brahmin 1 2 Raj put 1 2 3 Bania 1 2 3 4 Sunar 1 2 3 4 5 Nai l 2 3 4 5 6 Dhimar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Khatik 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kumhar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jogi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Chamar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Bhangi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 y 10 12 Muslim 12.

Fig. 7.1

Acceptation of Pucca Food From:

1 Brahmin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 Rajput 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 3 Bania 1 2 3 4 4 Sunar 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 5 Nai 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 y

6 Dhimar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 Khatik 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 Kumhar 1 2 3. 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 Jogi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Chamar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Bhangi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 y 10 11 12 Muslim 1 2. 3 4 5 "' 7 8 9 12..

Fig. 7.2

The food habits of all the villag~have become almost similar. This is mostly

because of better economic condition of villagers than before. influence of city. TV.

Radio and magazines. Food like bakery bread has . made way in every house from .ll\~f

Harij&ns to Rajputs. Children in village prefer Bakery bread to chapati. Formerly 1\

lower castes did not have milk. wheat. spices. curds, but now these things are

readily available in market and they are bought by them also.

246

The concept of Kaccha and pacca is extended to utensils also. Brahm:~ins

do not accept food in china cup since they consider it to be made of bone powder.

Brass. copper and steel are considered as pucca utensils. A few years back glass

was considered as kuccha but now it is accepted as pucca. During rituals mostly

pucca utensils arc used Similarly water is not accepted by Brahmin from

untouchables. However, Rajputs prefer not to eat with the castes serving them

and only on special occasions do they eat in other castes· houses.

Same rules apply while smoking chilum. (a small type of hookah). hookah,

bidi and cigarette. Chilum and hookah are usually used by the older generations.

The younger generation prefers bidi and cigarette. The hookah is passed on within

group. It is normally smoked within their own caste. It generally communicates

whether the person is given acceptance within a group or not. The hookah is

shared within the group to show acceptance of other's status and show solidarity

with other caste men, like Rajput may accept Hookah from Dhimar. Thus by

accepting or rejecting the food they seem to communicate their position in the

hierarchy and indicate their superiority (Dumont 1970;43).

Changing Patterns of Communication and Life Style ()

In old days, the way of living in rural society, was very simple, in

comparison to what is Jaund. today. Their way of dressing, food, hospitality,

goods used in kitchen, farming etc., were examples of simplicity. Exposure to

urban civilization and resources, ': ·: .· increased communication with town,

development of technology (electricity, gas, etc.) TV/Radio, government projects,

247

things have changed now. In this section I have discussed the changes. in above

said areas. brought by the new patterns of communication.

Le1sure

The attitude towards leisure has also changed with the changing pattern of

communication. As already discussed under recreational media studies in this

chapter. the mass media ha¥tcertainly changed (Singer 1972) the ·cultural

communication in a close caste society.

Earlier leisure for villagers meant break from tedious work. Having Hookah.

sitting at Chaupal. visiting one's friends in the village. or going for 'sang', or

Nautanki in nearby village were forms of enjoying leisure. During cultural and

religious festivals villagers practically did no work and relaxed themselves (D.N.

Majumdar). Holiday mood existed on festivals like Diwali, Holi etc for many days

before the festival. The youth often organized and staged Ramlila etc. with much

excitement.

Age group Variable < 30 30-50 >50

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Folk media $.ob 2.50 12.50 2.50 52.:!"0 17.50 Radio 10.00 47.50 2.50 17.50 Nil Nil TV 18.75 32.50 5.50 25.00 Nil 15.00 Gossip 22.50 12.50 25.00 32.50 25.00 30.00 Folk games Nil Nil Nil Nil 5.00 Nil Cards Nil Nil 17.50 Nil 7.50 Nil Cinema 17.50 Nil 2.50 Nil Nil Nil Visiting town z;so 5~bo 5.00 Nil Nil Nil No response Z<5o Nil 7.50 22.50 10.00 37.50

Table 7.3 Leisure Activities Practised in Sikhera (in pvt.C.e.t\ t~)

248

At present the enthusiasm for festival is fast fading due to busy and fast

life.Most of the men are going out for jobs and not much involved in village

activities. The tradition of men sitting on Chaupal and gossiping has almost

vanished. Most men enjoy listening to radio and young men enjoy TV etc., than to

go and watch Ramlila. Thus socialisation has lessened.

The leisure activity includes more of watching TV serials for youth, most of

the old men still long for free time they enjoyed before. The traditional media does

make a portion of leisure but not as before. Reading newspaper in the morning or

listening to it also has become a feature in village. Playing card and gamblig (Teen 1\

Patti) is a prevalent game and enjoyed by all age groups. Such games are played

especially on festivals of Diwali and Holi. The patterns of leisure activities are

changed by mass media.

fey Women were not allowed to go for Nautanki, 'sang' etc. except some

" cultural performances like Ramlila. Due to Radio and TV women can get

entertainment at house as they can ·watch serials, films, listen songs, bhajans. etc.

The gossip and conversation among women is more often about TV serials,

fashion, political news than before ..

Some women during discussion accepted that they would like to be literate

and they want to read magazines to know what is happening outside the village.

Children in the village play games with sticks (gulli-danda). glass balls (KanchaS}

and fly kites. The continuation of these games is there but with burden of studies.

CL~ most of the time is spent at school by child em. However the· folk games are

sidelined due to childem's prefewce forT V serials. cartoons etc. Only on Sundays,

I spotted children flying kites and fighting over it.

249

Children have better toys than earlier due to media effect which entices kids

to demand those from their parents. Helicopter ,,Aeroplane. Bus. Car etc. are forms

of toys which are enjoyed by children.

Most children are addicted to TV and Radio. The cartoon movies. children

programs even if not understood. are watched for bright colours and funny

situations. In the village. most of the households complained against the children

wasting time on TV.

The games of Kabbadl~ and Kho-Kho which are all indigenous to rural

society are no longer played in Sikhera. Youth mostly spend time reading cheap

Hindi novels and stories available on local suburban shops. Sometimes they are

borrowed and circulated among themslves. Some school going children also read

comics and magazines like 'Nandan' · Champak' and Indra Jal comics (Phantom.

Mandrake) etc.

Hence leisure activities from simple games. sitting around. community

smoking. once in a while watching a show· by dance" troupes etc. have been

replaced by the entertainment industry. with serials. magazines. newspapers.

gossiys which are more related to urban culture .- , than associated with rural

culture.

Material culture

This includes arts, crafts, architecture. and goods used in every day life.

Folk crafts

Folk crafts were traditional crafts, techniques and designs which were

passed down within one family for many generations mostly through

apprenticeship. In Sikhera, folk arts, if not dead. are ending due to new

250

developments. Most prominent example is of 'Bhaksoi caste who migrated from

village due to lack of livelihood. They were basically folk musicians and specialists

..4-n repairing music instruments especially drums etc. Due to new mode of

communication technology. cassettes of music and songs. e.re played on tape

recorders. radio. etc. This reduced the use of traditional instruments in the village

functions and outside also. Thus due to lack of livelihood they had to give up their

traditional craftsmenship and leave the village. Similarly Kumhars have to suffer

due to less consumption of earthen pots. They have made their main occupation of

making earthern vessels subsidiary. Only during festivals of Diwall: Navaratra.

KanTachautha they make these special lamps and earthen pots. The villagers have

started using steel or metal vessels to store. cook and keep things so the need of the

services of Kumhars has become less. The Kumhar in the village is still using the

wheel used by his father. He has taught to his son how to prepare smooth mixture

of 'earth' (Chikni mitll). His wife and daughter also help in baking of utensils. On

festivals like Diwali, fanmashtmi he also makes figures of deities and sells them in

city.

Dhimars of the village have mostly taken up jobs like wage labourers in

brick kilns, construction sites etc. Traditionally. Dhimars or Kahars had important

cultural role to play. Traditionally they would carry the bride in a pal\tin (Doli) to

her husband's house. They used to cover long distances and at least four to five

men were engaged in this activity. They used to sing songs, which were ~

comforting to the girl leaving her house and were , ·also form of entertainment and "

they often sung rhythmic songs which kept them going for long: distance. This

particular cultural act was given up due to increasing insecurity of robbery and

251

also availability of better means of transport like train/bus/car. Today in the

marriages the girl leaves house in a decorated car. Dhimars also are traditional

'VI.f>W

basket weavers but" this is again a subsidiary occupation. They either work in kilns

or run small shops or have some business. Chamars of the village no longer deal

with leather goods. They have given it up for cleaner jobs in cities like driver.

peon, guard etc.

Style of Dressjng

In traditional peasant society as in Europe and America, the costume and

dress is the visible outward symbol of folk group identity worn consciously to tJ;..ei>v'

express their identity. The dresses are prescribed by the community and~~orm is

dictated by community's tradition (Ruth Benedict).

Now due to increased fashion consciousness. with the exposure of mass

media. the dresses are no longer criteria of identification of one's caste, religion or

· status in society. Occupational structure has changed, making the dresses also

similar. For example men of all castes wear pants, shirts or safari suits or girls and

women of all castes wear salwar-kameez. Only the elders in Sikhera prefer wearing

dhoti and kurta. The restriction r on lower castes for dress code is no longer seen.

The lower castes wear safari suits, coats etc. not worn before. The latest fashions

are copied by women with exposure to TV serials and advertisements in

magazines. A few Khatik and Dhimar women cater to such clientele in village.

Thus wearing of jeans, jackets by females can also be seen. The lower caste

women wear sa/war kurta' instead of lehnga or long skirt. Youth are more fashion

conscious and this is blamed on films and TV which are watched mostly· by all the

252

()

young generation. The el.der men~men often dislike this change in the village

tradition and prefer the old way of dressing.

Archjtecture

Houses which are being built now are all pucca houses with low roof and

less spacious rooms. The old pucca houses mostly belong to upper castes. The

lower castes barring two or three still have kuchcha houses. There is no symmetry

in the houses built and seem to have just cropped up in the village. Dhimars and

Khatiks have settlements near the ponds. as they rear cattle and need water for

various purposes,for washing cattle etc. The lower castes are settled towards south

near the main nala in Sikhera. Their houses are Kachcha and small in size unlike

big and spacious houses of upper castes. The kuchcha houses are kept clean by

cow dung smear and 'Chunci (white lime)··- is us~~hitewash the pucca houses.

Changing .Batterns of Comunication and Technology Adoption

Adoption of technology by a society is the first step towards modernization.

as in primitive and traditional society much energy~ASS wasted in doing things

manually. which more than often were surrounded by rituals and social norms.

However after industrial revolution, things changed drastically0 as machines made

things easier for men. Though technology was there before in wheel of the cart,

plough, etc.. but they were driven by men and were not automatic.

The interaction of communication with technology is an important source

of modernity itself. In this context. it would be helpful to refer firstly to the

invention of printing press which can be seen as the first step towards modernity.

An .important effect on the society wai , ·. · tho:t space time distanciation was

253

affected and the written words could be produced and reproduced without being

associated with their social contexts. Hence through printing press. the

inaccessible religious and cultural texts were made accessible which till now

were not made·· available to the societ}' at large. The messages could be ~tored and

circulated and books could be bought in the market with the increased

commercialization. Thus, education became easier and its need increased in the

society.

Education and communication also became technical in print media and

electronic media. telephones and telegraph. automobiles etc. Thus every sphere of

life became affected with technology. Since communication media operates in the

2 -substratum of society,it qifinitely made an impact on society and was influenced

by society itself. Hence the symbolic content of the communication was not

_ socially contextualised with increase of literacy .

Secondly, due to technological innovations . secular and rational attitudes

were also promoted in agriculture. Peasants were no longer at the mercy of

natural elements. Religious rituals · hence, stopped playing considerable role.

Modem science with its convictions, explanations and its control of tools, ()

reduced the dependancy of villagers on irrational convictions.

Thirdly, technology brings along with it a style of life, and spread of

electronic media has definitely created new needs and conscious consumerism is

on the increase in urban and rural society. Now refrigerators, mixies, TV. LPG

Chulhasand vehicleshave become a necessity in the village. Hence style of life has

changed. Infact new status and class criteria have arrived. The more technology is

consumed by the individual. the more modem he is considered. Hence this direct

254

proportionality has definitely faded caste and ritual superiority to the background.

as the technology is 'mass' produced and sold in market to be bought. Hence as

Levy said "A society will be considered more or less modernized to the extent that

its members use inanimate sources of power or use tools to multiply the effects of

their efforts." Hence technology and modernization arc directly related . This has a

special significance for studying social change as technology has a special role to

play.

Various studies done (by Lerner, Revertt M Rogers Schramm. Ithiel de~:_,.bla

Pool Paul Neurath), and various other experiments conducted in third world

countries have shown that technology diffusion is possible through use of media.

Lazarsfield and Katz (1960) and Lucien Pye talk about two-way flow of

communication that is , technology acceptance and diffusion Is best when

electronic media is supported by group interaction.

Sikhera. can be seen as one of the villages amongst many Indian villages

going through the process of social change. Technologically TVs. Radios. Vehicles.

±factors. ±hreshers, ·t: efrigerators, ~finders. t:oolers, .Sewing machines are all

available and consumed in the village. Tape recorders, and other electronic goods -()

are also consumed. The technology consumerism is on inue n.se· in the lower

castes, which are setting new criteria for status ranking in village society and

machines have become new 'symbols' and signs which are not associated with

religion or any ritual connotation of purity and pollution.As Baudrillad says that

consumption is "systematic act of manipulation of signs and symbols and sharing

same code of signifiers _,the same system of signs/symbols and their socially

255

produced meaning''.( Baudrillad; 1980). Thus consumption of same technology

and symbolic goods has a generalising and levelling effect on society.

At the same time technology plays an equalizing role which is the rationale

for its diffusion in the society. Thus the cultural capital i.e. the ideology symbol.

signs. literature (etc. of upper castes) used as a power against the lower castesis

now made accessible to lower castes by th,eir availability in the market through

the process of mass communication. Hence the st)~le of life. dressing. food habits.

education and all other signs and symbols which were distinctive part of upper

caste consumersare similar to those of lower caste\class. Today in 'the village, the

lower castes are as neat and clean as upper castes and cannot be distinguished by

their dress from the upper castes, The lower castes through electronic

communication have an accessibility to the socio-cultural realms of upper castes

not only ideologically but also materially. They consume the same things or

brands in market as upper castes which ha~educed the differences between the

two. Secondly though ·structurally they may buy TV which is locally made and

cheaper and upper caste rich can buy big brand TV~ the structural position does

affect the accessibility of the individual to the 'cultural' capital (Bourdieu. 1984) 0

Media not only induces the needs and desires. which Baudrillard has talked

about. it has also made commodified the need. The consumerism has increased

from Radio to TV to Tape recorder to Compact Disc. Each item is seen as a

development or mobility from one social status to another. Consumerism has

become a chief marker in establishing one's social status. Hence a villager, who

buys his clothes and other household items from city is higher in status than

others much similar to the consumption of foreign things in urban areas.

256

Fourthly, technology consumption is not only on increase through media it

is creating awareness and is trusted more as the secular authority regarding the

information about social and cultural matters. Since till now in the name of

religion the lower castes have been deprived of various facilities and even~teccnt living, now they are more dependent on electronic communication or print media

to seek information. They even visit city _, - - for their horoscopes to be made

by computer. It was peculiar to find thatiower castes were equally dependent on

interpersonal communication supporting electronic media. The information is

generally obtained through electronic media like Radio and TV and the urban links

or the educated lower castes pass on the information.

The lower castes have more secular outlook towards many occasions and

particular rituals which are not performed on religious norms. Since many serials

and short spots given on TV and Radio ·in form of Nautanki, drama or song

·persuade people to give up superstitions, these are adopted by lower castes easily

as firstly, they were deprived of these rituals· in past and secondly, the rituals and

~ligious beliefs are seen as the means of institutionalizing their exploitation by

upper castes. ()

Similarly the lower castes show preference to watch TV at home rather "T.V.

than going and watching Nautanki, sang etc. because in watching they can sit

wherever they like, but during watching sang the lower castes are the last one to

sit and they are not allowed to sit in front and have to stand mostly at the last.This

04-t does not mean that they have stopped going A out they prefer to watch TV

programmes and serials thon participate in the cultural performances which are

seen as reminiscent of the past. The upper castes also prefer to watch TV but for

257

different reasons that the TV programs are techno-superior. highly informative.

inexpensive and accessible at home. They get to see new things without much

ado. Though Ramlila and Krishna janmakshtami jhanki are still participated in

by the whole village.

Hence technological modernization has created similarity in styles of life

and consumption pattern. Through electronic media consumerism has increased

which is more secular and indicative of the status. Status has basis in the form of

consumption pattern. in home furnishing. appliances. dress. food and drinks. The

upper castes and lower castes eat flour from same alta chakki (flour mill). buy

spices, vegetables and clothes from same shop, sit on same seats in bus and

consume same brand of bidi. As Bordieu said that difference in status and class

group is maintained through distinction. In village it is a matter of degree, not

deprivation at present. Thus generalisaion in consumption is considered as

symbolic equality and also marks the latent protest against the upper caste

monopoly on symbolic goods in past.

The new patterns of communication have changed the culture of Sikhera in

a significant way. The constituents of culture like oral tradition. traditional media.

folk medicines, food habits. leisure lifestyle and ar ttfacts (folk art. architecture and

technology) have also been transformed under the influence of mass media

exposure. The structure and forms of oral traditions have become technical and

have included many themes from mass media. The traditional media are utilised

by mass media to gain popularity among the rural masses and also for advertising

social themes. The cultural ar(~tifacts have become the symbolic goods which are

commodified by the 'culture industry' and are made available to all. Hence lower

258

castes have access to upper caste's' culture through an alternative source of

information which is urbane, modern and secular. The attitude towards medicine.

leisure. dressing style and food is shaped largely by the mass media as

consumersim is rising in the village: . with increase of media exposure. The

adoption of technology has paved the way for its modernization. The technology

has a levelling effect on leisure, food habits. recreation and consumerism in the

village. which was not so earlier. Thus the mass media has transformed the

present village society as a consumer society of its own cultural symbolic goods.

The folk media and oral tradition continue to be strongly entrenched in the

society as they are associated with religious aspects of culture and the

interpersonal communication still remains the major source of information despite

the prescence of mass media in the village.

0

259