exocorriges.comexocorriges.com/doc/38273.doc · Web viewLinguistic-oriented theories of language learning tend to emphasize genetic mechanisms (socalled "universal grammars") in explaining

English Teaching Methodology Package

By Claire Chia-hsing Pan

Department of Applied Foreign Languages,

Shu-te University

Fall, 2005

2005 Copy Right Reserved 1

Introduction to English Teaching Methodology Syllabus

Part I: a general picture of English teaching/learning

1. Why learning, why English, and why learning English?2. What makes a good learner/teacher of English?3. How to describe learning and teaching4. Recent issues concerning English teaching and learning

Part II: Theories of language acquisition

1. Human learning2. First Language Acquisition 3. Second Language Acquisition4. Factors of learning success: neuro-linguistic, cognitive, linguistic, affective, and socio-cultural considerations

Part III: Practice

1. Introduction of important terminology of TESOL2. Development of English Teaching Methodology3. Curriculum design4. Teaching the four and sub-skills5. Language testing

Reference books:(1, 2, 3 & 4 有中譯本; 1-4 a must)

1. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, Diane Larsen-Freeman, Oxford University Press.(英語教學法大全敦煌代理)2. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, H. Douglas Brown, Prentice Hall Regents.（第二與教學最高指導原則東華代理）3. Teaching by Principles, H. Douglas Brown, Prentice Hall Regents.（原則導向教學法東華代理）4. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Jack C. Richards & Theordore S. Rodgers, Cambridge University Press.5. An introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Diane Larsen-Freeman & Michael H. Long6. The Practice of English Language Teaching, Jeremy Harmer, Longman, Ltd.


7. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.Celce-Murcia, M. H&H 8. Second Language Teaching & Learning. David Nunan. (1995). H& H.9. Teaching Language in Context. Alice Omaggio Hadley (2001) Hieinle & Heinle.10. How Languages are Learned.(1999) Patsy M. Lightbown & Nina Spada. Oxford University Press.

Contact me just in case you have any problems: [email protected]

my website: home.kimo.com.tw/chiahsingpan

(ESL glossary) http://bogglesworld.com/glossary.htm (Definition) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/


mailto:[email protected]

Part I: A general picture of English teaching/learning

1. Why learning, why learning a second/foreign language, and why English?1.1 (1) a behavioristic view: focus on external rewards to reinforce behaviors (the M& M theory); motivation as the anticipation of reinforcement

(2) a cognitive view: drive theory (motivation stems from basic innate drives); Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (from low to high levels) (Book 3 p.74)

Physiological-< safety-> love (belongingness)-> esteem (self-esteem and attention from others)-> self-actualization (to become everything that one is capable of becoming); human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. People are basically trustworthy, self-protecting, and self-governing. Humans tend toward growth and love. Humans are motivated to satisfy those deficiency needs toward growth and self-actualization; self-control theory (focus on the importance of people deciding for themselves what to think or feel or do-> the need for autonomy)

1.2 English as a global language: cultural imperialism or intermixing? (Book 6)

the place of English: as a lingua francathe number of English speakers: 600-700 million speak English; in Asia alone, 100 million children are learning English.How English got there: a colonial history, economics (globalization), travel, information exchange (academic discourse; the Internet), popular culture (music, movies)Varieties of English: inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle; for specific or general purposes


1. Why learning, why learning a second/foreign language, and why English?2. What makes a good learner/teacher of English?3. How to describe learning and teaching4. Recent issues concerning English teaching and learning

1.3 Reasons of learning a 2nd/foreign language and what goals of it1.3.1 Academic: to pursue degrees or certificates (* only a small portion in fact)1.3.2 Non-academic:

(a) to survive in Target Language community e.g. talking to neighbors, helping children at school, or carrying out daily functions effectively(b) English for specific purpose (ESP): to learning the lg as to apply in work(c) Culture: to know about the target community

1.3.3 Miscellaneous: to learn for pleasure, for integrating into a culture or to be forced to

* To understand students’ need and motivation of learning a language is crucial for successful learning and teaching.

1.4 Goals of learning1.4.1 Performance-oriented goals: to look smart1.4.2 Mastery-oriented goals: to become smart1.4.3 Short-term goals: extrinsic goals (immediate needs)1.4.4 Long-term goals: intrinsically motivated; to get a better job, higher social status, a more successful life

2. What makes a good learner/teacher of English?2.1 A Good learner of English is

2.1.1 Willing to experiment2.1.2 Willing to listen2.1.3 Willing to ask questions2.1.4 Willing to think about how to learn2.1.5 Independent/responsible

Neil Naman included a tolerance of ambiguity as a feature of good learning as well as positive task orientation (being prepared to approach tasks in a positive fashion), ego involvement (where success is important for a students’ self-image), high aspirations, goal orientations, and perseverance.J.Rubin and I. Thompson also listed the following characteristics.


2.2 good language learners are (Rubin, 1975)2.1.1 willing and accurate guesser2.1.2 willing to communicate2.1.3 not inhibited2.1.4 prepared to attend to form2.1.5 practicing2.1.6 monitoring their own and others’ speech2.1.7 attending to meaning

Different cultures however value different learning behaviors. Teachers should demand students act in class in certain ways, whatever their learning background. Besides, learner personalities and styles also have a place. Understanding them is virtually important to optimize learning effect. Learners styles according to Tony Wright include the enthusiast, the oracular, the participator, and the rebel.(Book 6, p.42). Keith Willing described learner styles as convergers, conformists, concrete learners and communicative learners.

2.3 nine characteristics of good ESL teachers by Harold B. Allen, 19802.3.1 competent preparation leading to a degree in TESL2.3.2 a love of the English language2.3.3 critical thinking2.3.4 the persistent urge to upgrade oneself2.3.5 self-subordination2.3.6 readiness to go the extra mile2.3.7 cultural adaptability2.3.8 professional citizenship2.3.9 a feeling of excitement about one’s work

*good language-teaching characteristics (Teaching by Principles, p.430) in terms of technical knowledge, pedagogical skills, interpersonal skills, and personal qualities


2.4 A good teacher of English:2.4.1 An ability to give interesting classes2.4.2 Using the full range of their personality2.4.3 The desire to empathize with students2.4.4 Treating them all equally2.4.5 Knowing their names2.4.6 Giving staged and comprehensible input2.4.7 Providing the need for variety within a secure setting2.4.8 Responding flexibly

2.5 elements for successful language learning in classrooms: exposure, practice and use; elements for successful language learning in general: exposure, motivation and opportunities for use

* a common classroom procedure: 3P (influenced by Audiolingualism) (Book 6 78-84)

Presentation: The teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the language to be taught and then present the language.Practice: The students then practice the language using accurate reproduction techniques such as choral repetition, individual repetition, and cue-response drills. Production: The students use the new language and make sentences of their own.

3 What is learning and what is teaching? (Book 2, p.7)3.1 Learning is acquisition or getting,

Learning is retention of information or skill.Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive organization.Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism.Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting.Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced practice.Learning is a change in behavior.

3.2 Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the conditions for learning. Your understanding of how the learner learns will determine your philosophy of education, your teaching style, your approach, methods and classroom techniques. Your theory of teaching is your theory of learning stood on its head.4.Current related issues of TESOL (Refer to a CET article by Richards, 2004)

http://cet.cavesbooks.com.tw/htm/m0520111.htm


Related issues of Children English Learning(1) Current situations of a nine-year consecutive curriculum of primary and secondary education;(2) Advantages children benefit from in learning a foreign language:

(a )children’s greater potential for developing accurate pronunciation, accent and fluency before puberty(b )children’s favorable attitude towards a language and its culture, either their mother tongue or a second language.(c) Children’s less mental barriers of learning than adults(d) Children’s learning two languages simultaneously without suffering from inter-lingual interference(e) Listening along with speaking, a preliminary and preferable role in the natural order of language acquisition for children

But “learners of different ages have different characteristics” is more preferable than the critical hypothesis. Besides, accurate pronunciation is not the most important goal of language learning but a necessary or desirable goal. There are also other factors that determine the effectiveness of one’s language learning such as teacher’s language competence, the learning environment and so on.


