Nationalism in Indo ChinaEarly HistoryIndo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Its early history shows many different groups of people living in this area under the shadow of the powerful empire of China. Even when an independent country was established in what is now northern and central Vietnam, its rulers continued to maintain the Chinese system of government as well as Chinese culture. Vietnam was also linked to the maritime silk route that brought in goods, people and ideas. Other networks of trade connected it to the hinterlands where non-Vietnamese people such as the Khmer Cambodians lived.The French DominationColonial Domination: French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had established a firm grip over the northern region. After the Franco-Chinese war the French assumed control of Tonkin and Anaam and, in 1887, French Indo-China was formed.Need of Colony for French:For many European powers, colonies were considered essential to supply natural resources and other essential goods. Moreover, the colonizers thought it was the mission of the ‘advanced’ European nations to civilize the backward people.For increasing cultivation, the French began to build canals to irrigate the land in the Mekong delta. This helped in increasing rice production. The area under rice cultivation went up from 274,000 hectares in 1873 to 1.1 million hectares in 1900 and 2.2 million in 1930. Vietnam exported two-thirds of its rice production and by 1931 had become the third largest exporter of rice in the world.After that, the French began to work on infrastructure projects. This was necessary for transportation of goods for trade and also for moving military garrisons in the entire region. Construction of a trans-Indo-China rail network began in this period and the final link with Yunnan in China was completed by 1910. The second line was built to link Vietnam to Siam (early name of Thailand).Should Colonies be Developed: Paul Bernard was an eminent French thinker. He believed in developing infrastructure in Vietnam so that people could become more prosperous. A prosperous public would mean a better market for the French business. He also advocated for land reforms so that farm output could be improved.The colonial economy in Vietnam was mainly based on rice cultivation and rubber plantation. Rail and port facilities were set up to service this sector. Little effort was made by the French to industrialise the economy.The Dilemma of Colonial Education: The French wanted to civilize the Vietnamese by imposing the ‘modern’ European culture on them. They also wanted to educate the local people so that a large workforce could be created for clerical jobs. They did not want to impart a better education as they were afraid that more education could lead to awakening among the local people which could prove dangerous for the colonial rulers. So, full access to French education was denied to the Vietnamese.Talking Modern: The elites in Vietnam were highly influenced by the Chinese culture. It was important for the French to counter this influence. They systematically tried to dismantle the traditional education system and established French schools for the Vietnamese. But replacing the Chinese language (which was used by the elites) was very difficult.Some French policymakers wanted the use of French as the medium of instruction. They wanted to build an Asiatic France which could be solidly tied to the European France.

Some other policymakers wanted Vietnamese to be taught in lower classes and French in the higher classes. There was a provision to award French citizenship to those who learnt French and acquired the French culture.There was a deliberate policy of failing the students in the final year of French classes. This was done to prevent the local from qualifying for the better-paid jobs. The school textbooks glorified the French and

justified colonial rule. The Vietnamese were shown as primitive and backward who were only capable of manual labour.Looking Modern: Looking modern; as per the French; meant aping the western culture. Short haircut was encouraged, while Vietnamese traditionally kept long hair.

Resistance in SchoolsTeachers and students did not blindly follow what was written in the curriculum. There could be open opposition as well as silent resistance. When the number of Vietnamese teachers increased in the lower classes, it was no longer possible to control what was being actually taught.The schools proved to be fertile ground for developing the feeling of nationalism among the Vietnamese. By the 1920s, students began to form political parties and to publish nationalist journals. The Party of Young Annan (political party) and Annanese Student (journal) are some examples.The imposition of French education and culture backfired as the Vietnamese intellectuals felt a threat on their own culture.Hygiene, Disease and Everyday Resistance: The city of Hanoi was built by using modern engineering and architecture. A beautiful city was built for the colonial masters. It had wide avenues and well laid out sewer system. The irony was that the sewer system; which was being touted as the symbol of hygiene became the perfect breeding ground for rats and led to the plague epidemic in Hanoi.The Rat Hunt: To stop the spread of plague, as rat hunt was started in 1902. Vietnamese workers were hired for the task and were paid for each rat being caught. People began to catch rats in thousands. The payment was done when a tail of a rat was shown as a proof that a rat had been killed. Many people began just clipping the tails and collecting the bounty. Many people even began to raise rat to earn more. This incident showed that at some juncture even the superior power of a colonial master fails and even the weak can assume a very strong bargaining position.Religion and Anti-colonialismThe religious beliefs in Vietnam were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices. Christianity was introduced by French missionaries. They were intolerant of easy going attitude of the Vietnamese. From the eighteenth century, many religious movements turned hostile to the Western presence. Scholars Revolt of 1969 was one of the early movements against the spread of Christianity.Huynh Phu So: Hoa Hao was another such movements. It began in 1939 and gained great popularity in the fertile Mekong delta area. It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French uprisings of the nineteenth century. The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So. He performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless expenditure had a wide appeal. He also opposed the sale of child brides, gambling and the use of alcohol and opium.The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh Phu So. They declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him in a mental asylum. But the doctor, who had to prove him mad, became his follower. Finally, he was exiled to Laos and many of his followers were sent to concentration camps.Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940): He was a nationalist who was educated in the Confucian tradition. He formed the Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903; with Prince Cuong De as the head. Phan Boi Chau met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao (1873-1929) in Yokohama in 1905. ‘The History of the Loss of Vietnam’ was the most influential book written by Phan. It was written under the strong influence and advice of Qichao. The book focuses mainly on two issues, viz. the loss of sovereignty and severing of ties with China. Phan became one of the leading figures of the anti-colonial movement in Vietnam.Phan Chu Trinh (1871-1926): He strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. He was hostile to the monarchy and opposed the idea of resisting French with the help of court. He was highly influenced by the democratic ideals of the west. He accepted the French ideals of liberty. He wanted the French to set up legal and educational institutions, and develop agriculture and industries.Influence of Japan and China

