4.6 WILDLIFE (Megan Rigby, Julieta Perez, Anna Vaughn, and Madeline Steen)

Introduction:

The San Bernardino Mountains, along with the nearby San Gabriel and San Jacinto ranges, are very important ecologically. They are all considered to be sky islands (high mountain regions whose plants and animals vary dramatically from those in the surrounding semi-arid lowlands) (SBNF). The San Bernardino, San Gabriel and San Jacinto Mountains comprise the largest forested region in Southern California, and altogether support some 1,700 species of plants, and are home to approximately 440 wildlife species (“Nature & Science”) Of those, over 30 animals and plants are listed as threatened or endangered (SBNF).Within the mountain range, unique and diverse habitats and ecosystems exist. Habitats such as wetlands, woodlands, forest and chaparral all aid in and sustain important biodiversity within these mountains. Many mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians all depend heavily on this diversity for their survival. In order to continue protecting and preserving such a valuable area, along with all of the fragile species that live there, measures need to be taken and continued to be instilled.

4.6 1.2 MammalsCalifornia Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus californicus)Status: California Species of Least ConcernSpecies Description: The common name is mule deer or black-tailed deer. There are seven subspecies of mule deer and two of the black tailed deer which is its own subspecies group. In the San Bernardino Mountains the California subspecies is present and abundant. The two Subspecies are distinguished by body size, pelage color, skull form and dentition, size/shape of antlers, behavior, and geographical distribution (Mule Deer (Odocoileus Hemionus”).  Mule deer vary in size depending upon region. The largest species occur in the Rocky Mountains and the smallest, the black-tailed deer, occur along the northern Pacific coast (United States. National Park Service). Males are typically larger than females. Males have full racks of antlers during the rutting and mating season (September and ends as late as March). Fawns arrive in the spring; the young will remain with mothers throughout the summer and become weaned in the autumn. Deer feed on grasses and forbs in the spring and summer, however they are primarily browsers. They also eat items such as bark, buds, and acorns. A deer's diet can differ across their range and depending on what's available.Significance: Mule Deer are important indicator species, due to their role of being a major food source for large carnivores such as mountain lions. Because of their important role as an indicator species, they are managed by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife. These

animals are allowed to be hunted, but all hunting activities and numbers are monitored and recorded during hunting seasonHabitat and Range: Mule deer are well adapted to a variety of habitats including temperate forest, open range, grassland, fields, scrubland, desert and semi-desert habitats, as well as mountainous areas. The California mule deer is widespread throughout northern and central California in the California coastal prairie as well as inner coastal ranges and interior mountains, especially the Sierra Nevada (Southern California Camping-Field Guide to Mammals). Mule deer may inhabit the same range throughout the year or migrate to separate summer-fall and winter ranges.  Mule deer can either be migratory or resident. Migratory mule deer are generally found in mountainous regions, where they move up and down along elevation gradients in response to weather and seasonal changes in vegetation ("Keep Me Wild - Mule Deer).Threat: One of the largest threats to the survival of healthy mule deer populations is from urban growth and development. This leads to habitat loss of the California mule deer. Other threats include, high predator populations (including feral dogs), competition with livestock for grazing areas, and hunting ("Mule Deer (Odocoileus Hemionus)"). Some other threats are diseases and parasites (bacterial diseases and parasites infest mule deer and may cause mortality), malnutrition and weather (often the leading cause of deer deaths), and invasive plants (invasive grasses and forbs may reduce the amount of food available for deer, along with change the vegetation reducing the cover needed to protect/ hide deer from their predators) ("Mule Deer." Wikipedia).Natural Predators: Major predators of mule deer include coyotes, mountain lions, and humans. Bobcats and American black bears are unlikely to prey on mule deer unless they are sick or injured. Birds of prey, such as golden eagles, are common predators of young deer. Predators may kill deer of all sexes and ages and in all physical conditions (United States. National Park Service). When a mule deer detects a predator nearby, it attempts to escape by placing obstacles such as boulders, trees, bushes, and steep slopes between itself and the predator.  Other strategies used are early detection, out maneuvering of predators, avoidance of areas frequented by predators, and the formation of herds or groups (Mule Deer (Odocoileus Hemionus)).Conservation Suggestions: Mule deer are indicators of a healthy ecosystem. When populations of deer explode, that means their natural predators are decreasing. If numbers get too low it might mean the vegetation is suffering and other animals could then be at risk. The best solution is to maintain a viable population. In order to monitor mule deer population on Oak Glen and Bearpaw preserve, a general census could be performed. The census should be performed sometime after autumn. Having the census at this time of the year is good because the foals have been weaned from their mothers, and the infant mortality will have already peaked and started to fall. By knowing a rough estimate of numbers, we are given a summary of the health of the ecosystem. Rangers or other knowledgeable employees will assist in counting the deer spotted while on transect. This should take place at dawn or dusk since that is when they are most active.Another suggestion is the continued removal of invasive plant species in order to help preserve native food sources for the deer. Mule deer are primarily browsers, but do have certain

preference depending on the season. They typically feed on grasses and forbs in the spring/summer, and eat what they can during the colder months. Mule deer prefer to eat vegetation that is high in nutrients and easy to digest. Although deer are adaptable in their diets, the presence of invasive plants make healthy and nutrient plants more scarce, negatively affecting the food supply. If deer need to compete for food their over health and population could suffer.  The final suggestion is strict enforcement of no hunting on the preserve and the potential investment in a buffer zone around the preserve to help protect the animals. Although the deer and other animals are safe within the boundaries of the preserve, the areas around may not be as safe. The implementation of a buffer zone will better be able to support a safe and health populations of deer that can help in turn support more predators.

American Black Bear (Ursus Americanus)Status: Regulated/Least Concern (IUCN Red List)Significance: One major goal of conservation is to preserve ecosystems. While currently black bears are not recognized as keystone species, they are considered to be “umbrella” species. An umbrella species is a species that is often selected when addressing ecosystem preservation concerns because the public can be influenced to save them and this will indirectly lead to the conservation of other species. This is because umbrella species share habitats with other species of concern and they have a good public image to help persuade individuals to care about the species. The habitats of umbrella species are often used to determine locations for possible reserves as well as areas of greatest concern.Description Black bears are large-bodied animals that have a small, narrow head, powerful limbs, and small ears. Black bears vary in color from tan or brown to black. Typically they are dark brown with a brown muzzle and, occasionally, a small white chest patch. Adult females weigh 100 - 200 pounds whereas adult males are larger, at 150 - 350 pounds, though individuals over 600 pounds have been taken by hunters in California. Black bears have five toes, each with a well-developed claw, on both front and hind feet, and teeth adapted for feeding on both plant and animal matter. Black bears are very good climbers, and they will quickly scale a tree to avoid a predator if they cannot outrun it.Habitat Needs: American black bears are primarily a species of temperate and boreal forests, but they also range into subtropical areas of Florida and Mexico as well as into the subarctic. They live at elevations ranging from sea level to 3,500 m, and inhabit areas as diverse as dry Mexican scrub forests, Louisiana swamps, Alaskan rainforests and tundra. Between these extremes they occupy assorted deciduous and coniferous forest types, each providing a different array of foods.The American black bear is a generalist, opportunist, and omnivore. Depending on location and season, they consume herbaceous vegetation, roots, buds, numerous kinds of fleshy fruits, nuts, insects in life stages from egg to adult, and vertebrates including fish and mammals. They will various human-related foods, from garbage and birdseed to a variety of agricultural products, including standing corn and oats just before harvest, apples, and honey. The ability of black