Part II: Theories of language acquisition

1. Human Learning (Book 2, Chapter 4): (1) and (2) representing a behavioristic viewpoint, (3) for a rational/cognitive stance, and (4) for a constructivist school of thought1.1 Classical Behaviorism by Pavlov: respondent conditioning that is concerned with respondent behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus1.2 Operant Conditioning by Skinner: operant behavior is one in which one operates on the environment; a concern about the consequences that follow the response; the operant is emitted by the consequence of itself.1.3 Meaningful Learning Theory by David Ausubel: learning takes place in a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts

1.3.1 any learning situation can be meaningful if learners have a meaningful learning set and the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners1.3.2 a meaningfully learned, subsumed item has greater potential for retention1.3.3 forgetting is a second stage of subsumption (納入整合過程) for

an economical reason through cognitive pruning （刪除） where a single inclusive/global (廣泛全面的) concept than a large number of more specific items is retained （記憶）language attrition （語言削弱）to focus on the possible causes for the loss of second language skills: the strength and conditions of initial learning; lack of an integrative orientation; rare use of a L2subtractive bilingualism (減弱性雙語政策): members of a minority group learn the language of the majority group and the latter group downgrades speakers of the minority language(see additive bilingualism)

1.3.4 strengths of the subsumption theory: the disadvantage of rote memory in language learning; systematic forgetting; shift of the goal to communicative competence

1.4 Humanistic Psychology mainly by Rogers: constructivism by highlighting the social and interactive nature of learning in the affective domain

1.4.1 the whole person as a physical, cognitive, but primarily emotional being


1.Human learning2. First Language Acquisition 3. Second Language Acquisition4. Factors of learning success: neuro-linguistic, cognitive, linguistic, affective, and socio-cultural considerations

1.Human learning2. First Language Acquisition 3. Second Language Acquisition4. Factors of learning success: neuro-linguistic, cognitive, linguistic, affective, and socio-cultural considerations

1.4.2 learning how to learn-> fully functioning persons1.4.3 teachers as facilitators of learning through the establishment of interpersonal relationships with learners and genuine trust and empathy1.4.4 establishment of a climate of nondefensive learning1.4.5 empowerment of students (students are allowed to negotiate learning

outcomes, to cooperate with teachers and other learners, to engage in critical thinking, and to relate everything they do in the school to their reality outside the classroom), not banking (filling students by making deposits of information) (by Paolo Freire)

Behavioristic Cognitive Constructivistclassical: (Pavlov)respondent conditioningelicited response S->Roperant: (Skinner)governed by consequences （由結果主宰）emitted response (發出回應)R-> S (reward)No punishmentProgrammed instruction (編序教學)

(Ausubel)meaningful=powerfulrote=weaksubsumption （歸入） of new items under a more inclusive conceptual systemassociation （聯結） and retentionsystematic forgetting （系統性的遺忘）cognitive pruning （認知性的刪除）

(Rogers)fully functioning person （全功能的人）learn how to learncommunity of learners （學習者的共同生活）empowerment（權力的賦予）

1.5 Transfer, interference, and overgeneralization1.5.1 A more correct explication: The interaction of previously learned material with a present learning event1.5.2 Transfer: positive transfer and negative transfer (interference, usually L1-> L2, & overgeneralization L1-> L1 or L2 -> L2)1.5.3 All generalizing involves transfer and all transfer involves generalizing.

Transfer is a general term describing the carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning. Positive transfer occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task--that is, when a previous item is correctly applied to present subject matter. Negative transfer occurs when previous performance disrupts the performance of a second task. The latter can be referred to as interference, in that


previously learned material interferes with subsequent material--a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned (Brown 2000). Over-generalization takes place within L1 or L2 or between the two.

1.6 Inductive and deductive reasoning1.6.1 Inductive reasoning: one stores a number of specific instances and induces a general rule or conclusion that governs the specific instances (e.g. classroom learning)1.6.2 Deductive reasoning: a movement from a generalization to specific instances1.6.3 Gestalt learning: perception of the whole before the parts (against structuralism)

完形」心理學認為人類對於任何視覺圖像的認知，是一種經過知覺系統組織後的形態與輪廓，而並非所有各自獨立部份的集合。易言之，「完形」心理學的基本理論認為：「部份之總和不等於整體，因此整體不能分割；整體是由各部份所決定。反之，各部份也由整體所決定」。由此一觀念推論，人們在欣賞一幅圖畫或一張攝影作品時，畫面裡的每一個部份形成了各自獨立之視覺元素，如果想讓觀者留下深刻的視覺認知，元素與元素之間必須彼此產生某種形式之關連。人類的認知系統，如何把原本各自獨立的局部訊息串聯整合成一個整體概念，正是「完形」心理學派主要的研究課題。1.8 Aptitude and intelligence


2. L1 Acquisition2.1 Introduction to Language Acquisition

Interests in L1 competence for many centuries(1) beginning of analyzing child language systematically and its psychological process in the second half of the 20th century(2) analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition especially the differences in the case of adult SL learning in terms of cognitive and affective contrasts(3)three theoretical positions of first language acquisition

2.2 Theories of L1 acquisition2.2.1 Behaviorism (Say What I Say): a psychological theory of learning claiming lg learning is the result of imitation, practice, consistent feedback (reinforcement) on success and habit formation (in the 1940s-50s in the U.S.)

(a) assumptions: “Behaviorism” deriving from Pavlov and Watson first and extended by Skinner.

Children come into the world with a tabula rasa, a clean slate bearing no preconceived notions about the world or about language as to be shaped by their environment and slowing conditioned through reinforcement

Effective language behavior is the production of correct responses to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or conditioned.

(b) Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner (1957): an experimental behavioristic model of linguistic behavior extended from operant conditioning as the dominant paradigm of psychology in the U.S. from the 1920s to 1970s.

*Assumption: more emphasis on the consequences of a stimulus than on the stimulus itself

(i) an operant (an utterance) is emitted, nor elicited, without necessarily observable stimuli;

(ii) that operant is learned by reinforcement such as from another person. (iii)verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences((rewards and no punishment ) which increase the probability of a recurrence of that behavior*Criticism: Behaviorism cannot explain creativity of child language (by Noam Chomsky, transformational generative grammar, e.g. use of the past -tense verbs); it tends to decrease internal motivation although there are situations when incentives and external supports are necessary; it can’t explain how children acquire complex grammatical structures* Strength: it offers a reasonable way of understanding how children learn


some of the regular ad routine aspects of lg* tactics for teachers in the use of behavioral management: (1) direct teaching is useful to maintain class discipline and to teach such topics as precise mastery of grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation. (2) Behavioral management in the classroom is useful when rewards are in demand and the students depend on the teacher for the rewards. (3) Balancing external rewards with intrinsic motivation meets the needs of a variety of students. (4) Careful alignment of instructional objectives, direct teaching, and assessment is useful for mastering a highly structured curriculum. (5) Mastery learning supplements direct instruction by inducing students to achieve incremental, precisely defined objectives.

2.2.2 The Nativist Approaches （語法天生說）It ’ s all in your mind (a) innateness hypotheses (Innatism) (i)Assertion: language acquisition is innately determined.