In the first decade of the twentieth century, many Vietnamese students went to Japan for getting modern education. The primary motive for going to Japan was to drive out the French from Vietnam, overthrow the puppet emperor and re-establish the Nguyen dynasty. They appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians.Japan had become a modern country and had successfully resisted the colonization by the west. Its victory over Russia in 1907 proved its military capabilities. After 1908, the Japanese Ministry of Interior clamped down on revolutionary activities of Vietnamese students. Many revolutionaries were deported and forced to seek exile in China and Thailand. Phan Boi Chau was also among them.Developments in China also inspired Vietnamese nationalists. In 1911, a popular movement under Sun Yat Sen had overthrown the long established monarchy and a Republic was set up. The Vietnamese students were inspired by this development. They formed the Association for the Restoration of Vietnam (Viet-Nam Quan Phuc Hoi). The objective of the anti-French independence movement was now to set up a democratic republic.The Communist Movement and Vietnamese NationalismThe Great Depression of the 1930s had a profound impact on Vietnam. There was a steep fall in the prices of rice and rubber. This led to a rise in rural debts and unemployment, and finally in rural uprisings. The provinces of Nghe An and Ha Tinh were the important hotspots of rural uprising. However, the uprising was dealt with severely by the French. Even planes and bombs were used to suppress the uprising.In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing nationalist groups to establish the Vietnamese Communist (Vietnam Cong San Dang) Party. It was later renamed as the Indo-Chinese Communist Party.Formation of Democratic Republic of Vietnam: In 1940 Japan occupied Vietnam, as part of its imperial drive to control Southeast Asia. So nationalists now had to fight against the Japanese as well as the French. The League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh), which came to be known as the Vietminh, fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured Hanoi in September 1945. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho Chi Minh became Chairman.Partition of VietnamThe French tried to regain control. They used the emperor Bao Dai as their puppet in this endeavour. The Vietminh were forced to retreat to the hills. After eight years of fighting, the Vietminh were able to defeat the French in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.A peace negotiation took place in Geneva after the French defeat. Vietnam was divided into two countries, viz. south and north Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the communists assumed power in the north. Bao Dai’s regime took control of the south.The Bao Dai regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem built a repressive and authoritarian government. The National Liberation Front (NLF) opposed the dictatorial rule of Dinh Diem. The NLF took help from Ho Chi Minh government and fought for the unification of the country.US OccupationThe Entry of the US into the WarThe US was apprehensive that establishment of a communist regime would spark a chain reaction which could lead to formation of similar regimes in the surrounding parts of the world. In order to stop the spread of communism, the US attacked Vietnam.The US occupation of Vietnam involved use of a high number of services personnel and also the use of latest warfare. In spite of advanced technology and good medical supplies, the US casualties were very high in Vietnam. Even the most powerful bombers of the time, the B52s were used in the battle. About 47,000 US soldiers died and 303, 000 were wounded. About 23,000 suffered 100% disability.The struggle of the Vietnamese people against the US showed that the inspiration of saving the motherland can turn even the weak into a great battle force. The US probably underestimated this factor.Effect on US: Most of the people in the US were highly critical of the US involvement in Vietnam. Many contemporary thinkers were of the opinion that the US should not have involved itself in a war was impossible to win.

Role of Media: The US media and films played a major role in both supporting as well as criticising the war. John Wayne’s Green Berets (1968) was a movie which supported US occupation of Vietnam. John Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now (1979) was the movie which criticized US occupation.Ho Chi Minh Trail: The Ho Chi Minh Trail was an immense network of footpaths and roads. It was used to transport men and materials from the north to the south. It had support bases and hospitals along the way. Most of the supplies were done by women and kids on their bicycles. Most of the trail was outside Vietnam in neighbouring Laos and Combodia; with branch lines extending into South Vietnam. The trail was regularly bombed by the US to disrupt supplies. But the Vietnamese rebuilt the trail very quickly. The Ho Chi Minh Trail tells the story of ingenuity and bravery of the Vietnamese people.Women as Rebels: Women in Vietnam traditionally enjoyed greater equality than in China, particularly among the lower classes. But they had only limited freedom to determine their future and played no role in public life. With the growth of nationalist movement, thinkers and writers began to project women as rebels against social norms. Many women took active part in the battle; apart from maintain the supply line through Ho Chi Minh Trail. Apart from being fighters, women also shared the responsibility of rebuilding the economy during peace time.End of US Occupation: A peace settlement was signed in Paris in January 1974. This ended conflict with the US but fighting between the Saigon regime and the NLF continued. The NLF occupied the presidential palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and unified Vietnam.Explain the following:Only one-third of the students in Vietnam would pass the school-leaving examinations.Answer: The French authorities deliberately failed the students in the final year of the French examination. They did not want the Vietnamese to qualify for the higher-paying jobs. Due to this, only one-third of the students in Vietnam could pass the school-leaving examinations.The French began building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta.Answer: For increasing cultivation, the French began to build canals to irrigate the land in the Mekong delta. This helped in increasing rice production. The area under rice cultivation went up from 274,000 hectares in 1873 to 1.1 million hectares in 1900 and 2.2 million in 1930. Vietnam exported two-thirds of its rice production and by 1931 had become the third largest exporter of rice in the world.The government made the Saigon Native Girls School take back the students it had expelled.Answer: When one of the girls protested against demeaning of Vietnamese culture, she was expelled by the School. This resulted in large scale protest against the school authorities. Faced with such protest, the government made the Saigon Native Girls School to take back the expelled student.Rats were most common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi.Answer: The well laid sewer system provided a perfect breeding ground and hiding place for the rats. They could also easily slip in the French homes through the sewer system. hence, rats were most common in the modern, newly built areas of Hanoi.Write an evaluation of the Vietnamese war against the US from the point ofA porter on the Ho Chi Minh trailAnswer: The Ho Chi Minh Trail was an immense network of footpaths and roads. It was used to transport men and materials from the north to the south. In spite of repeated bombings to destroy the trail, it was quickly repaired. It worked as invaluable lifeline for the Vietnamese during the US occupation of Vietnam.A woman soldierAnswer: Women took active part in the struggle against US occupation. On the one hand, women formed the main part of the supply system for the Vietnamese fighters. On the other, they were also at the battlefront fighting with the US forces.Answer the following question:Describe the ideas behind the Tonkin Free School. To what extent was it a typical example of colonial ideas in Vietnam?