bears to vary their diet with the circumstances has enabled them to persist not only in a diversity of habitat types, but also in highly-fragmented forest areas in proximity to humans.A key habitat feature in many areas is a source of fall mast that enables black bears to increase their fat reserves in preparation for winter. Acorns are the principal fall foods for bears (Vaughan 2002). In the southwestern U.S. and in Mexico, succulents such as yucca and cacti also play important roles in providing food, especially during drought.American black bears hibernate for up to 7 months in the northern portions of their range, but considerably shorter in more southern areas. In some southern areas, where food is available year-round, they may remain active during winter. However, all parturient females den and give birth to cubs, typically in January–February. Although mating occurs in May–July, implantation is delayed and active gestation is only 2 months. Females give birth beginning at age 3–8 years, depending on food availability and hence their body weight, and can produce cubs every other year (in places with less food, this interval is often extended to 3 years). The average litter size is approximately 2.5 cubs in eastern and 2.0 cubs in western North America.Current Threats: California's black bear population has increased over the past 25 years. In 1982, the statewide bear population was estimated to be between 10,000 and 15,000. Presently, the statewide black bear population is estimated to be between 25,000 and 30,000. Conflict with humans is a potential threat to bears in some areas. In years when natural food supplies are scarce, people may encounter bears seeking substitute foods such as agricultural crops or garbage. As more people live in bear habitat, and as bear numbers grow, the frequency of interactions between humans and bears likely will increase. Indeed, the number of black bear attacks on humans (including fatalities) seems to be increasing across North America. This also causes harm to the bears because they become more aggressive when introduced to human food. Another issue is the increasing density of roads is another growing threat to American black bears. Not only do roads lead directly to mortalities from vehicular collisions, but they also provide greater access to hunters and potential poachers and may be barriers to bear movements.Hunting may once have been a major threat to black bears in California, but it is currently regulated and managed efficiently. The black bear has been classified as a game mammal since 1948. In recent years, hunting regulations have become more restrictive, prohibiting trapping and killing of mothers or cubs, and reducing kill limit from two to one bear per license year.Conservation advice: Black bears may often wander into areas where frequent human activity takes place. This puts both the bears and the public in danger. Bears are most active in the early morning and late afternoon hours in spring and summer. It is important to be extra mindful of bear activity during this time. It is also important to make sure that trash is stored securely and that the public is made aware when they are in bear habitat.Some examples of bear safety tips that can be posted in bear habitat may include reminders to store and remove all trash and food items. It is also important to encourage visitors to remember key behavior tips if you encounter a bear:  

If a bear changes behavior (stops feeding, changes direction, watches you) then you are too close to the bear and this may cause aggression. Do not run from the bear, but back away

slowly while watching the bear. If the bear follows you, change direction. If the bear gets closer, talk loudly or shout at it. Act aggressively and attempt to intimidate the bear. If the bear continues to move forward and is not responsive to other tactics, make yourself as large as possible and throw rocks at the bear. Most importantly, remind campers and hikers of these tips before they embark on their trip. Understanding bear behavior and proper food storage can help keep humans and bears out of harm’s way.

Bobcat (Lynx Rufus):

Status: Least Concern

Description: The bobcat is a North American mammal of the cat family. With a gray to brown coat, whiskered face, and black-tufted ears, the bobcat resembles the other species of the mid-sized Lynx genus. It is about twice as large as the domestic cat. It has distinctive black bars on its forelegs and a black-tipped, stubby tail, from which it derives its name. Though the bobcat prefers rabbits and hares, it will hunt anything from insects and small rodents to deer. Like most cats, the bobcat is territorial and largely solitary, although there is some overlap in home ranges. It uses several methods to mark its territorial boundaries, including claw marks and deposits of urine or feces. The bobcat breeds from winter into spring and has a gestation period of about two months. The bobcat keeps on the move from three hours before sunset until about midnight, and then again from before dawn until three hours after sunrise. Each night it will move from 2 to 7 miles (3.2 to 11 km) along its habitual route. Bobcats are important to the ecosystem because the keep the rodent populations to a manageable level.

Habitat and Range: The bobcat is an adaptable predator that inhabits wooded areas, as well as semi-desert, urban edge, forest edges, and swampland environments. In southern California, they can be found in many protected park areas, even those parks that are surrounded by intense urban development.

Threats: Habitat loss from urbanization is viewed as the primary threat to bobcats. Exposure to rat poison is a local threat to bobcats as it is commonly used in a variety of urban settings.

Conservation Suggestions: Educating the public about the consequences rat poison has on wildlife as well as alternatives to resolving rat problems.

San Bernardino Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys merriami parvus):

Status: EndangeredDescription: The Kangaroo rat has large hind feet for jumping; long tail for balance while jumping and cheek pouches for foraging its body color is weakly yellow with a heavy over wash of dusky brown. The tail stripes are medium to dark brown, with dark brown tail hairs and foot pads The Fish and Wildlife service lists the San Bernardino Kangaroo Rat as endangered in 1999 The historical range of the rat has been reduced by 96% due to agricultural and urban development and the remaining populations are threatened by habitat loss degradation and fragmentation

Habitat and Range:San Bernardino Kangaroo Rats inhabit places with sandy loam substrates, where they are able to dig small, simple burrows. Plant life in such areas is typically dominated by chaparral and coastal sage scrub (soft chaparral) It is found most commonly it these areas City Creek Etiwanda, Reche Canyon, South Bloomington. Santa Ana River, Cajon Creek, and the San Jacinto River. The habitat of the Kangaroo rat is right outside of our designated study area. The historical range of the rat has been reduced by 96% due to agricultural and urban development and the remaining populations are threatened by habitat loss degradation and fragmentation.

Threats: According to the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), D. m. parvus is threatened by "habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation by sand and gravel mining, flood control projects, urban development, vandalism, and inadequate regulatory mechanisms.

Conservation Suggestion: Conserve as much of the remaining habitat as possible. The most essential environmental elements for the survival of Kangaroo rat are the nature of the soil, sand or loamy sand, the alluvial sage curb and associated vegetation, and the river creeks and streams that are vital to the rat's habitat. Management of these resources within their habitat to increase their survivability.

SAN BERNARDINO FLYING SQUIRREL(Glaucomys sabrinus californicus)Status and Significance: Originally thought to be a subspecies of the northern flying squirrel, the gray-brown San Bernardino flying squirrel has been shown through genetic testing to differ genetically from its northern relative; the resulting conclusion is that the squirrels population numbers are much lower than initially suspected. Flying squirrels play an important role in maintaining forest health by dispersing truffle spores; truffles form beneficial symbiotic relationships with trees and plants, helping them absorb water and nutrients. In 2010 the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to list the San Bernardino flying squirrel as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, and in 2012 the Service issued an initial positive decision in protecting the squirrel and working to officially list it under the Act.

Description: The San Bernardino flying squirrel is a subspecies of the northern flying squirrel. It is medium sized, grayish brown, and distinguished by the furry, parachute-like panels of skin that stretch from wrist to ankle, allowing it to glide between trees. Flying squirrels are active at night and are known to glide for distances of more than 300 feet. No data is available on the San Bernardino flying squirrel’s life span; however, the maximum lifespan for other northern flying squirrel subspecies ranges from four to seven years and produce one litter of two to three young in spring or summer. Females give birth and care for their young in maternal dens made in tree cavities or leaf nests(Center for Biological Diversity). Flying squirrels spend considerable time foraging on the forest floor searching for truffles, the underground fungi that are its primary food. They also can eat a variety of other foods including seeds, nuts, fruit, insects, and can even supplement their diet with eggs, birds, and carrion (Op. Cit).Habitat: The San Bernardino flying squirrel lives in high-elevation, mixed-conifer forests dominated by Jeffrey pine, white fir and black oak between 4,600 and 7,550 feet(Center for Biological Diversity). Flying squirrels thrive in forests with big trees and closed-canopy cover, large snags that provide nesting cavities, downed logs that foster the growth of the truffles they eat and understory cover that provides protection from predators.Within Oak Glen, the regions with mixed-conifer forest vegetation cover, such as the conifer loop, provide potential flying squirrel habitat and protection, although Oak Glen is at a lower elevation than the flying squirrels prefer. The Bear Paw preserve is composed of almost all mixed-conifer forests so provides substantial habitat for the San Bernardino flying squirrel within the preserve.Range: The historic range of the San Bernardino flying squirrel lies within the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains of San Bernardino and Riverside counties in Southern California. However, this subspecies appears to be extirpated or near extirpated from the San Jacinto Mountains, with the last anecdotal sightings recorded in the 1970s and 1980( Center for Biological Diversity). They are believed to now be isolated to the San Bernardino mountains with geographic barriers keeping it from moving to other regions. It is isolated from flying squirrel populations to the north by 150 miles of Mojave Desert, to the west by the Cajon Pass between the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains and to the south by the Banning Pass between the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains (Op. Cit).   

Threats: Natural Predators of the San Bernardino Flying Squirrel include birds of prey such as hawks and owls, as well as foxes, and potential disease outbreaks. The San Bernardino flying squirrel is threatened most by anthropogenic threats such as rising temperatures and increasingly frequent droughts resulting from climate change. As temperatures warm, high-elevation conifer forests in Southern California have been moving upslope, shrinking the squirrels’ habitat(Op. Cit). These droughts threaten the squirrel’s food supply of truffles, which require moist, cool forest conditions. The squirrel also faces threats from forest-management practices that remove canopy cover, snags and downed logs, degrading the squirrel’s habitat. Prescribed fire may have short-term (less than 8 years) negative effects on abundance by reducing the frequency and

biomass of their primary food source, truffles .Domestic cats are also a human introduced predator to the flying squirrel.Conservation Advice: In both Bear Paw and Oak Glen Preserve, flying squirrels would benefit from forestry practices that avoid the removal of canopy cover, as flying squirrels prefer thick canopy to avoid being seen by potential predators. Forestry practices should also manage the presence of snags and fallen trees to insure that suitable nesting cavities exist for flying squirrels and that fallen logs and trees can continue to sustain the growth of truffles which are a key food source and play an important role in the ecosystem. Careful use of prescribed fires and preservation of truffle fungi existence will be key in maintaining healthy flying squirrel populations as maintaining soil health. Maintaining and encouraging the creation of wildlife corridors is also crucial in making sure the last remaining population can stay intact and avoid threats within the region.

MOUNTAIN LION (Puma Concolor)

Status and Significance: The Mountain Lion is listed under the status of Least Concern, and is not threatened or endangered although in 2002 it was listed as near threatened. Although it is illegal to hunt mountain lions, depredation permits can be obtained to kill individual lions who may pose a threat to people, or livestock. In California, some 5,000 mountain lions are estimated to inhabit the coastal mountains, northern forests, Sierra Nevada and southern deserts. (Bureau of Land Management) An accurate census is impossible to make because the big cats are stealthy, roam enormous territories and are solitary. The loss of predators such as mountain lions can have devastating effects on ecosystems, as they keep prey populations in check. Usually they prey on herbivores, such as deer and with an uncontrolled population of deer, overgrazing of the land becomes a danger to the whole ecosystem( National Park Service).Description: The Mountain Lion is the largest cat in North America and can grow up to eight feet in length from head to tail and weigh over 200 pounds(National park Service). Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half to three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive lives and breeding can occur any time of year. In California its been found that kittens are usually born during the summer, and after 18 months leave the mother to begin life on their own( Op. Cit.) They average lifespan ranges from twelve to fifteen years depending on their lifestyle and exposure to threats (www.mountainlion.org). They prey on a variety of herbivorous mammals such as deer, rabbit, skunks, porcupine, ground squirrels, and birds, but their favorite prey are species of deer(National Park Service). Mountain lions prefer to hunt at night or during the hours of dawn and dusk.Habitat: The mountain lion inhabits a variety of ecosystems, from deserts, to high mountains. This cat prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas such as cliffs and ledges for stalking. They utilize a variety of habitat types that provide adequate cover for hunting and tend to avoid urban and developed landscapes. On both Oak Glen and Bear Paw preserve there is

adequate habitat for mountain lions. There is enough cover in each of these regions for mountain lions to stay out of sight which is what they prefer, particularly when stalking prey.Range: Mountain lions require a lot of room to roam—and varies depending on the terrain, vegetation cover, and prey in the area. Usually, adult males occupy larger territories while females with kittens occupy the smaller territories. These ranges can vary from 25 up to 200 square miles. (Bureau of Land Management) The cougar is territorial and survives at low population densities. While large, it is not always the apex predator in its range, yielding to the jaguar, gray wolf, american black bear, and the grizzly bear. One female adjacent to the San Andreas Mountains for instance, was found with a large range of 215 km2 (83 sq mi), necessitated by poor prey abundance (felineconservation.org).Threats:  The mountain lion faces a variety of threats. Natural threats include injury and disability, disease, and competition with other cougars. Anthropogenic threats include habitat loss, fragmentation, poaching, and impacts with cars. Roadways also pose as barriers to puma movements and dispersal. Their naturally low densities render them highly sensitive to habitat fragmentation, and this loss of large carnivores can have adverse ripple effects through the entire ecosystem.

Conservation Advice: Creating and maintaining wildlife corridors is one of the greatest measures people can take to ensure the future of mountain lions. Although development and fragmentation has displaced many mountain lions from their natural habitat, the remaining wild lands can be preserved and even expanded to connect into a wildlife corridor where wide range animals such as the mountain lion can roam and sustain themselves. Both Bearpaw and Oak Glen Preserve provide habitat and prey for mountain lions and provide a potential link between the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains. The preservation of the natural lands around these preserves is the only way to be sure that mountain lions can exist in these areas without threats from fragmentation and roadways. For the safety of the mountain lions as well as people and their pets, rules can be enforced to prevent people from walking their pets through the preserves during night hours when mountain lions prefer to hunt. Avoiding the use of poisons and toxic compounds to treat pest problems is also a measure to take to avoid accidental poisonings of wild cats and other predators that eat rodents.

4.6 1.3   Reptiles/Amphibians  

Southern Rubber Boa (Charina bottae umbratica)Status: Threatened (San Bernardino Mountains Land Trust)Significance: The Southern rubber boa is an endemic snake that can be found only in the San Bernardino and the San Jacinto Mountains. Due to its Threatened status, it is important that individuals continue to strive to conserve this species in hopes that it can recover in numbers.

Preserving the habitat of this snake will help ensure that it does not end up on the endangered species list.Description: The rubber boa is a smooth and shiny snake that is often olive-green, reddish-brown, or tan in color. The scales are smooth and it has large scales on the top of its head. Adult boas frequently grow to over 9 meters (30 feet) long. The average size of these boas ranges from 4.2-10 meters (14-33 inches) long. The Southern rubber boa has live births with 2-8 young at a time during late August through September.Habitat Needs: The Southern rubber boa is a subspecies of the rubber boa (Charina bottae) and is found only in the coniferous riparian forests of the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains. Its habitat includes damp woodlands and coniferous forests, large grassy areas, meadows, and moist sandy areas along rock streams. It lives in burrows below ground the majority of the time and because it is very seldom seen, very little is known about it. It hibernates in rocky outcrops, rotting stumps, or other underground locations through the winter until April or May. It is an excellent burrower and retreats under rocks or into damp sand, hollow rotting logs, or forest debris, making it hard to spot. As a constrictor, this boa preys on small mammals, birds, and lizards. It is docile and will curl into a ball when picked up.Current Threats: Since 1971, the Southern rubber boa has been listed as one of Southern California’s threatened species. Habitat loss is the primary cause of their decline. The main reasons for destruction of their habitat include housing development, land development for commercial uses, OHV activities, logging, wood gathering, and climate change.Conservation advice: The main recommendation for conservation of the rubber boa is to get a current count of Southern rubber boa populations in the San Bernardino Mountains. Bearpaw seems like a good location to start doing surveys and counting rubber boa population numbers.Finding rubber boas can be extremely difficult so this would be a major task to undertake. The preferred temperatures to look for rubber boas would be in the 60-70 °F range, anything higher and they will be less likely to emerge from their difficult to find homes. Rubber boas prefer cooler temperatures and will often be found hiding under rocks, leaf litter, and rotting wood. Rubber boas can rarely be found on the surface, they are usually hiding underneath a log or a rock.One method of surveying for Southern rubber boas would be to include them on a visitor sighting survey and to encourage visitors (especially hikers that are going to more rural areas of the Bearpaw Reserve) to report them whenever they sight them. Outdoor education and wildlife educators could include photos of the Southern rubber boa so that visitors will be more likely to identify the snakes if they see them. Another idea is to organize volunteers and reptile experts to go do weekend surveys during the summer months and into September. Summer is the recommended time to go look for these snakes because they hibernate throughout the winter and much of the spring.

Arboreal Salamander (Aneides lugubris)Status: Least Concern (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species)

Significance: Arboreal salamanders serve as a great indicator species. Because they are lungless, they breathe through their skin. If there are pollutants in the water, the arboreal salamander will be negatively affected. This would help researchers assess the overall health of the environment because if the salamanders are unhealthy and declining, pollution could be impacting them and other species in the ecosystem. TWC personnel had found some individuals, which, in our area--the dry interior Inland Empire area--is not the typical moist coastal habitat that salamanders enjoy (Tim Krantz). As a "locally rare" and isolated species, the arboreal salamander is important to conserve and study further.Description: Arboreal salamanders are found in a variety of terrestrial and arboreal habitats, including under rocks and woody surface cover, in decaying stumps and logs, in decay holes in trees, and in rock crevices. Climbing is facilitated by expanded tips of terminal phalanges and large subdigital pads, as well as by the prehensile tail of the arboreal salamander. Individuals have been found over 18m above ground in trees.

Habitat Needs: The arboreal salamander’s range is limited to Central California coast regions and northern regions of the Baja California peninsula. Disjunct populations of the salamander also occur in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada and the San Bernardino Mountains. Arboreal salamanders occur in coastal oak woodlands from northern California to Valle Santo Tomás, Baja California del Norte, Mexico (McPeak, 2000). The range of the arboreal salamander is similar to the range of the oaks, Quercus agrifolia and Q. wislizenii, which relates to shared moisture and soil requirements. However, in southern California, the species is frequently associated with sycamores (Platanus racemosa), bordering seasonal streams. Populations have been eliminated as coastal California habitats have been developed, but the species survives in many urbanized regions where adequate cover is present. Arboreal salamanders can be found in microhabitats that are drier than those of sympatric salamanders. The salamander can be found in the California montane chaparral and woodlands, as well as in in Central and Southern California coastal regions. This region encompasses most of the Transverse Range that includes the San Bernardino Mountains and the San Gabriel Mountains. The California montane chaparral and woodland region consists of coastal sage scrub, lower chaparral dominated by chamise, upper chaparral dominated by manzanita, desert chaparral, Piñon-juniper woodland, oak woodlands, closed-cone pine forests, yellow pine forests, sugar pine-white fir forests, lodge pole pine forests, and alpine habitats.

The most likely suitable habitat on OGP and BR would be areas near bodies of water and streams that have moist soils and decaying stumps and logs nearby. They would also be found near live oak trees and Jeffrey pines because they often build their nests in decaying holes in these trees. They are excellent climbers so they can often be found in these trees or near them in dead tree stumps.

Current Threats: The most serious threat to the arboreal salamander is habitat fragmentation and destruction due to human development. They are a lung-less salamander that breathes through their skin, which makes them especially vulnerable to pollution. The continuing decline of live oaks harms the arboreal salamander because it relies on this tree for nesting.Conservation advice: Similar to the suggestion for the southern rubber boa, a survey of current population numbers is needed to help identify key areas for preserving this species. Also, making sure to not cut down live oak trees and Jeffrey pines would help preserve the habitat of the salamander and ensure that their nesting sites are not disturbed.Conservation advice: Similar to the suggestion for the southern rubber boa, a survey of current population numbers is needed to help identify key areas for preserving this species. Also, making sure to not cut down live oak trees and Jeffrey pines would help preserve the habitat of the salamander and ensure that their nesting sites are not disturbed.

4.6 1.4 BIRDS

Least Bell’s Vireo (Vireo Bellii)Status: EndangeredDescription: Bell’s Vireo is a small, insectivorous, neotropical migrant that breeds in the central and southwestern United States, and in northern parts of Mexico.1 A small portion of this species is found in Southern California in the San Bernardino Mtns.; study area being TWC Oak Glen and Bearpaw Reserves.Habitat:  For their breeding range, the habitat of the LBV is dense, low shrubby vegetation, generally early successional stages in riparian areas, brushy fields, young and second-growth forest or woodland, scrub oak, coastal chaparral, and mesquite brushlands, often near water. The most common and critical structure component LBV habitat in California is a dense shrub layer 0.6-3.0 m above ground.2 Although there is few data on the Spring and Fall migration for the LBV, it is known that their habitat is generally coastal shrub, riparian, and woodland habitat. As far as their winter range, it consists of thornscrub vegetation adjacent to watercourses or riparian gallery forests along the west coast of northern Mexico.Based on data from the US Forest Service, the LBVs can be seen mostly on the Oak Glen Preserve, although some have been spotted near the creek close to the Bearpaw Reserve.Threats: High rates of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) and habitat loss and change have negatively affected nesting vireos in the southwestern United States, causing reduction of local populations.Conservation: In California, the Least Bell’s Vireo has been designated an Endangered Species by the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service and the State of California, but cowbird control and restoration of riparian habitat have recently aided its recovery.Southwest Willow Flycatcher (Empidonax Traillii Extimus)Status: Endangered

Description: The Willow Flycatcher is a common migratory species that breeds in a variety of usually shrubby often wet habitats from Maine to British Columbia and as far south as southern Arizona and southern California. The Willow Flycatcher is difficult to identify in the field, and without vocal cues is nearly impossible to distinguish from the Alder Flycatcher, whose habitats often overlap those of the Willow.3

Habitat: The Willow Flycatcher is primarily an aerial forager, capturing most of its insect diet on the wing, but it may hover-glean extensively from leaf surfaces or occasionally take insects from the ground. Much like its breeding range, the Willow Flycatcher prefers moist, shrubby areas, often with standing or running water for its spring and fall migration. In the winter, their habitat consist of shrubby clearings, pastures, and lighter woodlands. Like the Least Bell’s Vireo, most of its sighting have been on the Oak Glen Preserve.Threats:  Because the Willow Flycatcher is restricted to river corridors, it is vulnerable to a variety of human activities that may alter or degrade such habitats, activities including river dewatering, channelization, overgrazing, dam construction, and urbanization. Critical habitat for the subspecies was designated in the states of New Mexico, Arizona and California, where the largest populations are known to occur.4 Parasitism of Brown-headed Cowbirds may present the largest conservation problem for this subspecies.Conservation: After being listed as Endangered by US Fish and Wildlife service in 1995, detailed investigations prompted by the declining populations in the southwestern United States include those on the costs of cowbird parasitism, population dynamics, habitat preferences, and vocal and genetic differentiation across subspecific ranges. Mostly in California, cowbird control has been used as a management tool for several populations of the Southwestern Willow Flycatcher.

California Spotted Owl (Strix Occidentalis)Status: Sensitive/Special ConcernDescription: The Spotted Owl is one of the most studied and best-known owls in the world. This degree of scientific attention is the result of this owl’s association with the late seral stage conifer forests of high commercial value.5 Spotted Owls are described as three subspecies, the Northern Spotted Owl, the California Spotted Owl, and the Mexican Spotted Owl. The subspecies known to be seen at TWC preserves, specifically at Bearpaw, are the California Spotted Owl. This owl is most similar to the Northern Spotted owl, but lighter brown with slightly larger white spots.Habitat: At low elevations, the spotted owl occupies habitats dominated by hardwoods, primarily oak. At higher elevations, owl habitats are increasingly dominated by conifers until, at the highest of elevations, hardwoods are nearly of completely lacking. Habitats are generally complex in structure with high canopy closures. A critical element of this complex forest structure is the presence of large trees. There is few data on the spring and fall migration habitats, but the wintering habitat data suggest that hardwoods become more dominant, tree

densities decrease, and shrub densities increase as the owls descend to lower elevations. The winter habitat is closely similar to that of their breeding habitat.Threats: Many of the Spotted Owl threats include shooting and trapping, Barred Owls, degradation of habitat, and human/research impacts.Conservation advice: The California subspecies of the Spotted Owl has been listed as a species of Special Concern by the state of California. The US Forest Service has developed an environmental impact statement for owl management. Also, there is an owl protection plan in southern California that includes the protection of all known owl sites on federal forest land.