* Language is a species-specific behavior and certain modes of perception, categorizing abilities are biologically determined so virtually every child learns lg on a schedule which is similar in spite of different circumstances of life (by Eric Lenneberg, 1967, a biological view to compare learning to talk with learning to walk at the right time)* Language acquisition device (LAD) in a little black box (暗箱) where children are exposed to confusing input and given no corrective feedback; it contains all and only the principles which are universal to all human lgs; input triggers its operation.* “What LAD does by Anderson: sound discrimination, organization of linguistic data, only one possibility of a certain kind of linguistic system within one’s head, constant evaluation in developing linguistic system to construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input (by Chomsky, 1965)

(ii) strengths: able to account for the generativity of child language, lg abilities as human specific ones different from other aspects of cognitive development, success of learning L1 for children by mastering the basic structure of L1 in a variety of conditions with insufficient input and limited correction.(b) Universal Grammar (Cook 1993, Mitchell & Myles 1998)共通語法 as children’s innate endowment rather than LAD any longer by Chomskians(i) all human beings are genetically equipped with a set of principles which are common to all lgs that enable them to acquire language


(ii) to discover what it is that all children bring to the language acquisition process from question formation, negation, word order, subject deletion and so on.(iii) If children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own lg makes use of these principles and the variations (parameters) on those principles which may exist in the particular lg which they hear spoken around them.(c) the development of generative grammar: children construct hypothetical grammar, formal representations of deep structures which start as pivot grammars (two-word utterances for two word classes) and mature(d) the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model 平行分散處理(Connectionism連結論 by Feldman) : See Summary of SLA below(i) A learner’s linguistic performance may be the consequence of many levels of simultaneous neural interconnections rather than a serial （連續性）process of one rule being applied, then another and so on; lg acquisition does not require a separate module of the mind but can be explained in terms of learning in general (refutation to the innatism); what children need to know is essentially available in the lg they are exposed to such as a computer program which can learn certain things if it is exposed to them often enough.(ii) refutation of the generative rule-governed model: generative rules （衍生語法） in a linguistic sense are not connected serially, with one connection between each pair of neurons in the brain(iii) connectionism describes mental processing by means of connections among very simple processing units in complex neural networks; learning consists of adjusting the strengths of connections by frequent patterns in the input so that a given teaching input finally results in a desired output; no innate endowment or mechanism specifically pre-programmed for lg learning; so there are no “rules” in connectionist systems although they exhibit regular or rule-like behavior.(e) Contributions of Nativism:(i) able to explore the unseen, observable, underlying, abstract linguistic structures being developed in the child(ii) systematic description of the child’s linguistic repertoire as either rule-governed or operating out of parallel distributed processing capacities(iii) the construction of a number of potential properties of UG


2.2.3 the interactionism (a little help from my friends)(a) Two emphases:(i) seeing language as one manifestation of the cognitive and affective ability to deal with the world, with others and with the self; lg develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops.(ii) nativism as being unable to deal with the deeper levels of meaning of language constructed from social interaction but with the forms of language(iii) lg which is modified to suit the capability of the learner is crucial element in the lg acquisition process e.g. child-directed speech- the lg addressed to children and adjusted in ways that make it easier for them to understand(iv) lg acquisition is similar to and influenced by the acquisition of other kinds of skill and knowedge, rather than as sth independent of the child’s experience and cognitive development.(b) cognition and language development: (i) Lois Bloom (1971): children learn underlying structures and not superficial word order as shown in pivot grammar, depending on the social context(ii) Jean Piaget (1969): what children know (cognition development) will determine what they learn about the code for both speaking and understanding messages (language development)

sensorimotor stage (Age 0-2) 感官動作期preoperational stage (2-7)前運思期

operational stage (7-16)- concrete operational stage (7-11) 具體運思期; formal operational stage (11-16 formal thinking at puberty) 形式運思期(iii) Dan Slobin (1971): in all languages, semantic learning depends on cognitive development and that sequences of development are determined more by semantic complexity, than by structural complexity-> schema of cognition on the functional level and schema of grammar on the formal level(c) social interaction and language development(i) Holzman (1984): a reciprocal model -> a reciprocal system operates between the language –developing infant-child and the competence adult language user in a socializing-teaching-nurturing role(ii) Berko Gleason (1988) & Lock (1991): the interaction between language acquisition and learning of social systems(iii)Budwig (1995) & Kuczaj (1984): the function of language in discourse (relations between sentences) in terms of conversational cues


*Summary of theories on language learningEmpiricism (Environmentalism)-> rationalism (mentalism/ nativism/connectionism/ /Parallel Distributed Processing)->functionalism (constructivism)1. Empiricism /Environmentalism/behaviorism

(1) definition: Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior, that is, associative learning or habit formation.

(2) Key assumptions: (a) Human learning and animal learning are similar.(b) The child’s mind is a tabula rasa. There is no innate pre-programming

specifically for language learning at birth.(c) Psychological data should be limited to that which is observable.(d) All behavior is viewed as a response to stimuli. Behavior happens in

associative chains; in fact, all learning is associative in nature.(e) Conditioning involves the strengthening of associations between a

stimulus and a response through reinforcement.(f) Human language is a sophisticated response system acquired through

operant conditioning.(3) Influences: It relies only on observable behavior and describes several

universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very effective--both in animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as autism and antisocial behavior. Behaviorism often is used by teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors. Audiolingualism relies much on it by using controlled drills for association of stimulus, response and reinforcement.

(4) Criticism:(a) Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it

disregards the activities of the mind. (b) Behaviorism does not explain some learning--such as the recognition of

new language patterns by young children--for which there is no reinforcement mechanism. Without imitation and negative feedback, children can still acquire a language and create it with limited input.

(c) Reserach has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through


reinforcements.2. rationalism (mentalism/ nativism/connectionism/ /Parallel Distributed

Processing)Three rationalist perspectives of language learning (since 1960s)

2.1 Universal Grammar: 2.1.1 Definition: There is a set of basic grammatical elements or fixed abstract

principles that are common to all natural human languages, that predispose children to organize the input in certain ways and that are a product of the LAD.

2.1.2 Assertions:(1) Language is a species-specific, genetically determined capacity.

(Lennenberg, 1967; McNeill 1966)(2) Language learning is governed by biological mechanisms.

(Lennenberg, 1967; McNeill 1966)(3) The ultimate form of any human language is a function of language

universals, a set of fixed abstract principles that are innate. (Chomsky, 1965)

(4) Each language has its own parameters whose settings are learned on the basis of linguistic data. That is where environmental input is crucial. (Ellis, 1985)

(5) There is a core grammar, congruent with universal principles, and a peripheral grammar, consisting of features that are not part of universal grammar. (Chomsky, 1965)

(6) Core grammar rules are thought to be relatively easier to acquire, in general, than peripheral rules.

2.1.3 Critiques:(1) All models of generative grammar have at least two flaws: confusion of mathematical notation with linguistic form and circularity of argumentation(2) lack of applicability (3) unable to explain individual differences (4) no consensus on the accessibility of UG to SLA learners.)

2.2 Krashen’s Monitor Model: First- and Second-Language Acquisition are Similar.2.2.1 Five central hypotheses

(1) The acquisition-learning distinction: Adults have two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a L2: Acquisition, a subconscious process similar to the way children develop ability in L1; and learning, conscious knowledge of the rules of grammar


of a L2 and their application in production(2) The Natural Order Hypothesis: Acquisition of grammatical

structures (primarily morphemes) follows a predictable order when that acquisition is natural, not via formal learning.

(3) The monitor hypothesis: acquisition is the sole initiator of all L2 utterances and is responsible for fluency while learning can function only as an editor or monitor for the output. This monitor operates only when there is sufficient time, the focus is on form, and the learner knows the rule being applied.

(4) The input hypothesis: We acquire more language only when we are exposed to comprehensible input (lg that contains structures that are a little beyond our current level of competence i+1), but which is comprehensible through our use of context, our knowledge of the world, and other extralinguistic cues directed to us. Acquirers go for meaning first and then structure. Then, input need not be deliberately planned to contain appropriate structures: if communication is successful, there is enough of it, so i+1 is provided automatically. At last, speaking fluency cannot be taught directly, bur rather emerges naturally over time. Accuracy will develop over time as the acquirer hears and understands more input.

