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Page 1: Web viewSTRESS - we all have it, we all feel, but just how important is it? How much does stress influence our daily lives? How much does stress influence our lives long-term?

STRESS - we all have it, we all feel, but just how important is it?

How much does stress influence our daily lives? How much does stress influence our lives long-term? Can stress Kill us? Is it all bad?

In this section, we will explore stress - what it is, how it progresses, and the type of damage it can cause.

I. BACKGROUND

In 1925 a second year medical student named Hans Selye observed that people suffering from a wide variety of somatic (physical) disorders all seemed to have the same or similar symptoms. For example, many of these people reported:

decreased appetite, decreased muscular strength and endurance, and lowered levels of ambition or drive.

Selye, unable to find a common disease or disorder to explain these behaviors, called this group of symptoms, the SYNDROME OF JUST BEING SICK.

In addition, he found that these symptoms occurred whenever: the human organism needed to adapt to a changing internal or external environment.

This was the first observation and identification that eventually led to the term STRESS. At first, Selye defined STRESS as, a nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it. Even this initial definition implies that not all stress is a result of "bad" things happening to us.

Later, his JUST BEING SICK syndrome evolved into the GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS) which he defined as, the physiological processes and results of stress.

From this, we get a modern, more comprehensive definition of STRESS: a psychological and physical response of the body that occurs whenever we must adapt to changing conditions, whether those conditions be real or perceived.

A. Selye researched the effects of stress.1. Alarm is the first stage. When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body's

stress response is a state of alarm. During this stage, adrenaline will be produced in order to bring about the fight-or-flight response. There is also some activation of the HPA axis, producing cortisol.

2. Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.

3. Exhaustion is the third and final stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the body's resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The

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initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear (sweating, raised heart rate, etc.). If stage three is extended, long-term damage may result, as the body's immune system becomes exhausted, and bodily functions become impaired, resulting in decompensation.

B. The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses such as ulcers, depression, diabetes, trouble with the digestive system, or even cardiovascular problems, along with other mental illnesses.

C. Selye: eustress and distress1. Selye published in 1975 a model dividing stress into eustress and distress. Where stress

enhances function (physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work), it may be considered eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior.

2. The difference between experiences that result in eustress and those that result in distress is determined by the disparity between an experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations, and resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, either real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.

D. Lazarus: cognitive appraisal model1. Lazarus argued that, in order for a psychosocial situation to be stressful, it must be

appraised as such. He argued that cognitive processes of appraisal are central in determining whether a situation is potentially threatening, constitutes a harm/loss or a challenge, or is benign.

2. Both personal and environmental factors influence this primary appraisal, which then triggers the selection of coping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed at managing the problem, whereas emotion-focused coping processes are directed at managing the negative emotions. Secondary appraisal refers to the evaluation of the resources available to cope with the problem, and may alter the primary appraisal.

3. In other words, primary appraisal includes the perception of how stressful the problem is and the seconday appraisal of estimating whether one has more than or less than adequate resources to deal with the problem that affects the overall appraisal of stressfulness. Further, coping is flexible in that, in general, the individual examines the effectiveness of the coping on the situation; if it is not having the desired effect, s/he will, in general, try different strategies.

III. STRESS AND ILLNESS

Stress has powerful effects on mental functioning, mental and physical performance, interpersonal encounters, and physical well-being.

In the Principles of Internal Medicine (Harrison) it was reported that 50-80% of all physical disorders have psychosomatic or stress related origins.

A. Psychosomatic Illness

Many people assume erroneously that a psychosomatic illness is a fake illness or something that someone is simply imagining. That is NOT true.Definition - a Psychosomatic Illness is a condition in which the state of mind (psyche) either causes or mediates a condition of actual, measurable damage in the body (soma).

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Examples include : ulcers, asthma, migraine headaches, arthritis, and even cancer.

We discussed the differences between distress & eustress, but there is an additional "type" of stress called PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS (it is not a category like distress...) that can be defined as mental upset that triggers a physiological stress response. Thus, it is stress that leads to psychosomatic illness.