4.6 1.5 THREAT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE:

Changes in climate may have both direct (e.g. thermal stress) and indirect (e.g. changes in species interactions and habitat) effects on wildlife distributions and abundances. Direct effects of climate warming are predicted to force species upslope and northward, while indirect effects leave a more complex signature. Studies in other parts of California suggest that wildlife are moving in response to changing climates in order to maintain environmental associations to which they are. Species with a high degree of habitat specialization and/or a smaller natural thermal range are more sensitive to climate change than other species and may be under more pressure to move as climates warm. Breeding birds in southern California shifted their distributions upward on average 377- 410 from 1979 to 2005. Most of this shift can be attributed to up-slope encroachment by desert scrub birds rather than range contraction by chaparral birds, suggesting that desert species may be closer to their physiological. Hargrove and Rotenberry found that climate plays an important role in limiting the lower distributions of (higher-elevation) chaparral bird species in southern California, thus excluding them from low elevation sites, but a less important role in limiting the upper distributions of (lower-elevation) desert bird species. Biotic interactions, such as competition and predation, play a more significant role in limiting the upper distributions of these lower elevation species, further complicating up-slope migrations in response to climate change.

While direct effects of climate change on the Spotted Owl may be positive (positive reproductive output with increases in minimum nesting season temperatures), owl populations in the San Bernardino mountains have been declining in recent years, probably due to indirect effects such as drought, disease, and fire-induced habitat loss, as well as isolation, urbanization, and air pollution. Another major indirect impact of climate change on wildlife populations is the loss of synchrony between reproductive or migratory phenology and resource availability . Breeding dates of birds like tree swallows have advanced during the last century (in the tree swallow case, they now occur up to 9 days earlier; Dunn and Winkler 1999) which may lead to a mismatch in timing of egg laying relative to availability of food. Shifted flowering, fruiting, and seeding times may affect species that rely on these services. Timing of the migration of California overwintering songbirds like Swainson's Thrush, Warbling Vireo, and Wilson's

Warbler among others has also advanced significantly since 1969. Asynchrony with animal and insect pollinators may also become a significant problem for California plant species.

4.6. 1.6   Wildlife Conservation Recommendations

The San Bernardino Mountains, including Oak Glen Preserve and Bearpaw Reserve, are home to a diverse variety of species. While some species, such as the American black bear and the mountain lion, are thriving, others such as the flying squirrel and the spotted owl have dwindling population numbers. Conservation, along with wildlife education and raising public awareness, will be the key to preserving the many fragile species that live here. It is extremely important for The Wildlands Conservancy to consider the habitat needs of these species while considering other projects. Though it seems like a daunting task to be responsible for the conservation of a multitude of species, it can be done by maintaining and protecting their habitats. There are countless ways to promote conservation on both OGP and BR. Some examples of ways to move forward with conservation projects include: creating a wildlife corridor/buffer zone, creating search protocols for species of concern such as the Southern rubber boa and the kangaroo rat, use GIS to map and mark known locations (population size, distribution, habitat use, and preference), developing a uniformed reporting system for animal spotting, doing yearly census counts by utilizing volunteers and forest service officials, collaborating with outside organizations for conservation, and teaching the California Department of Fish and Game “Keep Me Wild” campaign to visitors. These are just some of many possibilities that TWC can use to ensure the preservation of biodiversity on their property. With these suggestions, we believe that TWC will be able to promote the conservation of our species of concern effectively.

5.5: Fire Management (Stefani Spence, Anna Vaughn, Andrea Rodriguez, Madeline Steen)

5.5.1: MANAGEMENT GOAL

The purpose of a Fire Protection Plan is to evaluate the vegetation fire risk, the potential structure fire risk, fire department response times, and recommend mitigations in order to provide a reasonable level of fire protection. This plan includes a fire risk assessment, fire station locations, and emergency plan recommendations for both preserves. This plan also includes recommendations for Fuel Modification (Vegetation Management) around Bearpaw Lodge.

5.5.2: FIRE RISK ANALYSIS

Wildfire is a frequent and often natural process throughout much of the Sierras. Suppression of fires and past resource management practices, along with urbanization of forests, has created a situation quite different from what existed before European settlement. Fires used to burn freely across the landscape virtually unchecked, whereas now we aggressively seek to prevent and suppress them. Many of the ecosystems and plant species in our area evolved with fire and depend on occasional, natural fires to sustain them. Fire exclusion efforts have created forests that look quite different than those from 200 years ago. In pre-settlement times the trees were larger, the forests were more open, and stands of timber were more fire-resilient. Today forests are densely stocked and have fewer fire-resistant species. Where fires once frequently and lightly burned the forest floor, they have now become catastrophic stand-replacing events, often threatening human communities.

Wild fires usually occur between June and October, a period of time commonly referred to as “fire season.” However, it is not uncommon for fires to occur as early as April and as late as November. Fire occurs naturally and as a result of human activity. Anthropogenically-caused fires usually become more common as once-open forested lands become more visited, developed, and inhabited. Increasing populations and use of forested lands often bring an increase in person-caused fires. Wild fire ignitions occur from sources such as debris burning (leading cause), children, smoking, campfires, off-road vehicles, firewood cutting, discarded ashes, construction, and the railroad (Plumas County Fire Safe Council, 1).

5.5.2.1: CURRENT ON-SITE FIRE HAZARD

The Bearpaw property is flat in the immediate vicinity of the lodge, with surrounding slopes ranging from about 20-30 degrees. There is a steep upward slope beginning at the southern side of the lodge, and a downward slope on the western side. As fire travels more easily uphill, the southern slope could carry fire away from the lodge, but the western slope could bring fire to the lodge. Large amounts of dead vegetation on the western slope exacerbate this risk.

Fire Return Interval Departure (FRID)

Fire Return Interval Departure (FRID) classification measures the difference between current and presettlement fire frequencies, allowing managers to target areas at high risk of threshold-type responses owing to altered fire regimes and interactions with other factors (Safford & Van de Water, i).  Although there has not been a fire on the Bearpaw Preserve in more than one hundred years, the National Park Service FRID index indicates that the level of ecological need for prescribed fire treatment within the preserve is almost entirely moderate, with some sections of low need on the northern border. Available FRID data did not address the Oak Glen Preserve.

A fire regime condition class (FRCC) is a classification of the amount of departure from the natural regime. There are three condition classes for each fire regime, based on a relative measure describing the degree of departure from the historical natural fire regime. This departure results in changes to one, or more, of the following ecological components: vegetation characteristics (species composition, structural stages, stand age, canopy closure, and mosaic pattern); fuel composition; fire frequency, severity, and pattern; and other associated disturbances (e.g. insect and disease mortality, grazing, and drought).

Condition Class 1 is associated with fire regimes that are within the natural (historical) range and the risk of losing key ecosystem components is low. Vegetation attributes (speciescomposition, structure, and pattern) are intact and functioning within the natural (historical) range. Where appropriate, these areas can be maintained within the natural (historical) fire regime by treatments such as fire use. Species composition and structure are functioning within their natural (historical) range at both patch and landscape scales. Non-native species arecurrently not present or present in limited extent. Over time or following a disturbance, sites are

potentially vulnerable to invasion by non-native species. Smoke production, hydrology, and soils are functioning within their natural (historical) range. Insect and disease populations are functioning within their natural (historical) range.

Condition Class 2 is associated with fire regimes that have been moderately altered from their natural (historical) range. Risk of losing key ecosystem components is moderate. Fire frequencies have departed from natural frequencies by one or more return intervals (either increased or decreased). This results in moderate change to one or more of the following: fire size, intensity and severity, and landscape patterns. Vegetation and fuel attributes have been moderately altered from their natural (historical) range. Where appropriate, these areas may need moderate levels of restoration treatments, such as fire use and hand or mechanical treatments, to be restored to the natural fire regime. Species composition and structure have been moderately altered from their historical range at patch and landscape scales: in forestland/woodland, this alteration is apparent in moderate increases in density, encroachment of shade tolerant tree species, or moderate loss of shade intolerant tree species caused by fire exclusion, logging, or exotic insects or disease. It can also be seen in the replacement of surface shrub/grass with woody fuels and litter. Populations of non-native invasive species may have increased, thereby increasing the potential risk for these populations to expand following disturbances such as wildfires. Smoke production, hydrology, and soils have been moderatelyaltered from their natural (historical) range. Water flow is typically reduced, and smoke and soil erosion following fire are typically increased. Insect and disease population have been moderately altered from their natural (historical) range.

Condition Class 3 is associated with fire regimes that have been substantially altered from their natural (historical) range. The risk of losing key ecosystem components is high. Fire frequencies have departed from natural frequencies by multiple return intervals. Dramatic changes occur to one or more of the following: fire size, intensity, severity, and landscape patterns. Vegetation attributes have been substantially altered from their natural (historical) range. Where appropriate, these areas may need high levels of restoration treatments, such as hand or mechanical treatments, before fire can be used to restore the natural fire regime. Species composition and structure have been substantially altered from their historical range at patch and landscape scales: in forestland/woodland, this alteration is apparent in high increases in density, encroachment of shade tolerant tree species, or high loss of shade intolerant tree species caused by fire exclusion, logging, or exotic insects or disease. Invasive species may be common and in some cases the dominant species on the landscape. Disturbances will likely increase both the dominance and geographic extent of these invasive species. Smoke production, hydrology, and soils have been substantially altered from their historical range. Insect and disease population have been altered, typically leading to higher mortality or defoliation (Source: National Interagency Fire Center).

The Bearpaw Reserve contains areas that fall under all three Condition Classes. The majority of the preserve is under Condition Class 2, with areas of Condition Class 3 scattered over the preserve (including a large patch of Condition Class 3 in the preserve’s southeast corner). There are four small areas that fall under Condition Class 1.

Available FRCC data does not cover the entire Oak Glen Preserve, but the available data indicates that the Oak Glen Preserve falls under Condition Classes 2 and 3. The property leased by Los Rios Ranch falls mostly under Condition Classes 2 and 3, with a small patch of Condition Class 1 in its northeastern corner.

5.5.2.2: FIRE HISTORY

There have been 75 recorded fires within the study area between the years of 1908 and 2013. One of the most significant and recent fires was the “Oak Glen III” fire of 2009, also known as the Pisgah Peak fire, which was started by arson and burned 1159 acres south of Oak Glen and Potato Canyon. Mandatory evacuations were instituted, though four people were injured. $6.9 million was sustained in damage. One day after the Oak Glen III fire was started, the Pendleton fire was also started by arson and burned 860 acres southwest of Oak Glen, causing one injury and $1.49 million in damage (CAL FIRE).

Bearpaw has not experienced a fire in over a century. The accumulation of dry fuel from the lack of fire history could potentially lead to a catastrophic event should a fire occur.   

5.5.3: FIRE THREAT TO HOMES AND BUILDINGS

Most homes are lost in wildfires for one of three reasons:1) Burning embers (burning needles, leaves, branches & cones that come with the ember blizzard during a wildfire) landing on combustible roofs, entering attics and crawl spaces, or landing on combustible material adjacent to the structure. Burning embers are responsible for most of California’s home losses.2) Radiated heat from burning vegetation, structures, or materials on the property that cause ignition of the structure’s siding or breaking of the windows and ignition to the interior.3) Combustible fuels (e.g. grass, pine needles, woodpiles, furniture, and mats) immediately adjacent to the structure allowing fire spread to burn, igniting siding or decks.

Defensible space is also a key factor in structural loss, as it can affect firefighters’ safety

and thus their decision on whether or not to commit resources to protect a structure (Plumas County Fire Safe Council, 3).

Extensive wildland fire research conducted  by US Forest Service Researcher Jack Cohen and others indicates that the characteristics of a home and its immediate surroundings determine a home’s ignition potential during wildland fires. Roofing material and the presence of defensible space plays a key role in determining whether or not a structure will survive the passing of a wildfire. Analysis of factors related to home survival in previous fires indicates that home ignition depends on the characteristics of a home and its immediate surroundings. Structures with non-flammable roofs and a vegetation clearance of 30-60 feet from the base of the structure have the highest rate of survival. The abundance of pine needles, dead leaves, cured vegetation, and flammable shrubs adjacent to, touching, or covering structures are principal contributors to structural losses. In some cases, a scratch line that removes pine needles from the base of a wood wall is enough to keep a structure from igniting (Cohen).

5.5.3.1: Wildland Fire Behavior Factors, Influences, and Elements Affecting Property and Resource Damage

In order to have an open environment fire, the elements of heat, fuel, and oxygen are necessary. By removing any one of these elements, the fire goes out. These three are referred to as the fire triangle. Factors that influence wildland fire behavior are: topography, weather, and fuel. These factors are referred to as the fire behavior triangle. Interaction of these three factors affects how fast a fire spreads, how intensely it burns, and, consequently, how much effort it takes to control it and how much damage it creates.

1. Topography is the shape of the land and the most static, obvious, and predictable, though not easily changed. Topographic features that affect wildland fire are slope, aspect, elevation and terrain features such as canyons, drainages, and ridges.

2. Weather is a somewhat predictable natural force but is not easily modified. Consequently, wildland fire managers make their strategic and tactical suppression decisions based on what the weather presents them. There are a number of weather factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, cloud cover, and wind which affect fire behavior. Wind has the largest influence.

3.  Fuel includes grasses, needles, bushes, trees, and dead limbs or trees (slash) on the ground. Other factors include the amount or volume, particle size, moisture content, species, type, arrangement both horizontal and vertical, and whether it is living or dead vegetation. Fuel is the common denominator between the fire and fire behavior triangles. It is the only element humans can manage. Unfortunately, the fuel in and around our communities and outlying developments continues to build up and increase.

Wildfire spreads in three ways: horizontally (across the surface), vertically (into the tree canopy), and by spotting.

Horizontal fire spread is across the forest floor. The more fuel available to burn on the ground increases the intensity at which a fire will burn. Hazardous fuel reduction efforts usually focus on removing fuel and lowering the height so intensities are reduced. The rate of fire spread across the surface can be measured or modeled in feet per minute.

Vertical spread of a fire is into the crowns of the trees, usually through a laddering process. Where ground fuels and aerial fuels are intermixed without separation, they are referred to as ladder fuels. The elevation of a fire occurs when a surface fire is sufficiently intense enough, and where brush and small trees grow into the branches of larger trees, that it creates excellent conditions for crown fires to become established. Crown fires are more likely when there are sufficient surface fuels to generate enough intensity to ignite ladder fuels and/or lower branches of over story trees. Crown fires then become excellent generators of embers for spotting.

Separating ladder and canopy fuels will lessen the ability of a fire to get into trees and spread among the tree crowns that cause torching, crowning, or scorch mortality. Wildland fire managers, in assessing potential for crown fires, consider the “crown to base height” a critical factor. “Crown to base height” is an estimation of how many feet of separation exist between the surface fuels and the base of the live tree crown.

In forested stands it is desirable to have a crown to base height of at least 15-20 feet (where the size of the tree allows), depending on the type and amount of surface fuels. Hazardous fuel reduction efforts to reduce vertical spread of a fire and ember generation usually focus on removing smaller trees and brush, plus increasing tree spacing and pruning branches of the trees to be left. Additionally, forests with more open canopies or space between larger trees reduce scorching and increase their chance of survival following a wildfire.

Spotting is when firebrands or embers are produced when brush and trees burn rapidly, lofting burning particles such a needles, leaves, bark, cones, and small branches into the convention column. Burning embers are transported by the wind and start new fires in receptive fuel beds, including forests and homes in front of the main fire. Spotting up to ¼ mile is common and may occur for a number of miles under extreme burning conditions or wind conditions. Spotting can have a dramatic effect on suppression effectiveness and fire size, as new fires can start well in advance of the main fire and across firelines being constructed. Spotting is one reason many homes perish before the main fire actually arrives.

Like in a fireplace, adding more fuel increases the intensity. In wildland fire the intensity measurement scale is referred to as “Flame Length”. Flame length correlations are used in planning for suppression resource capability and can be related to firebrand production or spotting. Flame lengths are also used to project expected post-fire effects, including timber stand mortality. Wildland

fire managers consider four-foot flame lengths the upper end of the scale for fire suppression success by hand crews. Flame lengths above four feet are expected to require heavy equipment and/or air support. Flame lengths above eight feet are expected to require substantial suppression efforts with fire behavior that includes torching, crowning, and spotting. Additionally, fuel profiles that generate flame lengths greater than eight feet usually create the more severe post-fire effects. Trees often die from scorching, even if the needles do not catch fire. (Plumas County Fire Safe Council, 4-6).

5.5.4: Priorities for Resource Commitment

In wildland fire suppression resources are allocated on a priority basis. In order of priority they are usually:

1) public and firefighter safety;2) protection of developed resources such as homes;3) protection of land features such as watersheds, trees, views and habitats.

Society generally accepts these priorities; however, some argue that without the aesthetic value, especially in rural areas, the value of the developed property is diminished. This hierarchy of resource commitment obligates sometimes-limited suppression resources to protect structures rather than stopping a fire’s growth. In the aftermath, communities are often left with standing homes and blackened forests.

However, there are numerous examples where homes and forests have survived the intrusion of a wildfire when proper construction methods, defensible space, and sound vegetation management practices were employed prior to the fire (Plumas County Fire Safe Council, 9).

In the case of the Oak Glen and Bearpaw Preserves, protection of land features has a heightened importance because conservation is paramount in The Wildlands Conservancy’s mission. Fire management measures may need to be modified from standard protocol in order to accommodate this element of the properties. The fire management recommendations suggested in this document have been adjusted to account for the heightened importance of land features, unless otherwise noted.

5.5.4.1: Fuel Modification Zones:

Zone 1: Zone 1 is the area of maximum modification and treatment. It consists of a distance of a minimum of 4.6 meters (15 feet) around the structure in which all flammable native vegetation is removed. These 15 feet are measured from the outside edge of the building or structure’s eaves and any attached structures, such as decks.

The objective is to provide the best protection against the high radiant heat produced by a wildfire. It also provides a generally open area in which the fire suppression forces can operate during wildfire events. Where possible, this zone is a level or level graded area around the structure. Vegetation in

this zone is limited to ground covers, green lawns, and a small number or ornamental plants and trees selected from species that are appropriate for the climate zone Specific Requirements for this zone include:1.     Complete removal of fire prone, undesirable species is required.

2.     Vegetation and combustible materials not permitted within 12 inches of structures in order to

keep fire away from exterior walls and any weep screeds. Chipped biomass, bark, wood chips and

other combustible mulch should be kept at least 30 feet from structures.

3.     Plants shall be low growing and well irrigated. Plants shall be ignition resistant and be single

specimens or a grouping not exceeding three plants. Mature heights of plants shall not exceed 12

inches in the first 30 feet of the structure, and 18 inches elsewhere in Zone 1. Spacing between

mature canopies of plants and between mature canopies of shrubs should be 2 X height for slopes 0-

20%. Plants shall not be located under vents or windows or within 5 feet to either side of a window.

No plants or shrubs are allowed under trees. Understory is limited to approved groundcover,

approximately 4 inches high, or dirt. Trees shall be single specimens or groupings of not more than

three trees selected from the approved tree list.

4 Trees are to be planted such that the mature canopies will be at least 10 feet from the exterior walls

and roof of the structure or from the most distal point of a combustible projection, an attached

accessory structure, or an accessory.

5. Trees shall be spaced 20 feet between mature canopies .

6 Spacing between shrubs and trees to be 15 feet. Keep shrubs out from under drip line of trees.

7 Trees shall be maintained such that the branches and limbs closest to the ground are pruned to a

height from ground that is equal to 1/3 the overall height of the tree or six feet from adjacent ground,

whichever is less.

8 Continual maintenance including ongoing removal of undesirable combustible vegetation, removal

of dry grass, dead woody material and dead and dry leaves from the plants, replacement of dead or

dying plantings, functional tests of the irrigation system, and regular trimming and pruning to reduce

fuel loads and to inhibit he creation of a vertical continuity (fuel ladder) are required in this zone.

9. No acacia, eucalyptus, palm, juniper, cypress, conifer, cedar, pepper, olive, camphor, bottlebrush

pampas grass, chaparral, sage, sagebrush, salvia spp, chamise, coyote bush, California buckwheat or

Manzanita. No other vegetation from the Prohibited Plant list in this plan should be planted or

remain.

Zone 2: Zone 2 is an area of fuel reduction. It is a transitional area between Zones 1 and 3. The size

of Zone 2 can extend up to 30 meters (100 feet) from the edge of the building; however, in the case

of Bearpaw lodge, due to the high importance of conservation in the reserve and the importance of

dead trees as habitat to flying squirrels, we recommend that Zone 2 extend to 15.4 meters (50 feet)

beyond the edge of the lodge, to be even with the recommended defensible zone. Requirements for

this zone include:

1. Plants or shrubs to be 24 inches or less in height.

2. Tree spacing and limbing to be same as for Zone 1.

3. Spacing of shrubs to be same as for Zone 1.

4. Same prohibited plants and trees as for Zone 1

5. Trees with plants or other understory underneath shall be limbed up at least 6 feet between

understory and lowest tree limbs. Understory shall not exceed 18 inches.

6. Same spacing between shrubs and trees as for Zone 1.

7. Thin any native vegetation to a point where a 50% open space is created.

8. Create and Maintain 50% open space.

9. Removal of all dead, woody debris, dry grass, weeds. Lawns properly maintained.

These actions help eliminate the continuous fuel surrounding a structure.

Zone 3: Zone 3 consists mostly of native plants. Zone 2 can extend up to 61 meters (200 feet) from

the edge of the structure; however, in the case of Bearpaw lodge, due to the high importance of

conservation in the reserve and the importance of dead trees as habitat to flying squirrels, we

recommend that Zone 3 extend to 45 meters (150 feet) from the edge of the lodge.

1. Remove all dead fuel from vegetation, and limb up mature trees 1/3 height or 6 feet whichever is

less from adjacent ground.

2. Limit understory to approved ground covers, maximum approximately 4 inches high, or dirt. If this

is not possible, then provide minimum 6-foot height between understory and lowest tree limb. More

limbing may be needed on portions of a tree on a slope in order to provide needed limbing height

from any vegetation on ground.

3. Any plants or shrubs to be 36 inches high or less. Spacing between mature canopies of plants and

between mature canopies of shrubs should be 2 X height for slopes 0-20%. Any existing Coastal Live

Oak and Sycamore Trees (subject to approval of Landscape Architect for the winds and weather in

this area) can remain if spaced 40 feet between mature canopies and properly limbed up per this plan.

Break up mature tree canopies in order to create adequate separation between mature tree canopies.

Any trees or landscaping shall be properly irrigated where necessary.