(5) The affective filter hypothesis: comprehensible input can have its effect on acquisition only when affective conditions are optimal: the acquirer is motivated, he has self-confidence, and his level of anxiety is low. So error correction should be minimized in the classroom.

2.2.2 Implications for classroom practice(1) The main function of the classroom may be to provide

comprehensible input in an environment conducive to a low affective filter.

(2) The classroom is mot useful for beginners, who cannot easily utilize the informal environment for input.

(3) Optimal input must be comprehensible, interesting, relevant, not grammatically sequenced, provided in sufficient quantify to supply i+1, and delivered in an environment where students are off the defensive.

(4) Error correction should be minimal in the classroom.(5) Students should not be required to produce speech in L2


unless they are ready to do so.2.2.3 Critiques by MaLaughlin

(1) The distinction of learning/acquisition and conscious/unconscious has been questioned.

(2) The Monitor does not work as Krashen thought and the restrictions on the conditions under which it would be used effectively make his conceptualization of learning of limited usefulness in explaining a learner’s conscious knowledge of grammar.

(3) The Natural Order Hypothesis is weak since some things are learned before others, but not always.

(4) No clear definition of comprehensible input is given. (5) Krashen hasn’t explained how the affective filter

develops and does not consider individual differences among learners.

2.2.4 Influences:(1) The distinction of learning and acquisition has at least an intuitive appeal.(2) There is a need to provide learners with comprehensible input.(3) Affective considerations as primary in the classroom are appealing.

2.3 Cognitive Theory: First- and Second- Language learning differ.2.3.1 Assertions

(1) Learning results from internal mental activity. Language learning is a type of general human learning and involves the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill.

(2) Subskills involved in the complex task of language learning must be practice, automatized, and integrated into organized internal representations, or rule systems, in cognitive structure.

(3) Internal representations of language are constantly restructured as proficiency develops.

(4) Skills are automatized (learned) only after they have first been under controlled processing, which requires attention to the task and leads to automatic processing where attention is not needed to perform the skill.

(5) Tarone maintains that learners’ production is variable, depending on styles in terms of formality where the degree of attention differs.

(6) Anderson and Ellis distinguish declarative knowledge (knowing what) and procedural knowledge (knowing how).

(7) Ausubel emphasizes that meaningful learning, which is learning is


relatable to what we already know, is preferable to rote learning, which is arbitrary and verbatim.

2.3.2 Critiques:(1) Conceiving of lg learning as a complex cognitive skill is not

comprehensive enough.(2) Cognitive theory needs to be linked to linguistic theories of SLA.(3) It doesn’t predict explicitly when certain features of a L1 will be

transferred to a L2.2.4 Connectionism or PDP (Rumelhart & McClelland 1986): a new challenge to

rationalist models of cognition2.4.1 Assertions:

(1) No innate endowment or mechanism specifically pre-programmed for lg learning.

(2) Learning consists of the strengthening of connections between and among simple processing units in complex neural networks to result in a desired output.

(3) Cognitive processing is assumed to occur in a parallel distributed fashion throughout the network rather than in a sequential or serial fashion.

(4) Knowledge is in the connections rather than in the processing units themselves.

(5) The strength of connections is determined by the relative frequency of patterns in the input.

(6) There are no rules in connectionist systems, although they exhibit regular or rule-like behavior.


* Schools of thought in First Language AcquisitionTime Frame Schools of thought Typical themesEarly 1900s, 1940s &1950s Behaviorism 行為主義 Tabula rasa （白板）

Stimuli: linguistic responsesConditioning（制約作用）Reinforcement（增強）

1960s & 1970s Nativism 天賦說 Innate predispositions (LAD & UG) 天賦的傾向Systematic, rule-governed acquisitionCreative constructionPivot grammar 樞紐文法Parallel distributed processing (PDP)

1980s, 1990s & early 2000 Functionism 功能主義 ConstructivistSocial interactionCognition and languageFunctions of languageDiscourse 言談

Language AcquisitionResearch on language acquisition/use can be divided into first and second language learning settings. The literature on first language learning is most relevant to child development while second language learning pertains primarily to adult learning, although most general theories of language learning apply to both. While it is not clear whether different psychological processes are involved in first and second language learning, there are differences in the way children and adults learn and this has important implications. Theories of adult learning (e.g., Cross, Knowles, Rogers ) and literacy (e.g., Sticht ) are more likely to provide an appropriate framework for second language learning compared to those concerned with child development (e.g., Bruner, Piaget ). Linguistic-oriented theories of language learning tend to emphasize genetic mechanisms (socalled "universal grammars") in explaining language acquisition (e.g., Fodor, Bever & Garrett, 1974). Behavioral theories (e.g., Hull, Skinner, Thorndike) argue that association, reinforcement, and imitation are the primary factors in the


acquisition of language. Cognitive theories (e.g., Ausubel, Landa, Schank) suggest that schema, rule structures, and meaning are the distinctive characteristic of language learning. Memory processes have been singled out as the basis for language comprehension (e. g., Anderson, Craik & Lockhart, Paivio). Theories of discourse (e.g., Hatch, 1983) argue that interaction with other speakers is the critical dimension in learning language, i.e., syntactic structures develop from conversations. Indeed, Vygotsky argues that all cognitive processes, including those involved in language, arise from social interaction. Research and theory on first language learning tends to be closely intertwined with the development of cognition (e.g., Brown, 1973; Carroll & Freedle, 1972; Hayes, 1970). Theoretical frameworks for second language learning present a number of different perspectives. For example, Brown (1980) argues that the analysis of errors made in language learning reveals the development of an interlanguage -- a set of rules made up by the learner that map the new language onto their native language. According to Brown, correction of errors is important in helping the student understand the grammar of the new language. Krashen (1981) distinquishes between acquisition and learning processes; the former involve understanding and communication while the latter are concerned with the conscious monitoring of language use (i.e., metacognition). Krashen argues that acquisition processes are more critical than the learning processes and should be encouraged through activities that involve communication rather than vocabulary or grammar exercises. Many language researchers emphasize the inter-relationships among listening, speaking, reading, and writing processes (e.g. Clark & Clark, 1977; Cohen, 1990). The significance of learner variables in language learning has been studied extensively, including abilities, motivation, cognitive styles, and learning strategies. Theories of intelligence (e.g., Gardner, Guilford, Sternberg) clearly indicate that there are distinct linguistic abilities that differ across individuals. Research on learning strategies (e.g., O'Malley & Chamot, A., 1990; Wenden & Rubin, 1987) indicates that student performance can be improved by following certain strategies but the results are highly dependent upon the nature of the task and differ across learners.