Answer: Tonkin Free School was opened with the objective of imparting French education to the Vietnamese. This was done to prepare a large workforce which could be utilised for clerical jobs. Moreover, this was an attempt to impose the French culture on the Vietnamese.What was Phan Chu Trinh’s objective for Vietnam? How were his ideas different from those of Phan Boi Chau?Answer: Phan Chu Trinh strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. He was hostile to the monarchy and opposed the idea of resisting French with the help of court. He was highly influenced by the democratic ideals of the west. He accepted the French ideals of liberty. He wanted the French to set up legal and educational institutions, and develop agriculture and industries.With reference to what you have read in this chapter, discuss the influence of China on Vietnam’s culture and life.Answer: Vietnam had traditionally been influenced by the Chinese culture because it fell on the Silk Route. The religious belief in Vietnam was influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism and local traditions. It is important to mention that Confucianism came from China. Moreover, Chinese was the working language for the elite classes of Vietnam.What was the role of religious groups in the development of anti-colonial feeling in Vietnam?Answer: The religious beliefs in Vietnam were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices. Christianity was introduced by French missionaries. They were intolerant of easygoing attitude of the Vietnamese. From the eighteenth century, many religious movements turned hostile to the Western presence. Scholars Revolt of 1969 was one of the early movements against the spread of Christianity. Such revolts finally culminated in the rise of nationalism and anti-colonial feelings in Vietnam.Explain the causes of the US involvement in the war in Vietnam. What effect did this involvement have on life within the US itself?Answer: The US was apprehensive that establishment of a communist regime would spark a chain reaction which could lead to formation of similar regimes in the surrounding parts of the world. In order to stop the spread of communism, the US attacked Vietnam. Most of the people in the US were highly critical of the US involvement in Vietnam. Many contemporary thinkers were of the opinion that the US should not have involved itself in a war was impossible to win. A very high number of casualties for the US services personnel further turned the public mood against US occupation of Vietnam.What was the role of women in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam? Compare this with the role of women in the nationalist struggle in India.Answer: Women took active part in the anti-imperial struggle in Vietnam. On the other hand, women in India mainly restricted themselves to the supporting role. Congress took the services of women more for the symbolic value than for any substantial cause.

Nationalism in India

How did nationalism emerge in India?(Associated with Anti-colonial Movement)

1.      People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism.2.      The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied many different groups

together.3.      The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to forge these groups together within one movement.4.      In India, the growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonialmovement.

Effects of World War I in India

1.      First World War created a new economic and political situation. It led to a huge increase of taxes like customs duties and income tax introduced.

2.      Through the war years prices increased which led to extreme hardship for the common people.3.      Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread

anger.4.      From 1918 to 1921, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food. This was

accompanied by an influenza epidemic.5.      According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic.

What is Satyagraha?

1.      The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the struggle was against truth and injustice, without seeking angry, vengeance or aggression, a satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence.

Successful satyagraha movements from 1916 to1918

Mahatma Gandhi successfully organized three satyagraha movements in various places.

1.      In 1916 Mahatma Gandhi travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.

2.      Then in 1917, Mahatma Gandhi organised a satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat who were affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed.

3.      In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organize a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.The Rowlatt Act and Rowlatt Satyagraha

1.      Rowlatt Act (1919) gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities, and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

2.      Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April 1919.

3.      Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops closed down.

Causes for JallianwallaBagh massacre

1.      To repress Rowlatt Satyagraha local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.

2.      On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

3.      On 13 April a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. Being from outside the city, many villagers were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed.

4.      General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds.

5.      As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets in many north Indian towns. There were strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings. The government responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise people.Seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement.

Khilafat Committee and Khilafat Movement

1.       The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey and a harsh peace treaty was imposed on the Ottoman Emperor ( Khalifa) – the spiritual head of the Islamic world.

2.      To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.3.      Young Muslim leaders like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began a movement against the British in India

which is called Khilafat Movement.4.      Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims and Hindus under the umbrella of a unified

national movement.5.      At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced other leaders of the need to

start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.

Why did Gandhiji organize Non-cooperation?

1.      Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was established and survived in India with the cooperation of Indians.

2.      If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would come.How could (idea of )non-cooperation become a mass movement?(How was Non Cooperation movement unfolded in Stages?)

1.      Gandhi ji proposed that the movement should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded.2.      The movement should continue with boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils,

schools, and foreign goods.3.      Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

How did different social groups conceive of the idea of Non-Cooperation?

The Movement in the Towns   with middle-class participation

1.      The movement started with thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned.

2.      Lawyers gave up their legal practices and boycotted courts.3.      The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras.4.      Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops were picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.5.      In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.

Why did the movement in the cities gradually slowdown?Give reasons.

1.      Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. Common people began to wear foreign cloth.

2.      Similarly the boycott of British educational institutions posed a problem because there were no alternative Indian institutions. So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools.

3.      Lawyers and officers could not survive without income so they joined back work in government courts and offices.

Rebellion in the Countryside of Awadh

1.      In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rents, free labour and a variety of other taxes.

2.      The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places barbers and washer men refused to serve the landlords (nai– dhobi bandh)

3.      By October, 1920 the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the villages around the region.

4.      When the Non- Cooperation Movement began, the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.

5.       In many places local leaders told peasants that Gandhiji had declared that no taxes were to be paid and land was to be redistributed among the poor.

Rebellion in the forest of Andhra Pradesh1.      In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, the colonial government had closed large forest areas, preventing

people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuel wood and fruits.2.      This enraged the hill people. Not only were their livelihoods affected but they felt that their traditional rights

were being denied. When the government began forcing them to contribute beggar for road building, the hill people revolted.

3.      The person who came to lead them was Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed that he had a variety of special powers: he could make correct astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive even bullet shots.

4.      Raju was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement and Gandhiji. He persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking. But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.

5.      The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj. Raju was captured and executed in 1924, and over time became a folk hero.Plantation workers and Non Cooperation Movement

1.      Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens.2.      When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the

plantations and headed home (Bihar, Bengal and Orissa).3.      For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in

which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come.4.      They believed that Gandhi Raj has come and everyone would be given land in their own villages.5.      On the way to steamer and railway stations they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.

What were the   two factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s?

1.       The first was the effect of the worldwide economic depression. Agricultural pricesbegan to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930.

2.      As the demand for agricultural goods fell and exports declined, peasants found itdifficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue.

Simon Commission

1.      In 1928 a commission was appointed under Sir John Simon called Simon Commission.2.      It was appointed to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.3.      The problem was that the commission did not have a single Indian member. They were all British.4.      When the Simon Commission arrived in India it was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back Simon’.5.      All parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations.

Round Table Conferences

1.      Lord Irwin, the viceroy of India announced (1929) a vague offer of ‘dominion status’ for India in an unspecified future, and a Round Table Conference to discuss a future constitution.

2.      There were three Round Table Conferences held in London. Gandhiji attended the second Round Table Conference.

3.      Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

4.      When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhi ji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society.

5.      Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.

Lahore Congress Session-1929

1.      Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, became more assertive and brought radical ideas into the Congress.

2.      In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or complete independence for India.

3.      It was declared that if British government does not grant self-rule within a year, 26 January1930, will be celebrated as the Independence Day.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

1.      Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. Salt was the item consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one of the most essential items of food.

2.      The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production made Mahatma Gandhi to launch a civil disobedience campaign.

3.      Mahatma Gandhi started his famous salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers.4.      The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi.5.      On 6 April he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the salt law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea

water. This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

How was   Civil Disobedience Movement different from the Non-Cooperation Movement?

Civil Disobedience Movement Non-Cooperation MovementPeople were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British, but also to breakcolonial laws

People were asked to refuse cooperationwith the British,

Participation of women was more in Non Cooperation Movement

Participation of women was less in Non Cooperation Movement

Civil Disobedience Movement

1.      Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt law, manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of government salt factories.

2.       As the movement spread, foreign cloth was boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Peasants refused to pay revenue and taxes, village officials resigned.

3.      In many places forest people violated forest laws – going into Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle.

4.      When Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and police firing. Many were killed.

5.      When Mahatma Gandhi himself was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, law courts and railway stations –all structures that symbolised British rule.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact1.      Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement and entered into a pact with Irwin called Gandhi-Irwin Pact.2.      According to the pact Gandhiji agreed to participate in the 2ndRound Table Conference in London.3.      Lord Irwin agreed to release the political prisoners.

Poona Pact:

1.      Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.

2.      When the British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would slow down the process of their integration into society.

3.      Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result was the Poona Pact of September 1932.4.      According to Poona Pact Gandhiji promised to give reservations to dalits after independence.5.      According to Poona Pact B.R Ambedkar agreed to give away the separate electorate for Dalits.

How   did different social groups participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement?

1.      Rich peasant communities:–They were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices. As their cash income disappeared, they found it impossible to pay the government’s revenue demand. These rich peasants became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

2.      The poor peasants: –As the Depression continued and cash incomes dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to paytheir rent. They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted (removed).

3.      The business classes(Industrialists):They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports. To organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.

4.      The industrial workers: some workers did participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement, selectively adopting the Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreign goods, against low wages and poor working conditions.

5.      Women: During Gandhiji’s salt march, thousands of women came out of their homes to participate in protest marches, manufacture salt, and picket foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. In urban areas these women were from high-caste families; in rural areas they came from rich peasant households.

The Limits of Civil DisobedienceDalits

1.      For long the Congress had ignored the dalits. But Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated.

2.      He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan, or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools.

3.      He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (the sweepers), and persuaded upper castes to change their heart and give up ‘the sin of untouchability’.

4.      Dalit leaders began organising themselves into associations, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a separate electorate that would choose dalit members for legislative councils.

5.      Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement was therefore limited, particularly in the Maharashtra and Nagpur regionwhere their organisation was quite strong.Muslim Political Organisations:

1.      After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the Congress.

2.      From themid-1920s the Congress came to be more visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.

3.      As relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened, each community organised religious processions with militant fervour ,provoking Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots in various cities.

4.      The Congress and the Muslim League made efforts to re negotiatean alliance. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly.

5.      Negotiations over the question of representation continued but all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise. When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was large sections of Muslims could not respond to the call for a united struggle.How did people belonging to different communities, regions or language groups develop a sense of collective belonging?

1.      In the 20thcentury the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata and portrayed it as an ascetic figure, calm, composed, divine and spiritual.

2.      In the1870s Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote ‘VandeMataram’as a hymn to the motherland. Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal and other national movements.

3.      Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore. Nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk revival. In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India.

4.      During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow)was designed. By1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolor (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag, holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

5.      Another means of creating a feeling of nationalism was throughreinterpretation of history. The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements in art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished.

POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTSTHINGS TO REMEMBER:

Democracy invariably involves conflict of interest and viewpoints. Those in power have to balance between demands and pressures of various groups. The differences at times are often expressed in organized way. There are different ways by which citizens can influence policies. These include pressure groups and movements, conflict in a democracy is thus resolved through popular struggles. The struggle often takes the form of popular movements such as Narmada Bachao Andolan, movement for Right to Information, Anti liquor movement, women’s movements and environmental movement.

Movements have a loose organization and are informed and inflexible. At times, interest and pressure groups are also formed to promote interests of people. Some popular movements are led by trade unions, business and professional associations. Interest groups representing only a section of society are called sectional interest groups. There are even groups which promote interests of common people at large. These are called promotional or public interest groups.1. What was the aim of the popular movement in Nepal of April,2006?Ans: The aim of the popular movement in Nepal of April, 2006 was to restore the democracy.

2. When did Nepal first opt for democracy?Ans: Nepal first opted for democracy in 1990.

3. Name the Nepalese King who was no prepared to accept democracy.Ans: King Gyanendra was not prepared to accept the democracy.

4. What does the term SPA mean?Ans: SPA means Seven Party Alliance.

5. What were the main demands of the SPA?Ans: The main demand of SPA was restoration of democracy, power to all party government and a new constituent assembly.

6. Where is Bolivia? What was the reason for the struggle in Bolivia?Ans: Bolivia is poor country in Latin America. The struggle in Bolivia was against privatization of water. This came to be known as Water war. 

7. Name the organisation formed in Bolivia for the struggle in Bolivia.Ans: FEDECOR was the organisation which was formed to fight for democracy in Bolivia.

8. Define briefly:a) Interest GroupsAns: Interest group seeks to promote the interests of a particular section or group of society.

b) Public Interest groupsAns: Public Interest group are not representing any one section of society, instead they represent some common or general interest that needs to be defended.

c) Pressure GroupsAns: Pressure groups are organisations that attempt to influence government policies.

d) Political PartiesAns: Political parties are organisations that aim to directly control or share political powers.

9. Which major party joined the movement for restoring democracy in Nepal?Ans: Nepalese Communist Party (Maoist), which did not believe in Parliamentary democracy in Nepal.  

ONE LINER

1. Organisations that undertake activities to promote the interest of specific social sections such as workers, employees, teachers, and lawyers are called Interest Groups.

2. Pressure groups do not seek to get into power, while political parties do.

3. Organisations that seek to promote the interests of a particular section or groups are called Sectional interest group.

4. Organisations that seek to promote common interest are called Public Interest Groups.

5. Struggle launched for the resolution of a social problem with or without an organisation structure is called Movement.

6. Organisations that mobilise people with a view to win political power are called Political parties.

7. Assam Gan Parishad- Political Party

8. Women movement – Long Term movement

9. Fertilisers’ dealers’ association- Pressure group.

10. Narmada bachao Andolan- Single issue movement.

11. SPA-Seven Party Alliance

12. Maoist – Communist party of China.

13. MNC- Multi national corporation

14. Trade Unions- Sectional Interest groups.

15. NAPM- National Alliance for People’s Movement.

DETAILED QUESTIONS

1. Why the people in Bolivia were protesting against the MNC’s?Ans: The World Bank pressurised the government to give up its control of municipal water supply. The government sold these rights for the city of Cochabamba to a Multi National Company (MNC). The company immediately increased the price of water by four times. Many people received bill of Rs.1000/- in a country where average income is around Rs.5000/-. This led to the Protest by people in Bolivia.

2. What is the difference between a Pressure group and a Political Party?Ans: Pressure groups are organisations that attempt to influence Government policies but do not aim to directly control or share the political power. A political party is a group of people who come together to contest election and hold power in the government. Pressure groups influence the government in Indirect ways. They undertake activities to promote their interest or the view point.

3. Why and when the movement started in Nepal?Ans: The democratically elected representatives were exercising the real powers since 1990 when Nepal had won the democracy. King Birendra, who had accepted this transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy, was killed in mysterious massacre of the royal family in 2001. King Gyanendra, the new king of Nepal was not prepared to accept the democracy In February 2005, the king dismissed the popularly elected government and dissolved the popularly elected parliament. The movement of April 2006 was to regain the popular control of the government from the king.

4. Describe the Maoist Party.Ans: It is a communist party which believes in the ideology of Mao, the leader of the Chinese revolution. They seek to overthrow the government through an armed revolution so as to establish the rule of peasants and workers. The Maoist or the Nepalese Communist Party was involved in the armed struggle against the Nepal government and was successful in establishing its control over large parts of Nepal.

5. Describe the relationship between the pressure groups and political parties.  Ans: The relationship between political parties and pressure groups can take different forms, some direct and others very indirect:  a) In some instances the pressure groups are either formed or led by the leaders of political parties or acts as an extended arm of political parties.b) Sometimes Political parties grow out of movements.c) In most cases the relationship between parties and interest or movement group is not so direct.

6. What is a movement? Explain the difference between a movement and a pressure group.Ans: Struggle launched for the resolution of a social problem with or without an organisation structure is called Movement. Movement has a loose organisation. Their decision making is more informal and flexible. They depend more on spontaneous mass participation. Most of the movements are issue specific movements that seek a single objective within limited time frame. Examples are Narmada Bachao Andolan, Movement for Right to Information etc.Movement differs from pressure group in the organisational set up. Interest groups have a organisation duly elected by its members. Movement like interest groups attempts to influence politics rather than directly take part in electoral competition. The decision making process of the movements is more informal and flexible than the interest groups.

 1. Explain the similarities and differences in the uprising in Nepal and Bolivia.Ans: Similarities in the uprising in Nepal and Boliviaa) Both these are instances of political conflict that led to political struggle.b) In both the cases, the struggle involved mass mobilisation.c) Both instances involved critical role of political organisation.

Differences in the uprising in Nepal and Boliviaa) The movement in Nepal was to establish democracy, while the struggle in Bolivia involved claims on an elected democratic government.b) The popular struggle in Bolivia was about specific policy, while the struggle in Nepal was about the formulation of country’s policies.c) Both these struggles were successful but their impact was at different levels.

2. Give the event and results of the Movement of April, 2006.Ans: King Gyanendra became the new King of Nepal after King Birendra was killed in a mysterious massacre of the royal family. He was not prepared to accept democratic rule. In February 2005, he dismissed the then Prime Minister and dissolved the popularly elected government. All the major political parties in the parliament formed a Seven Party Alliance (SPA) and called for four days strike in Kathmandu. This protest was soon turned into an indefinite strike in which Maoist insurgents and various organisations joined hands fori) restoration of democracy,ii) power to all party government andiii) New constituent assembly.The security forces found themselves unable to take on more than a lakh people who gathered every day to demand restoration of democracy. On 21st April, 2006, the number of protesters reached between three to five lacs and they served an ultimatum to the King. On 24th April, 2006, the last day of the ultimatum, the king was forced to concede all the three demands. The SPA chose Girija Prasad Koirala as the new PM of interim Government.

3. What are the conclusions that one can draw from the movements in Nepal and Bolivia?

Ans: We can draw the following conclusions from the movements in Nepal and Bolivia:a) Democracy evolves through popular struggles. It is possible that some significant decision may take place through consensus and may not involve any conflict at all. But that would be an exception. Defining moments of democracy usually involve conflict between those groups who have exercised power and those who aspire for a share in power. These moments come when the country is going through the transition to democracy, expansion of democracy and deepening of democracy.b) Democratic conflict is resolved by mass mobilisation.c) These conflicts and mobilisations are based on new political organisation. There is an element of spontaneity in all such historic moments. But the spontaneous public participation becomes effective with the help of organised politics.

4. Describe Bolivia’s water war. In what way was this movement different?Ans: The World Bank pressurised the government to give up its control of municipal water supply. The government sold these rights for the city of Cochabamba to a Multi National Company (MNC). The company immediately increased the price of water by four times. Many people received bill of Rs.1000/- in a country where average income is around Rs.5000/-. This led to the Protest by people in Bolivia.In January, 2000, a new alliance of labour, human rights and community leader organised a successful four day strike. The Government agreed to negotiate and the strike was called off yet nothing happened. However, the police resorted to brutal repression when the agitation again started in February.Another strike followed in April and the Government imposed martial law. The powers of the people forced the officials of the MNC to flee the city and made the government to concede to all the demands of the protesters. The contract with the MNC was cancelled and water supply was restored to the municipality at old rated.The movement was different as it was against the elected democratic government. Moreover, Bolivia’s struggle was about one specific policy.

5. Explain how the activities of pressure groups are useful in the functioning of a democratic government?Ans: The activities of pressure groups are useful in the functioning of a democratic government in the following ways:a) The pressure groups and movements have deepened the democracy. Public Interest groups and movements perform a useful role of reminding the needs and concerns of the ordinary citizens.b) Where different groups function actively, no single group can achieve dominance over the society. If one groups brings pressure on the government to make policies in its favour, another group will bring counter pressure not to make policies in the way first group desires. This leads to balance of power and accommodation of conflicting interests.

6. In what way the pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics?Ans: Pressure groups and movements influence the politics in various ways:a) They try to gain public support and sympathy for their goals and their activity by carrying out information campaigns, organising meetings, file petitions, and use the media to draw the attention, and to their issues.b) They often organise protests activities like strikes, dharnas and obstruct government from functioning normally. Employees associations resort to these tactics in order to force the government to take note of their demands.c) Business groups often employ professional lobbyists of sponsor expensive advertisements. They sometimes become members of official bodies and committees and tender advice to the government.

7. How have the pressure groups and movements deepened the democracy?Ans: The pressure groups have deepened the democracy. Putting pressure on the rulers is not an unhealthy activity in democracy as long as everyone gets this opportunity.Governments can often come under pressure from a small group of rich and powerful people. Public interest groups and movements perform a useful role of countering this undue influence and reminding the government of the needs and concerns of ordinary citizens.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Q.1. What is a political party? A group of people who come together to contest election is called a political party.The party which wins majority seats in legislature forms the government whereas which does not win in legislature forms the opposition. i)political parties agree on some policies and programmes for the welfare of society with a view to promote the collective good. ii)since there can be different views on what is good for all,parties try to persuade people why their policies are better than others. iii)they seek to implement their policies by winning popular support through elections. FEATURES OF POLITICAL PARTIES i)Parties persuade people and tell them why their policies are better than others. ii)Parties seek to implement their policies by winning popular support through elections. Q.2.What are the functions of political parties? 1. CONTEST ELECTIONS: Political parties select candidates and contest elections. Eg. In USA, members and supporters of a party choose its candidates whereas in India, top party leaders choose candidates for contesting elections. 2. PROMOTION OF DIFFERENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES: Parties put together different policies and programmes and voters can choose from them. In a democracy, large no. of similar opinions have to be grouped together. To provide directions in which policies can be formulated by the govt.A party reduces a vast multitude of opinions into a few basic opinions it supports.A govt. is expected to make its decision on the line taken by the political party. 3. DECISIVE ROLE IN MAKING LAWS: Formally, laws are debated and passed in the legislature but since most of the members belong to a party, they go by the direction of the party leadership irrespective of their personal opinion. 4.PARTIES FORM AND RUN GOVT. The political party which gets the majority of seats in the legislature forms and runs the govt. Parties recruit leaders, train them and then make them ministers to run the govt.in the way they want. 5.PLAYS THE ROLE OF RESPONSIBLE OPPOSITION: Those political parties which do not get majority seats in legislature form the opposition. They voice different views and criticise the govt. for its failures on wrong policies. 6. SHAPE PUBLIC OPINION: They raise and highlight issues. Parties sometimes also launch movements for the resolution of problems faced by the people. Often opinions in the society crystallise on the line parties take. 7. PROVIDE PEOPLE AN ACCESS TO GOVT. MACHINERY AND WELFARE SCHEMES IMPLEMENTED BY THE GOVT.: For an ordinary citizen, it is easy to approach a local party leader than a govt. office. That is why they feel close to political parties even when they do not fully trust them. Parties have to be responsive to peoples’ needs and demands. Otherwise, people can reject those parties in the next elections. Q.3.Why do we need political parties? Political parties are essential for democracy in the following ways: i)They form govt. after winning elections i.e. the political party which wins majority seats in the legislature forms the govt. whereas the political party which does not win majority seats in the legislature forms the opposition. It criticises the govt. for its acts of omission and commission. ii)Political parties are important for representative democracies as they bring representatives together to form the govt. It consists of people seeking to achieve their objectives through constitutional means and aims at promoting national interests. Q.4.Mention three types of party system prevalent in the world. .One party system. E.g. China Bi-party system. Eg. USA & UK Multi-party system. Eg. India Q.5.Explain the three types of party systems.

.The three types of party systems are: I)One party system-When only one party is allowed to control and run the govt.it is called one-party system. Eg. In China only Communist party is allowed to rule because electoral system does not permit free competition for power. ii)Two party system-When two parties have a serious chance of winning majority seats to form govt.,such a system is called two-party system. Eg. USA & UK. Several other parties may exist and contest elections but only two major parties have a serious chance of winning majority seats. iii)Multi-party system-When several parties compete for power and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, this is called multi-party system. Q.6.What is an alliance or Front? .When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for contesting elections and winning power, it is called alliance or front. The govt. is then formed by various parties coming together in a coalition Eg .major alliance in 2004 elections were NDA(National Democratic Alliance),UPA(United Progressive Alliance). Q.7.What are the drawbacks of multi-party system?.i)It leads to political instability as coalition govts. are formed which are not very stable. ii)It leads to a lot of confusion in the minds of others. Q.8.What are the advantages of multi-party system? India has adopted multi-party system and it is advantageous because it can accommodate diverse cultural,regional and minority interests through representations. Q.9.Mention various types of political parties that exist in India. .i)National parties ii)Regional or State parties Q.10.What are the national parties? These are country-wide parties. i)They have their units in various states. ii)By and large all their units follow the same policies, programmes and strategies that are decided at national level. Q.11.What are regional parties? State parties are also called regional parties. i)Regional parties exist, operate and function at regional level. ii)A regional party has a regional outlook as it gives prominence to regional issues and specific problems of people of that region and influence people of that region. iii)Some of these parties are All India Parties that happen to have succeeded in some states. Parties like Samajwadi party, Samata party and Rashtriya Janata Dal have national level political organisations with units in several states. iv)Some parties like Biju Janata Dal,Sikkim Democratic Front and Mizo National Front are conscious about their state identity. Q.12.On what basis does Election Commission recognises parties as national or regional parties? NATIONAL PARTIES-A part that secures at least 60% of total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly elections in four states and wins at least 4 seats in Lok sabha is recognised as a national party. REGIONAL PARTIES-A party that secures at least 6% of total votes in Legislative Assembly of a state and wins at least 2 seats is recognised as State or Regional party. Q.13 .Explain the rising importance of regional parties. In the last three decades the no. and strength of regional parties has expanded which has made our parliament more diverse. These days not a single national party is able to secure a majority in Lok Sabha. Therefore, national parties form alliance with regional parties. Since 1996,state parties have got an opportunity to be a part of the national level coalition govt. This strengthened our democracy and federalism. Q.14.What are the challenges faced by political parties? 1. LACK OF INTERNAL DEMOCRACY: There is a tendency in political parties towards concentration of power in one or few leaders at the top. Parties do not hold organisational meetings or conduct internal elections. Since one or two leaders are important, those who disagree with them find it hard to continue in the party. 2.DYNASTIC SUCCESSION: There are very few ways for ordinary people or workers to rise to top in a political party. In many parties, the top positions are held by members of one family. This is bad for

democracy as people who do not have enough experience and popular support come to occupy top and important positions. 3.USE OF MONEY AND MUSCLE POWER: Sometimes political parties use shortcuts to win elections. They tend to nominate those candidates who can waste a lot of money. In some cases, political parties support criminals who use their muscle power to ensure the victory of a political party in elections. 4.LACK OF MEANINGFUL CHOICE TO VOTERS: In the modern era, there has been a decline in the ideological differences among parties. Those who want different policies have no options available to them. Q.15.What efforts have been made to reform the parties? i)The constitution was amended to prevent the elected MLAs and MPs from changing the parties. It was done because elected members were indulging in defection to become ministers or for cash rewards. Now the law says that if an MLA or an MP changes his party, he will lose his seat in the legislature. ii)The Supreme Court has passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals. Now a candidate is required to fill an affidavit giving details of his property and criminal cases pending against him. iii)The Election Commission passed an order making it necessary for the parties to hold their organisational and file their income tax return. Q.16.Mention some reforms to strengthen political parties.. i)A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of the political parties. It should be made compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of its members, to have its independent constitution and follow it, to have an independent authority, to act as a judge in case of party disputes, to hold open elections to the higher posts. ii)It should be made mandatory for political parties to give tickets to about 1/3rd of women candidates. iii)There should be state funding of elections i.e .the govt. should give parties money to support their election expenses. Q.17.What role can people play to reform political parties? i)People can put pressure on political parties by publicity, petitions and agitations. ii)Ordinary citizens, pressure groups and media can play an important role as if political parties feel that they would lose public support by not taking up reforms, they would become more serious about reforms.

Outcomes of Democracy

Is democracy a better form of government when compared with dictatorship or any other alternative?