In our culture, psychophysiological stress is the most common type of stress AND is the major factor in the onset of psychosomatic illness.

Since we have been discussing the fact that stress can lead to illness via the psychosomatic model, we now need to discuss what this model is and what steps are involved.

B. The Psychosomatic Model

The idea behind creating and understanding a model of stress related illness is that by knowing the steps that lead to illness, we can intervene at any of these steps to break the cycle and thwart the onset of illness. The model works like a stage theory - you must progress from one stage (or step) to the next in the proper order for the model to work. The steps in the Model are:

1) Sensory Stimulus - is also referred to as the STRESSOR, which can be any mental or physical demand put upon our body our mind. This can be anything from a loud noise to an exam or work load to physical activity or the in-laws coming into town.

For example, if you are stuck in a traffic jam, what is the stress and what is the stressor?

Stressor = traffic jam

Stress = mental and physical response to the stressor

2) Perception - the active process of bringing an external stimulus to the CNS (especially the brain) for interpretation.

A stressor is often an external event...but for a stressor to affect a human it must get into the mind-body system. It is through perception that this occurs.

3) Cognitive Appraisal - process of analyzing and processing information as well as categorizing and organizing it. Recall the section on memory - at the cognitive appraisal level we put labels on things - good, bad, dangerous, pleasant, etc.

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Thus, for most situations, it is the LABEL that we give to the information that determines whether it will be deemed stressful and trigger a physiological response.

In addition, appraisal is influenced by personal history, personal beliefs, morals, etc.

*** I will claim that it is this labeling processes that is the key component. We all make personal appraisals of situations and it is these labels that determine our stress level and stress response. For example, my father becomes outraged while sitting in traffic while I have no problem with it. He labels traffic as a very bad and, in his words "infuriating". I think traffic is simply a part of driving in a city...I can't do anything about it, so why label it as a "bad" thing?

4) Emotional Arousal - If we classify/label something as stressful, it then produces a bodily/physiological response. Remember, anytime a subjective experience of emotion occurs, it is followed by a change in autonomic physiology. So, at this stage, we simply experience an emotion...nothing else at this point, just the production (or beginning) of an emotion.

So, any emotion we experience, be it joy, fear, excitement, anger, etc., will elicit a stress response in the body.

At a physiological level, we can not differentiate between positive and negative emotions.

5) Mind-Body Connection - here the emotional arousal is changed into a bodily change so that you may adapt to the situation and respond appropriately. Now, the emotional arousal BEGINS TO BE CONVERTED into that bodily response or change we have addressed.

This change will/can occur at two levels:

a) nervous system - sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. Short-term changes occur and work on an electrical level.

For example: you are afraid and your bodily response is to tremble.

b) endocrine system - produces slower, longer lasting responses using chemicals, hormones, and glands.

*emotional arousal stimulates the hypothalamus which sends messages through the sympathetic nervous system to the appropriate organ.

*in addition the pituitary gland is stimulated and results in hormone production

6) Physical Arousal - Once the mind-body connection has been made and the bodily changes occur, these changes are called physical arousal.

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7) Physical Effects - Now the internal organs begin to be affected by the physical arousal. For example, increased heart rate, blood pressure, dilation of the pupils, etc., Sound familiar??? Like the Fight-or-flight response.

8) Disease - If the physical effects continue for a sustained period of time (this varies) the imbalance of functioning can result in disease. One or more organ can become exhausted and work inefficiently or not at all.

At this point, we would say that the person has a psychosomatic disease. But, we give them a specific name: PSYCHOGENIC DISEASE - physical disease that have a change in mental state as the major cause. Other diseases which may be influenced by stress/the mind, but do not have them as the MAJOR CAUSE are not psychogenic (e.g., cancer, diabetes, etc.).

*this model is an EXACERBATION CYCLE - arousal, tension, and disease can breed further stress responses and thus become even more intense. For example, how would you respond if a doctor told you today that you have cancer?