3 Second Language Acquisition* Schools of thought in SLATime Frame Schools of thought Typical themesEarly 1900s, 1940s &1950s Structuralism &

BehaviorismDescriptionObservable performanceScientific methodEmpiricismSurface structureConditioning, reinforcement

1960s & 1970s Rationalism & Cognitive Psychology

Generative linguisticsAcquisitioninnatenessInterlanguage (learner lg)

systematicityUniversal grammarCompetenceDeep structure

1980s, 1990s & early 2000 Constructivism Interactive discourseSociocultural variablesCooperative group learningInterlanguage variabilityInteractionist hypotheses

3. 1. Age and acquisition3.1.1 the Critical Period Hypothesis ( a biological timetable for language acquisition)-- Assumption: a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire3.1.2 Cognitive considerations

(a) intellectual development (by Piaget)(i) three stages: sensorimotor stage (0-2); preoperational stage (2-7); operational stage (7-16)(concrete operational stage 7-11; formal operational stage 11-16)(ii) arguments for the critical period: at puberty, one is capable of abstraction by Piaget; benefits of deductive thinking for adult learners by Ausubel


(b) affective, rather than cognitive factors, that facilitate adult learners’ second language acquisition(i) adults are aware of their learning and can use strategies to help themselves to be successful(ii) dominance of the left hemisphere after puberty contributes to a tendency to overanalyze and to be too intellectually centered on SLA(c) equilibration (平衡化): cognition develops as a process of moving from states of doubt and uncertainty to stages of resolution and certainty; from disequilibrium（不平衡） (which provides motivation for language learning: language interacts with cognition to achieve equilibrium) to equilibrium(d) rote and meaningful learning (by Ausubel): learning must be related to existing knowledge and experience; foreign language classroom should not become the locus of excessive rote activity

3.1.3 Affective considerations: empathy(同理心), self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition (壓抑)(self-protection), anxiety, attitudes

(a) egocentricity: esp for children(b) language ego 語言自我 by Alexander Guiora (1972):(i) the identify a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks(ii) children’s ego is dynamic and flexible so learning a new language is not a threat to the ego; adults’ is protective and defensive(iii) successful learning- one’s language ego must be strong enough to overcome inhibitions(c) identity: affective inhibitions of children and adults; a second identity(d) attitudes: advantage of young children whose attitudes towards races, cultures, classes of people haven’t been developed(e) peer pressure: children’s strong constraints upon them to conform; adults tolerate linguistic differences more than children

3.1.4 Linguistic considerations(a) Bilingualism(i) two kinds of bilingualscoordinate bilinguals 協調式雙語學習: two meaning systems learned from different language contextscompound bilinguals 複合式雙語學習: one meaning system from which both language operate(ii) code-switching of most bilinguals: the act of inserting words, phrases, or even longer stretches of one language into the other, especially when communicating with another bilingual


(iii) a considerable benefit of early childhood bilingualism: bilingual children are more facile at concept formation and have a greater mental flexibility(b) interference between L1 and L2: usually not in young children(c) interference in adults: not necessarily since adults manifest errors not unlike some of the errors children make as the result of creative perception of the second language(d) order of acquisition: (Book 2 p 69)(i) focus on morphemes by Dulay and Burt: a creative construction process children use in learning a L2 as they do in L1 *criticism: methodological arguments, lack of generalizability (only 11 morphemes)(ii) the myth of “the younger, the better” by Scovel: adults can benefit from literacy, vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge, and even syntax planes although after puberty their accent is hardly changeable.

3.2 Process, styles and strategies (Book 2 p.112-139)Process: is characteristic of every human being engaged in association, transfer,

generalization and attrition. (most general in three)Style: rather enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual for

intellectual functioning such as the visual-oriented style.Strategies: specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of

operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain information; they vary with time and within individuals

3.2.1 Learning styles: FI/FD, the left- and right-brain functioning, ambiguity tolerance, reflectivity/impulsivity, visual/auditory styles

(a)field independence/field dependence styles:場地獨立/依賴Definition Personal

traitsClassroom learning

Age difference

field independence

the ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a field of distracting items

a more analytical, deductive, more independent, competitive, and self-confident person

analysis, attention to details, mastering of drills in classroom learning, better in deductive lessons

Adults: by KrashenUse more monitoring or learning strategies for language acquisition(conscious attention to forms)


field dependence (field sensitivity)

The tendency to be dependent on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not easily perceived.

More socialized, empathetic, inductive, and perceptive of the feelings and thoughts of others,

Natural, face to face communication, the kind of communication rare in the average language classroom

Children: use strategies of acquisition (subconscious attention to functions)

* significance of FI/FDFI and FD are not in complementary distribution within an individualBoth styles are important to assume a person’s general inclinations in a given context with an appropriate style* cognitive styles: a link between personality and cognition to tackle a problem;

learning styles: the cognitive styles that are specifically related to an educational context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled

(b) left- and right-brain functioningLeft-brain dominance Right-brain dominanceRemember names Remember faces

Deductive-> analytical Inductive->holisticLogical-> logical problem solving Visual, auditory, emotional-> intuitive

problem solvingLinear processing Elusive, uncertain information

FI->intellectual, planned and structured FD-> intuitive, fluid, spontaneous

Prefers talking and writing-> less body language

Prefers drawing and manipulating objects-> more body language

Make objective judgments->multiple-choice tests

Make subjective judgments-> open-ended questions

(c) ambiguity tolerance: to predict academic success對語意含糊的忍受度(i) definition: how much one tolerates ideas and propositions opposing to one’s belief system(ii) with ambiguity tolerance-> free to entertain innovative and creative possibilities and not be disturbed by uncertainty


(iii) too much ambiguity tolerance-> prevent meaningful subsumption of ideas due to wishy-washy tendency（空洞）; rote memorization(iv) no ambiguity tolerance->rigid, dogmatic mind(d) reflectivity反思 and impulsivity衝動

reflectivity impulsivitySystematic stylesA slower, more calculated decision makerAccurate readerInductive reasoning

Intuitive stylesA quick, hunch-based decision makerFast readerWilling to guess-> master the psycholinguistic guessing game (by Goodman who supported the Whole Language Approach) (p.121)

* More patience for a reflective learner, fewer judgments on mistakes made by an impulsive learner.

(e) visual and auditory stylesVisual auditoryPrefer reading, studying charts, drawing, and other graphic information e.g. Korean students

Prefer listening to lectures and audiotapes

* Successful learners utilize both visual and auditory input

3.2.2 Strategies (refer to Oxford’s strategy classification system, 1990): learning and communication strategies (Book 2, p.122)

(a) Learning strategies: strategies to take in messages (input) from others for processing, storage and retrieval(i) good language learners described by Rubin and Stern (1975) in terms of personal characteristics, styles, and strategies (p.123)(ii) strategies by Michael O’Malley & Anna Chamot (1983) (p.125-6)

Metacognitive 後設認知 Cognitive 認知 Socioaffective 社會情意An executive function involving planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s

In specific learning tasks for more direct manipulation of the learning material itself e.g. repetition

Social-mediating activity and interacting with others e.g. cooperation 合作, question for clarification 闡明問題


production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activitye.g. advance organizers (預習計畫), directed attention （直接性注意）, selective attention （選擇性注意）, self-management 自我管理, functional planning 功能性計畫, self-monitoring 自我監控, delayed production 延緩表達 and self-evaluation 自我評估

複誦, translation 翻譯, note taking 筆記, resourcing 資源, grouping 整理, deduction 演譯推論, recombination 重組, imagery, auditory representation 意象, keyword 關鍵字, contextualization 語文情境, elaboration 延伸應用, transfer 轉移, inferencing 推理

(iii) indirect learning strategies: metacognitive ( centering your learning, arranging and planning and your learning and evaluating your learning), affective ( lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself and taking your emotional temperature) and social ( asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others); direct learning strategies- memory (creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, employing action), cognitive (practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, creating structure for input and output) and compensation (guessing intelligently, overcoming limitations in speaking and writing) by Rebecca Oxford

* usefulness of adopting learning strategies in language learning-> strategies-based instruction (SBI) (about how to learn) and autonomous self-help training 策略教學（Book 2 p. 132-3）

1. be aware of one’s style, preferences and the strategies2. practice successful strategies3. practice compensatory strategies4. strategy instruction in the textbook

(b) Communication strategies: how one expresses meanings; deliver messages to others(output) especially when communication is deterred from reaching its goal(i) avoidance strategies: message abandonment 信息放棄, topic avoidance 主題避免, lexical, syntactic, and phonological avoidance(ii)compensatory strategies (part of strategic competence) 補償策略 ( Book