1.      Democracy is better because it promotes equality among citizens.

2.      Democracy is better because it enhances the dignity of the individual

3.      Democracy is better because it improves the quality of decision making

4.      Democracy is better because it provides a method to resolve conflicts

5.      Democracy is better because it allows room to correct mistakes.

Is the democratic government efficient? Is it effective?

1.      Imagine that other form of government may take decisions very fast. But it may take decisions which are not accepted by the people and may therefore face problems.

2.      Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation. So, some delay is bound to take place.

3.      In contrast, the democratic government will take more time to follow procedures before arriving at a decision.

4.      But because it has followed procedures, its decisions may be both more acceptable to the people and more effective.

5.      So, the cost of time that democracy pays is perhaps worth it.

Democracy is Accountable, responsive and legitimate government

1.      Democracy ensures that decision making will be based on norms and procedures. So, a citizen has the right and the means to examine the process of decision making. This is known as transparency. Democracy follows procedures and is accountable to the people.

2.      Democratic governments have a very good record when it comes to sharing information with citizens and much better than any non-democratic regime in this respect. Democracy is attentive to the needs and demands of the people and is largely free of corruption.

3.    There is one respect in which democratic government is certainly better than its alternatives: democratic government is legitimate government. It may be slow, less efficient, not always very responsive or clean. But a democratic government is people’s own government.

Economic growth and development

1.       Economic development depends on several factors: country’s population size, global situation, cooperation from other countries, economic priorities adopted by the country, etc.

2.      However, the difference in the rates of economic development between less developed countries with dictatorships and democracies is negligible.

3.      Overall, we cannot say that democracy is a guarantee of economic development. But we can expect democracy not to lag behind dictatorships in economic development.

Democracy reduces economic inequality and poverty

1.      Democracies have growing economic inequalities. A small number of ultra-rich enjoy a lion share of wealth and those at the bottom of the society have very little to depend upon and find very difficult to meet their basic needs of life, such as food, clothing, house, education and health.

2.      Democratically elected governments address the question of poverty by making various welfare schemes to remove poverty.

3.      Democracies not only making welfare schemes but also give reservations for socially and economically backward people in jobs, election and educational institutions.

Democracy Accommodates of social diversity

1.      Democracies usually develop a procedure to accommodate various social groups. This reduces the possibility of social tensions becoming explosive or violent.

2.      No society can fully and permanently resolve conflicts among different groups. But democracy is best to handle social differences, divisions and conflicts.  

3.      But the example of Sri Lanka reminds us that a democracy must fulfill two conditions in order to achieve accommodation of social divisions,

a.       It is necessary to understand that democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion. The majority always needs to work with the minority so that governments function to represent the general view.

b.      It is also necessary that rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or race or linguistic group, etc. Rule by majority means rule by majority’s choice.

Democracy promotes Dignity and freedom of the citizens

1.      Democracy stands much superior to any other form of government in promoting dignity and freedom of the individual by providing Fundamental Rights. Every individual wants to receive respect from fellow beings.

2.      The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy. Democracies throughout the world have recognised this, at least in principle. This has been achieved in various degrees in various democracies.

3.      Take the case of dignity of women. Most societies across the world were historically male dominated societies.

4.      Long struggles by women have created some sensitivity today that respect to and equal treatment of women are necessary ingredients of a democratic society.

5.      Democracy in India has strengthened the claims of the disadvantaged and discriminated castes for equal status and equal opportunity.

.

Expectation from democracy never gets over.

1.      As people get some benefits of democracy, they ask for more and want to make democracy even better.

2.      That is why, when we ask people about the way democracy functions, they will always come up with more expectations, and many complaints.

3.      The fact that people are complaining is itself a testimony to the success of democracy: it shows that people have developed awareness and the ability to expect and to look critically at power holders and the high and the mighty.

Challenges to Democracy

What is a challenge?

A challenge is not just any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a ‘challenge’ which are significant and which can be overcome.

A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before.

Different countries face different kinds of challenges.

1.       Foundational challenge -This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state.

2.      Challenge of expansion-This involves applying the basic principle of democratic government across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions. Ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federation, inclusion of women and minority groups, etc., falls under this challenge.

3.      Deepening of democracy –This is faced by every democracy in one form or another. This involves strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy by more people’s participation and control.

Some broad guidelines that can be kept in mind while devising ways and means for political reforms in India:

1.    It is legal ways of reforming politics- law has an important role to play in political reform. Carefully devised changes in law can help to discourage wrong political practices and encourage good ones. (But legal-constitutional changes by themselves cannot overcome challenges to democracy. Democratic reforms are to be carried out mainly by political activists, parties, movements and politically conscious citizens.)

2.    Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics. Laws that give political actors incentives to do good things have more chances of working. The best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic reforms. (The Right to Information Act is a good example of a law that empowers the people to find out what is happening in government and act as watchdogs of democracy)

3.    Democratic reforms are to be brought about principally through political practice. Therefore, the main focus of political reforms should be to increase and improve the quality of political participation by ordinary citizens.

4.    Any proposal for political reforms should think not only about what is a good solution but also about who will implement it and how. Measures that rely on democratic movements, citizens’ organizations and the media are likely to succeed.

5.    Let us keep these general guidelines in mind and look at some specific instances of challenges to democracy that require some measure of reform.

Old Definition of Democracy

1.      The rulers elected by the people must take all the major decisions

2.      Elections must offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers

3.      This choice and opportunity should be available to all the people on an equal basis

4.      The exercise of this choice must lead to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and citizens’ rights.

New and modern definition of democracy

1.    Democracy not only should provide political rights but also some social and economic rights that a democracy should offer to its citizens.

2.    Power sharing between governments and social groups is necessary in a democracy.

3.    Respect for minority voice is necessary for democracy.

4.    Eliminating discrimination based on caste, religion and gender is important in a democracy.

5.    Democracy must bring all positive outcomes like accountability, responsive, reducing poverty etc.