IV. MAJOR TYPES/SOURCES OF STRESS

Although we know that almost anything can be a source of stress, we have 4 major classifications or types of stress:

A) FRUSTRATION - stress due to any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted. Frustration is usually short-lived, but some frustrations can be source of major stress:

1) failures - we all fail. But, if we set unrealistic goals, or place too much emphasis on obtaining certain successes, failure can be devastating.

2) Losses - deprivation of something that you once had and considered a "part" of your life. Can result in tremendous stress.

B) CONFLICT - two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression. When faced with multiple motivations or goals, you must chose and this is where the problems/conflict arise.

Studies have indicated that the more conflict a person experiences, the greater the likelihood for anxiety, depression, and physical symptoms. There are 3 major types of conflicts:

1) Approach-Approach: a choice must be made between two attractive goals. You may want both, but can only have one. For example, "Since I don't have to work today, should I play basketball or golf? Do I go out for pizza or Chinese food?" Mmmmm...pizza!

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This type of conflict is the least demanding and least damaging. You rarely collapse at a restaurant because you can't decide between the lobster and the steak.

2) Avoidance-Avoidance: a choice must be made between two unattractive goals. "Caught between a rock and a hard place."

These conflicts are usually very unpleasant and highly stressful.

3) Approach-Avoidance: choice must be made to pursue a single goal that has both positive and negative aspects. For example, asking someone on a date.

This type of conflict often produces VACILLATION: going and back and forth in decision making.

Studies have shown that even animals vacillate.

Miller (1959) concluded, "in trying to resolve an approach-avoidance conflict, one should focus more on decreasing avoidance motivation than on increasing approach motivation."

So, if you have a friend who is vacillating over whether to ask someone on a date, you should downplay the negative aspects of possible rejection rather than dwelling on how much fun the date could be if only...

C) CHANGE - life changes are noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require adjustment.

1) Holmes & Rahe (1967) - developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure life changes. They found that, after interviewing thousands of people, while BIG changes like death of a loved one are very stressful, small life changes have tremendous effects.

Studies using the SRRS have indicated that people with higher scores tend to be more vulnerable to many different physical and psychological illnesses.

Further studies have found that the scale measures a wide range of experiences that may result in stress as opposed to just measuring "life-changes".

D) Pressure - expectations or demands that one must behave in a certain way. For example, I am under pressure to perform in very specific ways when I am in front of a class as the "teacher".

Surprisingly, pressure has only recently been examined in terms of psychological and physical effects due to stress. Studies have found the Pressure inventory (created in the 80's) is more highly correlated with psychological problems than the SRRS.

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V. STRESS & PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING

A) IMPAIRED TASK PERFORMANCE - Baumeister (1984) found that stress interferes with attention and therefore, performance.

1) increased stress = increased distractibility

2) increased stress = over thinking on tasks that should be "automatic".

For example: a free throw at "crunch time"

B) BURNOUT - physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion due to work-related stress.

Cause is not sudden, but prolonged exposure to stress. Increases the more "jobs/tasks" placed upon you. For example, having multiple roles such as parent, student, spouse, etc.

C) POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER - disturbed behavior that is attributed to a major stressful event, but emerges after the event has ended (often years later).

Very common in the 70's - Vietnam war veterans had symptom usually 9-60 months later.

Occurs in general population as well:

1) most common - rape

2) seeing someone die or severely injured

3) close brush with death

Symptoms include - nightmares, sleep disturbances, jumpiness, etc.

D) Psychological Problems/Disorders - usually the result of prolonged stress:

insomnia, nightmares, poor academic performance, sexual dysfunctions, anxiety, schizophrenia, depression, eating disorders, and lots more.

What can you do about it???

There are many techniques to reduce stress and the progression through the Psychosomatic Model. For example, there are relaxation techniques such as Meditation, Progressive Neuromuscular Relaxation, exercise, biofeedback, and Selective Awareness, just to name a few.