2 p.128)circumlocution 迂迴陳述 (the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew) , approximation 近似陳述 (ship for sailboat), use of all-purpose words 使用全功能的字( overuse of thing, stuff), word coinage創新字(vegetarianist for vegetarian), prefabricated patterns 預造句型 (where is the ____?), nonlinguistic signals 非語言訊號 (facial expression, mime, gesture, or sound imitation), literal translation 逐字翻譯, foreignizing外語化 (using a L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonology), code-switching 語碼轉換(using a L1 word with L1 pronunciation or a L3 word with L3 pronunciation when speaking in L2), appeal for help 尋求協助 (rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression), stalling/time-gaining strategies 暫停或拖延策略 (using fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain time to think e.g. well, now let’s see, as a matter of fact)

* styles and strategies in practice(a) Administer a learning styles checklist(b) engage in frequent spontaneous hints about successful learning and

communication strategies(c) Build strategic competence: to lower inhibitions, to encourage risk taking, to build students’ self-confidence, to help them to develop intrinsic motivation, to promote cooperative learning, to encourage them to use right-brain processing, to promote ambiguity tolerance, to help them use their intuition, to get students to make their mistakes work for them, and to get students to set their own goals


3.3 Personality factors: “affect” defined as emotion or feeling3.3.1 the affective domain

(a) self-esteem 自信: a personal judgment of worthiness that’s expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold towards themselves; related to one’s willingness to communicate in a foreign language(i)general or global self-esteem 整體的自信

- a median level of overall self-appraisal -stable in a mature adult so resistant to change over time and across situations

(ii) situational or specific self-esteem 情境的自信- one’s self-appraisals in particular life situations e.g. home, work, athletic ability, and personality traits

(iii) task self-esteem: 工作的自信-particular tasks within specific situation e.g. one subject matter area in the educational domain

* a high level of communicative ability doesn’t necessarily correspond with a high willingness to communicate.(b) Inhibition 情緒壓抑 n: sets of defenses to protect the ego (i) language ego 語言自我 by Guiora (1972) and Ehrman (1996): occurs when identity conflict as language learners take on a new identity with their newly acquired competence(ii)higher self-esteem + adaptive language ego-> lower inhibition

(c) risk-taking: ability to make intelligent guesses; impulsivity(i) Being willing to take risks doesn’t necessarily contributes to success since not necessarily accurate guesses(ii)Willing and accurate guesses, high motivation and self-esteem are also factors of learner success(iii)Lack of willingness to take risks-> fossilization(d) Anxiety(i) trait anxiety特質性焦慮 (permanent predisposition to be anxious)/

state anxiety 狀態性焦慮 (situationally anxious)-> language anxiety (studied more nowadays)

(ii)debilitative anxiety 損害性焦慮(harmful anxiety)/facilitative anxiety 助益性焦慮(helpful anxiety e.g. concern over a task to be accomplished-> competitiveness)

(iii) three components of language anxiety by Horwitz et al and MacIntyre & Gardner : communication apprehension


fear of negative social evaluation test anxiety(e) Empathy: the process of putting oneself into some else’s shoes usually through language(i) transactional variables to SLA: imitation, modeling, identification, empathy, extroversion, aggression, styles of communication(ii) “empathy”同理心 is more detachment from others; “sympathy” is an agreement between individuals.(iii) two aspects to the development and exercising of empathy:

--an awareness and knowledge of one’s feelings--identification with another person (to know oneself first)

(f) Extroversion 外向性格: the extent to which a person has a deep-seated need to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from others(i) introversion: the extent to which a person derives a sense of wholeness and fulfillment apart from a reflection of this self from other people(ii) introverted≠ passive; extroverted≠bright and empathetic(iii) extroversion as a factor in developing oral communicative competence because of face-to-face communication Myers-Briggs character types of functioning: (1)

introversion/extroversion (2) sensing/intuition (3) thinking/feeling (4) judging /perceiving (16 possible combination of personality profiles) p.158 -> character types related to strategy use

Successful learners know their preferences, their strengths, and their weaknesses, and effectively utilize strengths and compensate for weaknesses regardless of their natural preferences.

3.3.2 motivation:(a) three views of motivation:

Behavioristic Cognitive ConstructivistAnticipation of rewardDesire to receive Positive reinforcementExternal, individual

forces in control

Driven by basic human needs (exploration, manipulation, etc)

Degree of effort expended

Internal, individual forces in control

Social contextCommunitySocial statusSecurity of groupInternal, interactive

forces in control


(b) instrumental/integrative orientations instead of motivations as a case of a learner’s context (Robert Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991): converted from instrumental and integrative motivations(i) Instrumental orientation 工具效益性動機導向(usually from extrinsic motivation): acquiring a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals; academic or career-related(ii) Integrative orientations 整合性動機導向 (from intrinsic motivation) (weaker than assimilative orientation 同化性動機導向 by Graham, 1984): learners wish to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language group; socially or culturally oriented(iii) Implications: no single means of learning a L2; the two orientations are not necessarily mutually exclusive

(c) intrinsic and extrinsic motivationintrinsic motivation extrinsic motivationto bring out feelings of competence and self-determinationstrongly favored for long-term retention or self-realizationmaybe turn out to be integrative

anticipation of a reward from outsidefor short-term retention

maybe instrumentalGardner and Lambert (1972) introduced the notions of instrumental and integrative motivation. In the context of language learning, instrumental motivation refers to the learner's desire to learn a language for utilitarian purposes (such as employment or travel), whereas integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a language to integrate successfully into the target language community. In later research studies, Crookes and Schmidt (1991), and Gardner and Tremblay (1994) explored four other motivational orientations: (a) reason for learning, (b) desire to attain the learning goal, (c) positive attitude toward the learning situation, and (d) effortful behavior. Many theorists and researchers have found that it is important to recognize the construct of motivation not as a single entity but as a multi-factorial one. Oxford and Shearin (1994) analyzed a total of 12 motivational theories or models, including those from socio-psychology, cognitive development, and socio-cultural psychology, and identified six factors that impact motivation in language learning: attitudes (i.e., sentiments toward the learning community and the target language)

beliefs about self (i.e., expectancies about one's attitudes to succeed, self-efficacy, and anxiety)


goals (perceived clarity and relevance of learning goals as reasons for learning)

involvement (i.e., extent to which the learner actively and consciously participates in the language learning process)

environmental support (i.e., extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of cultural and outside-of-class support into learning experience)

personal attributes (i.e., aptitude, age, sex, and previous language learning experience).Instructional Strategies to Enhance Student Motivation and Learning TransferResearch studies have shown that language acquisition is the result of an interplay between cognitive mechanism and environmental conditions (Spolsky, 1985; Sivert & Egbert, 1995). Understanding and creating optimal language learning environments thus becomes a primary concern of the language teacher. Teachers can observe circumstances under which learners acquire language and can make adjustments toward creating optimal learning conditions. In designing learning activities, the language teacher should remember that because language learning focuses on both the accuracy and appropriateness of application in various contexts of use, learners must be given opportunities to participate as language users in multiple contexts. These opportunities will result in learners' heightened motivation and awareness of the intricacies of language use.

Some teaching strategies that can be used to foster motivation and provide better transfer opportunities of language skills include the following:

Encourage learners to take ownership in learning.

Have learners take ownership of the learning assignment by letting them identify and decide for themselves relevant learning goals. This will motivate them to apply what they have learned to attain these learning goals.

Promote intentional cognition or mindfulness to learning in various contexts.

Learners must be able to practice language in multiple contexts in order to bridge domains and foster active abstraction of concepts learned (Bransford, et al. 1990). This will help learners recognize the relevance and transferability of different learning


skills or knowledge. Increase authenticity of learning tasks and goals.

Learners should recognize a real need to accomplish learning goals that are relevant and holistic (rather than task-specific). This prepares them for the complexities of real-world tasks that require them to use language skills and knowledge that have to be continually transferred.

Learner anxiety (Horwitz, 1986) and other negative feelings can be stumbling blocks to learners becoming cognizant of learning and transfer opportunities. Thus, providing our learners with the motivation to learn is one of the best steps we can take to facilitate learning success. This is best conveyed by Bruner (1960, p.31): "The best way to create interest in a subject is to render it worth knowing, which means to make the knowledge gained usable in one's thinking beyond the situation in which learning has occurred."


3.4 Sociocultural factors3.4.1 stereotypes 刻板印象/ generalizations 概念化:

(a) Reality is perceived through one’s cultural pattern?- too oversimplified(b) Our cultural milieu shapes our world view (how do stereotypes form)?(c) Stereotype-thinking towards a culture and people in it can be accurate in depicting the typical member of a culture but not for particular individuals so cultural differences need to be understood.

3.4.2 Attitudes: implied by stereotyping toward the culture or language; developed in early childhood and be the result of parents’ and peers’ attitudes

(a) group-specific attitude-> an integrative orientation(b) positive attitudes-> enhance proficiency(c) negative attitudes-> positive by direct exposure to reality

3.4.3 second culture acquisition(a) culture learning: a process of perceiving, interpreting, feeling, and being in the world; to create shared meaning between cultural representatives(b) acculturation 文化適應: the process learners adapt to the target language culture and acquire the L2 usually during the recovery stage

(the tourist stage-> the empty stage (culture shock)-> the recovery stage (culture stress)-> the acceptance stage (adaptation)) * Not everyone going the same sequence of stages

(c) culture shock: --phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis--a profound cross-cultural learning experience which takes place when one examines the degree to which one’s influenced by his own culture and understands the culturally derived values, attitudes, and outlooks of other people

3.4.4 social distance 社會差距(a) definition: the cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that come into contact within an individual which is difficult to measure(b) parameters of social distance by John Schumann (1976)(i)dominance 主導性: TL/L2 politically, culturally, technically, economically dominant, non-dominant or subordinate


(ii) integration 整合性: L2 is assimilation, acculturation or preservation(iii) cohesiveness 凝聚性: cohesive, size of L2(iv) congruence 一致性: congruent value and belief systems in TL/L2(v) permanence 永久性: L2’s intended length of residence in the TL area(c) a good language learning situation: (i) the L2 group is non-dominant in relation to the TL group;(ii) both groups desire assimilation for the L2 group; (iii) low enclosure is the goal of both groups(iv) the two cultures are congruent(v) the L2 group is small and non-cohesive (vi) both groups have positive attitudes towards each other(vii) the L2 group intends to remain in the target language area for a long time(d) measurement of perceived social distance (W. Acton, 1979) by quantifying the different attitudes towards various concepts(e) implication: mastery of fluency in L2 occurs at the beginning of the recovery stage of acculturation(f) the optimal distance model by Brown (1980) for adults especially: a culturally based critical-period hypothesis

1. an adult who fails to master a L2 might have failed to synchronize linguistic and cultural development2. In Stage 3 to Stage 4, those who have achieved nonlinguistic means of coping in a foreign culture-> fossilization

(g) culture in the classroom: four conceptual categories to study the cultural norms(i) individualism 個人主義(loosely integrated)/collectivism (tightly

integrated) 集體主義(ii) power distance 權力差距- the extent to which the less power persons

accept inequality in power and consider it normal(iii) uncertainty avoidance免於不安- strong uncertainty avoidance-> active,

aggressive, emotional, compulsive, security-seeking and intolerant(iv) masculinity- masculine cultures stress material success and assertiveness

3.4.5 language policy and politics(a) world Englishes(b) ESL/ EFL (Book 2, p 193-4)(c) Linguistic imperialism and language rights(d)Language policy and the English only debate


3.4.6 Language, thought, and culture: the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis p.196(a) euphemisms/verbal labels can shape the way one stores events for later recall(b) the way a sentence is structured will affect nuances of meaning

e.g. Did you see the broken headlight?- There is one. Did you see a broken headlight?

(c) conversational discourse signals, a factor of culture- casual/formal(d) lexical items –intersection of culture and cognition e.g. color categorization(e) question: Does language reflect a cultural world view or does language actually shape the world view?(f) – Alternative labels of the Spair-Whorf HypothesisThe Whorfian Hypothesis, linguistic relativity or linguistic determinism(g) Criticism: -It’s possible to talk about anything in any language but some concepts are

easier to express (codability), so the weak version is false.-Through both languages and cultures, some universals are found.

(translability) - A L2 learner can make positive use of prior experiences to facilitate the

process of learning- The validity of the related research is questionable; not generalizable.


3.5 Cross-linguistic influence and learner language3.5.1 the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (by applied linguists) 對比分析法

(a) influenced by behaviorism/structuralism in the 1950s(b) claim: the principal barrier to SLA is the interference of the L1 system with the L2 system so the differences of L1 and L2 should be overcome(c) “Linguistics across cultures” by Robert Lado (1957): the patterns that will cause difficulty in learning can be predicted and described by comparing systematically the target language and the L1; Similar in L1 and L2-> simple; different -> difficult(d) Shortcomings of CAH:(i) CAH is inadequate to predict the interference problems of a learner(ii)Great difference doesn’t necessarily cause great difficulty-> intralingual/interlingual errors(iii)It is difficult to determine exactly which category a particular contrast fit into

3.5.2 Markedness 語言明顯差異理論 and UG: to better explain learning difficulty than CAH

(a) Markedness theory by Fred Eckman (1977)(i) Marked items in a language will be more difficult to acquire than unmarked(ii) Degrees of markedness will correspond to degrees of difficulty(iii)Marked structures are acquired later than unmarked ones.(b)UG= rules shared by all languages(i) to discover innate linguistic principles that govern what is possible in human languages(ii)to understand and describe contrasts of L1 and L2 and difficulties of learners

3.5.3 Learner Language (Interlanguage by Selinker, 1972) 過渡語言(a) IL: a system that has a structurally intermediate status between L1 and L2; It is neither L1 nor L2(b) Approximative system byNemser (1971) 近似體系(c) Idiosyncratic dialect by Corder (1971) 個人特有方言(d) Study learner language from production data which are observable and reflective of a learner’s underlying competence(e) To analyze Interlanguage, errors of learners have to be studied because correct production yields little information about competence

3.5.4 Error Analysis: (performance/ interlanguage analysis)■errors provide the evidence of how language is learned, and what


procedures or strategies the learner is employing in the discovery of language■examination of errors from all possible sources, not just from L1 interference (like CA) e.g. intralingual, sociolinguisitc, psycholinguistic, cognitive or affective sources(a) mistakes 失誤 and errors錯誤

mistakes errorsa performance error either a random guess or a slip due to a failure to utilize a known system correctly

a noticeable deviation reflects the lack of the linguistic competence

Can be self-corrected by native speakers when attention is called

Cannot be self-corrected

(b) identifying and describing errors(i) norms & errors(ii) how to distinguish errors and mistakes?(iii)Describing errors by

■grammatical categories :Noun, verb…■general error type: omission (e.g I went to movie.), misinformation, misordering (e.g. I to the store went), addition (e.g. Does can he sing?), substitution (e.g. I lost my road.)■overt (ungrammatical at the sentence level)/covert errors (grammatically well-formed but not discourse interpretable within the context of communication)■global (hinder communication)/local (at verbatim level)■domain/extent by Lennon, 1991 e.g. a scissors (domain-phrase, extent- an indefinite article); domain is the rank of linguistic unit from phoneme to discourse that must be taken as context in order for the error to become apparent; extent is the rank of linguistic unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied, or reordered to repair the sentence. (to operationalize the distinction between global and local errors)

(iv)explaining errors:systematic, universal, predictable? By repeated systematic observation of learner speech