4. Same spacing between shrubs and trees as for Zone 1

5. Spacing between mature tree canopies to be 20 feet.

7. A certain amount of naturally occurring vegetation in Zone 3 is needed to help maintain erosion

control, soil stability, but must be thinned, modified, kept to a low height, well-spaced, and

maintained. Leave enough vegetation for erosion control and soil stability.

8. Remove all thinned, pruned, and dead debris from property.

Fuel Modification Zones Using Drone Imagery:

5.5.4.1.1: Undesirable Plants

All plants will burn in extreme fire weather conditions such as a drought, or several days of hot dry weather and winds. However plants burn at different intensities and rates of consumption. Fire resistant plants burn at a relatively low intensity with slower rates of spread and shorter flame lengths. The following are characteristics of ignition resistive vegetation:

•   Growth with little or no accumulation of dead vegetation (either on ground or standing upright).•  Non- resinous plants (no resin or oil content).•  Low volume of total vegetation (for example, grass as opposed to a forest or shrub covered land).•  Plants with high live fuel moisture (plants that contain a large amount of water in comparison to their dry weight).•  Vegetation with high leaf moisture.•  Low dead- to live-fuel ratio.•  Drought tolerant plants (deeply rooted plants with thick heavy leaves).•  Stands without ladder fuels (plants with small fine branches and limbs between the ground and the canopy of overtopping shrubs and trees).•  Plants requiring little maintenance (slow growing plants which, when maintained, require little care).•  Plants with woody stems and branches that require prolonged heating to ignite.Certain vegetation is considered to be undesirable in the landscape due to characteristics that make them highly flammable, and should be prohibited. These characteristics can be physical or chemical.Physical properties that contribute to high flammability include large amounts of dead material retained within the vegetation, rough or peeling bark, and the production of large amounts of litter.

Chemical properties include presence of oils, resins, wax, and pitch. Any such existing vegetation should be removed and new ones should not be introduced.

5.5.4.1.2: Planting, Spacing, and Maintenance guidelines:

1. Make all measurements on the horizontal straight out from structures (plan view) rather than down

the slope.

2. Maintenance includes irrigation and annual & ongoing removal of weeds, dead materials, and

other undesirable flammable vegetation required to keep the area fire safe.

3. As new plantings mature, they must be thinned to maintain the recommended spacing and heights.

4. The terms “fire wise”, “fire resistant” or “fire retardant” are misleading. All vegetation and plants

will burn if exposed to enough heat. Because something is considered fire retardant or fire resistant

does not mean that unlimited quantities can be planted or that they will somehow slow down a fire.

The following plants are drought resistant and have low flammability if properly maintained with a

high live to dead fuel ratio (kept free of dead material) as they have a resin (either extractive) oil

content less than 7%. They are Ceanothus, Toyon, Oak, Laurel Sumac, Salt Bush and Mountain

Mahogany. However, these materials must be properly maintained and located.

5. Limit or eliminate use of plants, which are known to be flammable.

6. Limit use of plants, which develop large amounts of foliage, branches, or dead material.

7. Limit use of plants, which develop deciduous or shaggy bark.

8. Limit use of plants, which develop dry or dead undergrowth.

9. Recommended limits and spacing of trees in Fuel Modification zones are defined in the Fuel

Modification Zone section of this plan.

10. Tree canopies shall not reach to within 10 feet of chimneys or structures.

11. Limb up mature trees 1/3 height or 6 feet, whichever is less, from adjacent ground. Limit

understory to approved ground covers, approximately 4 inches maximum height, or just dirt. If this is

not possible, then limbing will need to be to a greater height (at least 6 feet). More limbing may be

needed for a tree on a slope in order to provide the needed distance from vegetation on the ground.

Street trees shall have no canopy overhanging roads.

12. Plants and shrubs to be ignition (fire) resistive, limited in height, and spaced as specified in this

plan for the Fuel Modification Zones. Spacing between mature canopies of plants and between

mature canopies of shrubs should be 2 X height for slopes 0-20%, 4 X height for slopes 21-40%, and

6 X height for slopes over 40%.

13. Provide 20 feet between large shrubs (over 3 feet high) and trees. Shrubs shall be spaced to create

a firebreak between groupings.

14. Eliminate potential for vegetation on ground (ground fuels) to spread fire into trees (aerial fuels).

This is known as eliminating the “fire laddering effect”.

15. Configure plantings so that they are spaced and maintained so as not to create a direct path from

native growth to a structure.  

16. All plant species must be limited to those approved by the Fire Department and City for this area.

No vegetation which is listed in the Prohibited Plant list in this plan should be planted or remain in

any Fuel Modification Zones.

17. Prohibit massing of vegetation adjacent to structures, especially under eaves, overhangs,

windows, vents, decks, within 10 feet of chimneys, etc.

18. Vegetation Management requirements and the provisions for continuous maintenance by the

individual lot owners for single family homes, must be documented on landscape plans, private lot

CC&R’s, and deed encumbrances. It must be made absolutely clear to private lot owners that they

have a legal responsibility to maintain a fire safe defensible space on all sides of the structures in

compliance with this plan and the Fire Department requirements.

19. Maintenance is also required after any storms or high winds to remove down and dead vegetation

and combustible debris from properties and zones.

20. If new planting is desired in areas of retained native vegetation, then an irrigation system shall be

designed to sustain new plantings as needed. Irrigation for the new plantings of native species is

intended to be temporary. Do not plant more non-ignition resistive vegetation. Caution should be

used so as to not over irrigate natives and thereby increase the dead to live fuel ratio; negating the

high leaf moisture.

21. Irrigation should be directed away from any old, established native oaks and be placed outside of

the drip line.

22. Caution must be used so as to not cause erosion or ground (including slope) instability, or

excessive water runoff, due to planting, landscaping, vegetation removal, vegetation management,

maintenance, or irrigation.

23. Permission must be obtained in advance from resource agencies, and any other applicable

agencies, before doing vegetation management in riparian areas, or other sensitive areas or habitats.

24. If irrigation is prohibited or curtailed, plants and trees requiring irrigation will need to be replaced

with fire resistant, drought tolerant vegetation including ground cover (for erosion control and slope

stability) or shall comply with other alternatives approved by, or required by, the Fire Marshal.

25. Permission to do any Fuel Modification offsite of this development requires written permission of

those landowners, and an easement, prior to doing any work.

26. Proper fire safety precautions must be taken to prevent ignition of vegetation during fuel

modification activities.

5.5.5: Fire Station Locations And Emergency Response

San Bernardino county fire station 9940847 Valley Of The Falls Dr Forest Falls CA 92339(909) 794-4413Distance: 2.9 miles from Bearpaw lodge

CA Department of Forestry and Fire Protection Yucaipa Station 551(909) 797-100011416 Bryant Street,Yucaipa, CA 92399Distance: 8.7 miles

San Bernardino County Fire Department Station 555(909) 797-875511877 Oak Glen Rd.,Yucaipa, CA 92399Distance: 15.3 miles

Oak Glen Conservation Camp and Communications Center(909)797-541841100 Pine Bench Road, Yucaipa, CA 92399Distance: 17.3 miles

6.0 References

Fire Safety:

CAL FIRE. (2009, Sept 8). Oak Glen 3 Fire Incident Information. Retrieved from    http://cdfdata.fire.ca.gov/incidents/incidents_details_info?incident_id=381

   

Cohen, Jack. (2000). Examination of the Home Destruction in Los Alamos Associated with the Cerro Grande Fire. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana

Greenspot/Harmony Draft Fire Protection Plan. (2011). City of Highland, CA.

National Interagency Fire Center (2003). Appendix 2 of Communicator’s Guide. Retrieved from    https://www.nifc.gov/prevEdu/comm_guide/appendix/2BACKGROUND_FrccDefinitionsFinal.pdf.

Plumas County Fire Safe Council. (2013). Plumas County Communities Wildfire Protection    Plan.Quincy: Plumas County Fire Safe Council.

Safford, Hugh D. and Kip M. Van de Water. (2014, January). Using Fire Return Interval