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Terms Definitions

Health Psychology The study of the ways in which behavioral principles can be used to prevent illness and promote health

Stressors specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being

Stress the physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors

Chronic stressors sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly

Fight-or-flight response emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action

General Adaptation Syndrome three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the (GAS) stressor that is encountered

Lymphocytes cells that produce antibodies that fight infection

Lifestyle Disease A disease related to health-damaging personal habits

Disease-Prone Personality A personality type associated with poor health; marked by persistent anxiety, depression and hostility

Refusal Skills Training A program that teaches youths how to resist pressures to begin smoking and other drugs

Life Skills Training A program that teaches stress reduction, self-protection, decision-making, self-control and social skills

Wellness A positive state of good heath; more than just the absence of disease

Stress Reaction The physical response to stress, consisting mainly of bodily changes related to automatic nervous system arousal

Burnout A job-related condition of mental, physical, and emotional exhaustion

Pressure A stressful condition that occurs when a person must meet urgent external demands or expectations

Threat An event or situation perceived as potentially harmful

Frustration A negative emotional state that occurs when one is prevented from reaching a goal

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Scapegoating Blaming a person or a group of people for conditions not of their making

Escape Reducing discomfort by leaving frustrating situations or by psychologically withdrawing from them

Anxiety Apprehension, dread or uneasiness similar to fear but based on an unclear threat

Defense Mechanism A habitual and often unconscious psychological process used to reduce anxiety

Learned Helplessness A learned inability to overcome obstacles or to avoid punishment; learned passivity and inaction to aversive stimuli

Social Readjustment Rating A scale that rates the impact of various life events on the likelihood of Scale (SRRS) illness

Life Changing Units (LCU's) Numerical Values assigned to each life event on the SRRS

Psychosomatic Disorders Illnesses in which psychological factors contribute to bodily damage or to damaging changes in bodily functioning

Type A Personality A personality type with an elevated risk of heart disease; characterized by time urgency, anger, and hostility

Type B Personality All personality types other than type "A;" a low-cardiac risk personality.

Immune System System that mobilizes bodily defenses (such as white blood cells) against invading microbes and other diseases

Psychoneuroimmunology Study of the links among behavior, stress, disease, and the immune system

Progressive Relaxation A method for producing deep relaxation of all parts of the body

Guided Imagery Intentional visualization of images that are calming, relaxing or beneficial in other ways

Stress Inoculation Use of positive coping statements to control fear and anxiety

Negative Self-Statements Self-critical thoughts that increase anxiety and lower performance

Coping Statements Reassuring, self-enhancing statements that are used to stop self-critical thinking

Meditation A mental exercise for producing relaxation or heightened awareness

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Mantra A flowing word or sound repeated silently during concentrative meditation

Biofeedback Information given to a person about his or her ongoing bodily activities; aids voluntary regulation of bodily states. (Aka making your

body do things that you didn't think were possible, like lowering your own heart- rate voluntarily)

Learned Helplessness When dogs were placed in a shuttle box and fastened with a harness, "Dog in the Box" Experiment they were given several painful shocks, to which they were helpless in

preventing. When harness was released, they didn't even try to escape, rather, they howled and whined but "resigned themselves to their fate."

Woman's Syndrome link with Two or more instances of abuse in relationships can make a woman Learned Helplessness "battered." She will stay in abusive relationships because she believes a

number of things (i.e. abuse is her fault, fear of her life, etc.) This can lead to Learned Helplessness because she will intentionally stay in an environment that is bad for her.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thought or images of (PTSD) the trauma, avoidance of things that call the traumatic event to mind

Burnout state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation

Repressive Coping avoid situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintain an artificially positive viewpoint

Rational Coping acing the stressors and working to overcome it Reframing finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat

Stress Inoculation Training helps people to cope with stressful situations by developing positive (SIT) ways to think about the situation Relaxation Therapy technique for

reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body

Relaxation Response condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure