POMPEII&

HERCULANEUMSOCIAL STRUCTURE

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Terms and Concepts

Aristocracy A class of persons holding exceptional rank and privileges, especially the hereditary nobility.

Cives Full Roman citizens, who enjoyed full legal protection under Roman law.

Cliens/ Clientes The lesser partner in the social institution of clientela, who was obligated through a debt of loyalty to repay received favours that he had been granted from his patronus.

Duumvir One of two officers or magistrates jointly exercising the same public function.

Liberti Freedmen: A former slave who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Slaves became freedmen by manumission.

Manumission The act of granting freedom to a slave by their owner.

Patriarchal A society dominated by males

Paterfamilias Father/Owner of the family

Patria potestas Power vested in the head of the family

Patronus / Patroni A term that referred to the senior party in one of several social relationships.It could refer to the protector, sponsor, or benefactor of a cliens, or the former master of a freedman. They had certain obligations towards their cliens, including that of a being a legal advisor and protector.

Populus Citizen Body

Programmata Election graffiti

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Servi Slaves

tribus Menenia Voting Tribe

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Roman Society – Pompeii & Herculaneum:

Social StructureRoman society is often represented as one of social extremes - with the wealth, power and opulence of an emperor existing alongside the poverty, vulnerability and degradation of a slave. But beyond this, how and why was Roman society stratified? What were the major distinctions that shaped and influenced peoples' lives?

PopulationThere is some uncertainty about the actual population of Pompeii. Estimates range from 6,400 to 20,000. Giuseppe Fiorelli estimated 12,000 and modern scholars tend towards 8 – 10,000 based on the fact that at least 800 houses so far have been excavated.

It is even harder to estimate the population of Herculaneum as only 4 blocks of the town have been excavated. 5,000 is suggested based on the size of the theatre.

The Social Pyramid

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Proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus

Emperor

Imperial Family

Senatorial Order

Equestrian Orders

Wealthy Free-born

Wealthy freedmen

Poor Free-born citizens

Freedmen (Liberti)Slaves (servi)

Upper Strata

Lower Strata

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‘More than a Century before the eruption, Pompeii and Herculaneum had become Roman towns and their social structure reflected the norms of Roman society. The basic unit of society was the household, which included family and slaves, headed by the paterfamilias’ (Cameron and Lawless).

It was based on a patriarchal system. The socio-political structure was determined by the familia, which included all relatives of the oldest male of the clan, as well as free born or freed former slaves, who depended on the head of the familia. The head of the familia is the paterfamilias who has almost unlimited power (patria potestas) over his members. The household, which could also include large workshops or agricultural estates, was the main unit of production and the main source of income for many families.

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Poor Free-born citizens

Freedmen (Liberti)Slaves (servi)

According to... Joseph Deiss‘…by the time of Vesuvius’ eruption, the Roman upper class structure had become rigidly stratified on the basis of wealth.’ Source 2.11

According to... Brian Brennan

‘Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum

‘Roman Society was extremely class conscious: based on a strict hierarchy with no definite middle class. The people of Pompeii and Herculaneum were born into a particular social status and had limited means to vary their positions.’

According to... Hurley Medcalfe Murray & Rolph. Antiquity 3

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Social Hierarchy

There were numerous divisions in the social structure. The most apparent division was between those who were free and those who were slaves. However, within this division there were even broader social distinctions.

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According to... Brian Brennan

‘Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum

According to... Cameron and Lawless

“the status of different groups in society is reflected in the seating arrangements of the theatre: privileged citizens in the front rows, free adult men in the rows behind them, then free adult women and slaves in the back rows..” Source 2.13

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The Upper Strata: Privileged Citizens

When Pompeii and Herculaneum came under Roman control, the form of government was a republic in which the Senate and magistrates held power. Their position was based on birth and wealth. When Augustus came to power in 28 BC, Rome underwent a significant

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FREECitizensPopulusPrivilegedSenatorsEquestriansWealthy Freeborn Right to vote locally & in Tribal Elections(only for Men)Right to stand for election to political office(only for Men)Enjoyed social benefits such as front row seats in the theatre. Non -PrivilegedPoor FreebornRight to vote locally & in Tribal Elections(only for Men)Slave who has been freed by their MasterSlavesFigure 1.11 Roman Social Hierarchy

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change. Power was now in the hands of one man, the emperor, although senators and magistrates continued to function.

Senatorial EliteQualifications Property qualifications of 1 million sesterces.Duties Served the emperor in offices

throughout the empire. Position Hereditary.Distinguishing Clothing

Toga with a broad purple stripe.

Place from which wealth was gained

Most of it came from large estates.

They were at the top of the social pyramid and enjoyed great prestige. Members of the senatorial class visited the area and had villas nearby.

In the Republican Period Cicero had a villa at PompeiiLucius Calpurnius Piso, father-in-law of Julius Caesar had a splendid villa near Herculaneum

The Emperor Augustus had a villa near NolaAgrippa Postumus, grandson of Augustus, had a villa near PompeiiPoppaea – mistress and then second wife of the emperor Nero had a magnificent villa at the Oplontis near Pompeii. Her family is supposed to have owned two magnificent mansions at Pompeii – the House of Menander and the House of the Golden CupidsOn the coast near Stabiae the senatorial aristocracy constructed magnificent maritime villas

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Evidence

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Equestrians (Equites)Qualifications Property qualifications of 400 000 sesterces.Duties Served the emperor in important posts such

as commanders of fire service, grain supply and military officers. For example, Pliny the Elder: Commander of the fleet at Misenum.

Position Not hereditary.Distinguishing Clothing

Toga with a narrow purple stripe and a gold finger ring.

Place from which wealth was gained

Public office, trade and banking.

Increased in Numbers during the Imperial Period.

Local EliteBelow the Senatorial Elite were the local elite: wealthy landowners and traders who dominated the town councils and filled the key municipal offices. These men sought to imitate the lifestyle of the senators. They had large houses in the town and agricultural holdings on the outskirts.

Wealth rather than aristocratic birth gave them their exalted position. Over many years their tradition of office holding and public service established them as leaders of society.

They had a network of social ties with friends (amici), clients (clientele). The patronage system of having clients involved a person of modest wealth and influence, placing himself under the protection of a powerful patron (patronus), thus becoming his client (cliens). It was the duty of the patron to assist his clients in legal and business matters. In return they gave him political and public support. Clients would come to the patron’s house to greet him and publicly demonstrate their loyalty to him. This is known as the salutatio ritual.

New families with wealth were able to rise to importance. Even the elite

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Evidence

According to... Brian Brennan“although there was a social hierarchy in these towns, there are indications of upward

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concerned themselves with selling the agricultural produce of their estates and renting parts of their house to small businessmen.

The Lower Strata:

There was great diversity among the lower strata of Roman society:Poor freeborn citizensPoor freedmenSlaves

These people at Pompeii and Herculaneum were city dwellers or urban plebs. They were generally despised and their lives were hard. They suffered:

Squalid living conditionsUnpleasant working conditionsInferior foodInferior clothing

Their occupations varied from intellectual ones such as: Legal advisorsDoctorsScribesActorsEngineers

to working in small businesses, crafts and trades. Craftsmen and artisans belonged to guilds called collegia. These guilds were controlled by the state and the members paid dues for meals and a decent burial.

One of the ways that people could improve their social status and gain recognition from others was through their membership of the trade or religious guilds. It was possible for

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Marcus Umbricus Scarus – a wealthy businessman in the garum industry.

Eumachia – a business woman and priestess. Her family owned vineyards and Brickworks. She was patron of the Fuller’s Guild.

Examples of Local Elite

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members of the lower social strata to hold office and titles within these collegia. Yet, in the wider society, they could not hold such authority.

Freedmen (Liberti)Qualifications Were slaves who had been given their

freedom by various means.Place from which wealth was gained

Trade, banking, manufacturing and land ownership.

Exclusions Excluded from entering the senatorial order BUT COULD become Equestrians.

This group increased in numbers during the 1st Century AD.

Many became quite wealthy and influential. Wealthy freedmen could buy slaves themselves. In Pompeii the bulk of free men and women were associated with crafts, trade and commerce.

Small shops, workshops, bars and taverns built in the facades of dignified residences were often run by freed dependents of the owner of the house. Freedmen

tended to remain tied to their former master in a relationship of gratitude and loyalty, performing services for their patron.

Many freedmen contributed to public life and their children intermarried with freeborn families. Freedmen’s wives helped their

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According to... Wallace – HadrillWealthy freedmen “imitated the cultural language of the nobility in order to establish their membership in society.” Source 2.17

According to...Cicero & PlinyThe rich successful freedmen tended “to ape the aristocracy” but the elite and their excesses were blamed for setting a poor

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husbands in businesses such as bakeries whilst others ran brothels and became quite wealthy.

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Evidence

1. Wax tablets from Pompeii tell of Poppaea Note, a freedwoman of Priscus, who had slaves of her own.

2. Inscription of Naevoleia Tyche, an apparently well off freedwoman of Lucius who had freedmen and women of her own.

Source 2.19

Evidence The wealthy fish sauce

manufacturer“The wealthy fish sauce manufacturer AULUS UMBRICiUS SCAURUS, who dominated the market at Pompeii, had his freed slaves...running his business”

Source 2.20: Brennan, B & Lazer, E: Pompeii & Herculaneum. p.41

Questions1. What were the property qualifications required to become:

a. An Equite?b. A member of the Senatorial Elite?

2. Using the sources evaluate the degree to which social mobility was existent in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

3. Using the sources, and your own knowledge, interpret what is revealed about the main features of the Social structure of Pompeii

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Questions1. What were the property qualifications required to become:

a. An Equite?b. A member of the Senatorial Elite?

2. Using the sources evaluate the degree to which social mobility was existent in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

3. Using the sources, and your own knowledge, interpret what is revealed about the main features of the Social structure of Pompeii

Evidence: The 14yr old girl

‘I suspect she was a slave. There are scars on the upper shafts of her humeri where the pectorials major joins the bone. That means she used those bones for heavier work than she should have.’ Grooves on her teeth indicate inadequate nutrition, when she was about 11 months old, and she suffered from either sickness or starvation even to the point of death.’ [Dr Sarah Bisel’s report on the body of a 14 year old girl found at Herculaneum.]

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Slaves

Slaves were those who had been defeated in war, or were free citizens who had sold themselves to pay their debts. They were everywhere in Pompeii and Herculaneum. They were owned by members of the imperial family, households, town councils, businessmen and owners of estates. The state often purchased and used slaves.

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‘Romans saw the ownership of slaves as a valid expression of power.’ Source 2.21: (Hurley, Medcalfe, Murray & Rolph. Antiquity 3)

Evidence

‘Privatus, public slave of the colony of Veneria Cornelia, on receipt of 1,652 sesterces for the fullers’ tax of the first year.’

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They were part of the lower social strata. They performed most of the work in agriculture and manufacturing, and upper class Romans drew most of their wealth from exploiting slave labour. Slaves were generally looked down on in society. Even if a freedman later gained wealth, his servile origin was never forgotten.

SlavesNumbers: Estimates of slave numbers vary between one fifth (1/5) and one third (1/3)

of the population in the 1st Century AD.

Ownership: Whether through capture, auction, punishment or as offspring of a slave mother, they belonged to their master.

Could be bought and sold and passed on as part of an inheritance.

Men and women owned slaves and owners had the power of life or death over the slaves.

In Pompeii & Herculaneum, slaves were owned by members of the imperial family, householders, town council, businessmen and owners of estates.

Living Space: Lived and worked on their owner’s premises. Usually in the smallest rooms in the house or near the kitchen.

Employed: In Upper Class households:

Washers

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Oven stokersServersCooksEntertainersNursesTutorsClerksSecretaries

On Agricultural Estates:

Tending VinesPicking grapesPloughingHarvestingHay-making.

Freedom Could be manumitted by their master.

& Could save up and buy their liberty.

If they bought their freedom they also had to pay a freedom tax equal to 5% of their assessed value. After they purchased their freedom they were then permitted to assume their master’s name e.g. Petronia Justa from Herculaneum.

Freed slaves could not become citizens and participate in political life but they could become extremely wealthy.

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Citizenship

EVIDENCE A little statue from the House of Gaius Rufus at Pompeii shows two slaves carrying a sedan chair

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The children of freed slaves COULD become citizens and this provided them with the legal and political rights required for upward social mobility.

Social Hierarchy Amongst slaves:

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Highly PrivilegedDispensator: Controlled the fundsCellarius: Controlled the food supplyOven StokerServerTreated harshlyNot permitted to marryAny children followed the condition of their mother and so belonged to her owner.EVIDENCEA prison cell and stocks found at the VILLA OF AGRIPPA POSTUMUS at BOSCOTRECASE

&

An iron block to which slaves were chained found in a room at VILLA REGINA at BOCCOREALE

support the notion that slaves on agricultural estates were treated harshly.

Source 2.25

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Evidence

The main street at Herculaneum had a stone pillar posted with a town ordinance against defecators: the penalty was a fine for free

persons and corporal punishment for slaves.

Source 2.26 Deiss, Joseph. Herculaneum: Italy’s Buried

Evidence The Helmsman

‘“He did not have good food, good treatment, good anything.” Dr Bisel said. Large crests on his upper arm bones betrayed heavy manual labour. Excess strain on his arms and back was revealed by the fusion of six of his middle thoracic vertebrae...the “Helmsman” might have been a slave employed in construction. ‘

Source 2.27: Dr Bisel’s report cited in Deiss, Joseph. Herculaneum: Italy’s Buried Treasure. P.194.

Questions1. What were the ways in which slaves

could become citizens?

2. Read the description of the lawsuit of Justa on pages 40-41 in ‘Secrets of Vesuvius’. What does this evidence, and the sources provided above, provide historians with in regards to the rights of slaves in Herculaneum?

3. Using Dr Sarah Bisel’s reports and other evidence, explain how Historians are able to determine the working conditions faced by slaves in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

4. Using the sources provided and your own knowledge assess the importance of slaves to the existence of society in Pompeii and

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Women

The typical role of a woman in a Roman society was to perform tasks such as running the household, bringing up the children and controlling the finances. Women in Pompeii and Herculaneum, while they had no political rights, appeared to have more freedom than women in Rome and actively participated in the public, religious and business life. Many women were extremely wealthy and influential.

The same three divisions of Freeborn, Freedmen and slaves that applied to all male Romans also applied to women.

Women of Wealthy FamiliesThese women were educated and could own property in their own right. Unlike their male counterparts, however, the elite women could not stand for political office. Like the elite males, the women of wealthy families dressed in a style which distinguished them from

ordinary women.

Economic Role A noteworthy woman of this class who illustrates the degree of wealth and economic role possible by a woman was the priestess

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Evidence of Property Ownership (Source 2.28)

Evidence of Buildings

dedicated by women

“Eumachia L.f. sacredos publica, in her own name and that of M. Numistrius Fronto her son, built with her own money the portico, corridor and colonnade, and dedicated them to Concordia Augustus

“To let, on the property of Julia Sp.f. Felix, a ladies’ and gentlemen’s bathing establishment...bars, lock-up shops, rooms. Five year lease from August 13th.” Source 2.30 An inscription from the house of Julia Felix

Women such as JULIA FELIX engaged in business transactions including rentals and loans

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EUMACHIA whose family owned vineyards and brickworks. She dedicated a large building in the forum to the Fullers guild.

Despite their inability to participate in town politics, women of the middle and upper class appear to have had considerable freedom. In houses there was no separate section for women as there was in Ancient Greece.

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According to...Brennan & Lazer

EvidenceA wax tablet records a transaction of AD 61 between two women involving a loan with two slaves as security. Source 2.32

Statue of Eumachia found in the collegium building of the fullers, Pompeii. The long palla draped over her head represents her respectability and role as a priestess.

Inscription on the statue: To Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess, the fullers (set this up).

Figure 1.12 Eumachia

Questions1. What important social position

did Eumachia hold?

2. Describe the type of patronage displayed by Eumachia.

a. How does it differ from a client patron relationship?

b. What does it demonstrate about the powers of wealthy women in the community?

3. Outline the role played by the

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Whilst freeborn women of any class did not have voting rights they did have some influence as the election graffiti, programmata, implies:

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Evidence Source 2.35“I beg you to make Pupius duumvir. Appuleia with her

neighbour Mustius (asks) and Narcissus asks you.”

Written on a bakery - “We beg you to make M. Casellius and L. Albucius aediles. Statia and Petronia ask. Such citizens (would

be) in the city forever.”

“I ask you to make A. Vettius Firmus aedile. He is worthy. Caprasia asks with Nymohus, together with the neighbours.

(We) ask you to vote for him.”According to... Lisa Savunen

The programmata may be regarded

as a collective activity in which women took part

not only as members or clients

of the family but also as members of the community and

the electoral district. Source

2.36

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A painting in the shop of M. Veculius Verecundus, manufacturer of cloth and felt, shows his wife sitting at the counter while a young man chooses a pair of slippers from the shelves.

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Evidence of female workers Source 2.37

at Pompeii: a) Inscription from a gaming den refers to money borrowed from her @ 45% and items left as security including earrings.

b) Tavern wall graffiti: On Feb 5th, Vettia accepted from Faustilla 15 denarii with 8 asses in interest.

Aesllina, innkeeper: A known establishment is that of Aesllina, a woman, whose inn walls contain graffiti showing customer debts and whose outside walls contain political slogans showing her interest in the AD 79 elections.

Weaver/Spinners: There were 11 staminariaee (spinners) in the workshop of M.Terentius Euxodus.

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Lower class women could also own and operate taverns, inns and bars.

Some women could earn money by working independently in their own homes making and mending clothes. They earned little money and their status in society was low. Some women were employed in the fullonicae to brush and thicken cloth. The great domestic occupation of women, both free and slaves was spinning wool. Women who specialized in this were called ‘basket-women.’

Slave WomenWere not allowed to marry. Their children were automatically slaves of their owner. Like male slaves, they could be manumitted. They could work as household servants, cooks, cleaners, wet nurses, servers,

entertainers, personal attendants (for wealthy women) and prostitutes. Evidence from Pompeii suggests that some slaves were well treated and esteemed.

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Evidence: An

advertisement for an Inn

‘Handsome soldier,

drink here for just one ass, and for two asses,

you can drink

better, and for four

asses have

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FreedwomenA freedwoman, as part of a wealthy family, could be honoured.

Many freedwomen came from the East, frequently selling luxury items or exotic merchandise, such as dyes and perfumes, as well as clothes and food.

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Evidence of honoured freedwoman: An inscription on a tomb monument on the Herculaneum gate road:

Naevoleia L.I. Tyche for herself and C. Munatius Faustus, Augustalis and paganus, for whom the city council by public consent decreed a bisellium (honorific seat) on account of her/his merits. Naevoleia Tyche made this monument during her lifetime for her own freedmen and freedwomen and those of C. Munatius Faustus. Source 2.39

Evidence: An

advertisement for an Inn

‘Handsome soldier,

drink here for just one ass, and for two asses,

you can drink

better, and for four

asses have

EVIDENCE of GOOD TREATMENT OF SLAVES

The skeleton of a woman recently found in Pompeii had with her a quantity of gold jewellery, including a serpent bracelet engraved DOMINUS ANCILLAE SUAE [from the master to his

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ProstitutesAlthough the prostitute herself was considered to be disreputable, prostitution was not illegal and was seen as a normal part of the sex life of Roman men. Legally, prostitution was treated as business like any other.

There were different types of prostitutes in Roman society: Slaves, freedwomen and foreigners. Some were also freeborn Roman women. Wives, daughter and granddaughters of patricians and equites were forbidden to become prostitutes.

Attractive, educated high class courtesans were well kept by their lovers and were able to afford their own luxurious homes. Foreign prostitutes came from a variety of ethnic groups and were popular because they were considered exotic as they were not bound by the same social restrictions as Roman women.

It is impossible to determine the status of the women from graffiti in the brothels, but it seems likely that they were slaves, freedwomen or foreigners.

Marriage and Divorce Most women spent the whole of their lives under the control of the paterfamilias. Divorce was easily accomplished by either men or women, generally without financial penalties for almost any reason. All that was required under Augustinian law was a declaration before seven witnesses of the desire to divorce. On divorce, the wife (if she had had a sine manu marriage which meant she was under the control of her father rather than her husband) was entitled to a full refund of her dowry, and she returned to the protection of her father. If she had been independent of her father prior to marriage, she would regain her independence when she divorced.

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Questions

1. To what extent were women involved in the political life of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

2. Complete the mind map on the last page identifying the various occupations that could be held by different women.

3. The following quote, ‘Pompeii was a place where women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honorific and cultic office, and go about in public’(Fantham, Elaine) suggests an equality between men and

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WOMEN

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Female Occupations Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

Questions

1. To what extent were women involved in the political life of Pompeii and Herculaneum?

2. Complete the mind map on the last page identifying the various occupations that could be held by different women.

3. The following quote, ‘Pompeii was a place where women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honorific and cultic office, and go about in public’(Fantham, Elaine) suggests an equality between men and

Assistant in

Bakeries

Spinners, makers & menders of

cloth

Fullery Workers

Sellers of Fruit & Vegetables

Brothels &

Bars

Foreigners & Freed slaves

Educated courtesans

Most of servile origin

Midwives &

Doctors

Bakeries

Ran businesses in partnership with

husbands or alone if widowed

Cloth shops

Wealthy Upper lass

Able to Buy, sell or rent property

Freedwoman of Means

Taverns

Cooks

Cleaners Servers

Entertainers

Personal Attendants

Cult of Isis

Of Popular cults

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Figure 1.13 The occupations of women

Sellers of Perfumes

/ Dyes