Sources:1. interlingual transfer: especially in the beginning stages of SLA e.g. “sheep” for “ship” for Chinese students2. intralingual transfer: overgeneralization when learners have begun to acquire parts of the new system e.g “He goed” or overuse of “the/a, ” or simplifications, developmental errors, communication-based errors, errors of avoidance or errors of overproduction.3. context of learning: classroom (tutored) e.g. faulty concepts from teachers/induced erros/bookish (uncontracted forms) ;or social situation (untutored) e.g. dialect acquisition or idiosyncratic dialect4. communicative strategies: circumlocution, word coinage, false cognates (by Tarone, 1981), or prefabricated patterns

(c) criticism:(i) positive reinforcement of clear and free communication is also important (fluency).(ii)Overemphasis on production data; comprehension is also important.(iii)It fails to explain avoidance(iv)It too closely focuses on specific language rather than universal aspects of language

3.5.5 Stages of learner language development: all are not able to measure overall competence because one can be in different stages of different tenses

(a) Random隨機 (presystematic): to guess or experiment e.g. John can to sing(b) Emergent浮現: one begins to discern a system but then regresses to some previous stage; unable to correct; avoidance of structures and topics(c) Systematic系統化: more consistent and able to correct errors when pointed out(d) Stabilization穩定化(post-systematic): few errors, able to self-correct


3.5.6 Variability: due to context as the source of variation or gradual diffusion of incorrect forms of lg in the 2nd or 3rd stages

(a) capability continuum paradigm by Elaine Tarone (1988): the extent to which both linguistic and situational context may help to describe variation; study on non-systematic free variation and individual variation especially contextual variability; variation according to linguistic context, psycholinguistic processing factors, social context, lg function(b) variable competence model by Rod Ellis (1994): variation is due to disparity between classroom context and natural situations; a storehouse of variable interlanguage rules depends on how automatic and how analyzed the rules are from planned or unplanned discourse; unplanned discourse causes automatic production(c) criticism: something variable can be systematic later

3.5.7 Fossilization:(a) definition: the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a person’s L2 competence(b) How do items become fossilized? Fossilized items are those deviant items that first positive affective feedback and then cognitive feedback, reinforcing incorrect forms. Negative affective feedback may result in abortion of communication so meaningful communication is an affective affirmation by the other person (by Vigil & Oller)(i)affective feedback: feedback in terms of kinesic mechanism e.g. gestures, tone of voice, or facial expressions.(ii)cognitive feedback: feedback by means of linguistic devices(c) Why does fossilization occur? Due to the presence or absence of(i) internal motivating factors(ii) seeking interaction with other people(iii) consciously focusing on forms(iv) one’s strategic investment in the learning process

3.5.8 Form-focused instruction:(a) Does form-focused instruction work?Yes, but it depends on the target structure being taught e.g plurals(i) item learning (effective in instruction)/system learning(ii) the Teachability Hypothesis by Penemann: Instruction can only promote language acquisition if the interlanguage is close to the point when the structure to be taught is acquired in the natural setting; instruction only helps to speed up learners’ learning process


(iii)some structures seem to be permanently affected by instruction because-system learning can last longer-it depends on the nature of the instruction-when learners use the structure frequently- focus on form only in a communicative learner centered curriculum

(iv)what structures to teach? Marked functions first to trigger the unmarked ones; explicit instruction is for easily stated grammar rules, implicit instruction for complex rules

(b) What kind of form-focused instruction works best?(i)input-based instruction may be more effective than production-based instruction(ii)consciousness-raising by providing learners positive or negative evidence; but positive input may help learners start using some difficult forms but may not be sufficient to destabilize IL and prevent fossilization(iii) the optimal time for form instruction is after a communicative task(c) Individual differences are likely to influence the effects of instruction. Particular students with analytic, field-independent, and left-brain-oriented characteristics are likely to benefit FFI.

3.5.9 Error treatment(a) when to treat errors: the importance of errors, chance of eliciting correct performance(b) what to correct: global errors to be treated only but some utterances are not clearly global or local(c) How to correct:One useful taxonomy by Bailey, 1985 (p.240) One useful taxonomy by Bailey,

1985- type, source, linguistic complexity, local/global, mistake/error, learner’s affective state, learner’s linguistic stage, pedagogical focus, communicative context, teacher style

(d) Learners’ system is a variable, dynamic, and approximate system, but shouldn’t be treated as an imperfect system.


3.6 Communicative competence (Book 2, p. 266)3.6.1 Definition

(a) Dell Hymes: highlights the difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence to contrast Chomsky’s definition of competence(b) Savignon: Communicative competence is relative and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved, a dynamic and interpersonal construct that can be examined by means of the over performance of two or more individuals.(c) Cummins(i) cognitive/academic language proficiency (context-reduced language-> school-oriented)(ii) basic interpersonal communicative skills- the capacity all children acquire to be able to function in daily communication (context-embedded language-> face to face communication)(d)Canale & Swain(i) Grammatical competence: knowledge of lexical items, morphology, syntax….(ii) Discourse competence-ability to connect sentences to form a meaningful whole(iii) Sociolinguistic competence-knowledge of sociocultural rules e.g roles, shared information…(iv) Strategic competence: the verbal or non-verbal communicative strategies to compensate for breakdown(e) Bachman (1990)(i) organizational competence- grammatical and textual competence (cohesion and rhetorical organization)(ii) pragmatic competence- illocutionary 言外之意(ideational, manipulative, heuristic, imaginative) and sociolinguistic (sensitivity to dialect, registers, naturalness, figures of speech)competence(f) M. Halliday: language functions(i) Instrumental 工具: to manipulate the environment(ii)Regulatory 控制: the control of events e.g. approval(iii)Representational 表達: to make statements, convey facts, explain, report(iv) Interactional 互動: ensure social maintenance (v) Personal 個人: express feelings, emotions, and personality(vi) Heuristic 啟發探究: to acquire language, to learn about the environment(vii) Imaginative 想像: create imaginary systems or ideas


3.6.2 functional syllabuses: (notional-functional syllabus as a precursor to CLT) by Van Ek (See p.59)

(a) curricula are organized around functions like identifying, reporting, denying, declining, invitation, asking permission, apologizing, etc* notion- abstract concepts, contexts or situations e.g. health, travel, education, or shopping(b) controversy: a function is covered, which doesn’t mean learners have internalized it for authentic use in the real world

3.6.3 discourse analysis:篇章結構分析或言談分析(a) the analysis of the relationship between forms and functions of language(b) text attack skills to solve ambiguity: cohesive devices, discourse makers, rhetorical organization

3.6.4Conversation Analysis: (a) how to get attention, initiate a conversation, nominate a topic, develop a topic (turn-taking), and terminate a topic(b) Grice’s Maxims (1967)(i) Quantity: say only as much as necessary for understanding the communication(ii) Quality: say only what is true(iii) Relevance: say only what is relevant(iv) Manner: be clear and brief

3.6.5 Pragmatics(a) how meaning is conveyed and interpreted(b) illocutionary force (intended meaning of an utterance)(c) cooperative principles

3.6.6 language and gender (Refer to books by Deborah Tannen)(a) girls- more standard language, more uncertainty, rapport, connection, positive feedback, face needs(b) boys-more interruptions, less polite, more value on status, compete for the floor

3.6.7 styles and registers(a) formal or informal styles(i) Speech styles by formality by Martin Joos (1967) 正式性指標演說 Oratorical (public speaking)->慎重 deliberative (classroom lecture)-> consultative諮詢 (business transactions)-> 聊天 casual (friends, colleagues)-> 親密 intimate (loved ones)


(ii) verbal and nonverbal feature in styles(iii) syntax: contractions or deletions in intimate and casual styles(iv) lexicon: from intimate to frozen (on the ball, smart, intelligent, perceptive, and astute)(v) pronunciation: hesitation, misarticulations(b) registers (i) to identify with a particular group and maintain solidarity

3.6.8 Nonverbal communication:(a) Kinesics: body language肢體動作(b) eye contact: signal interest, boredom, empathy, hostility, understanding(c) proxemics: physical proximity人際距離(d) artifacts: clothing or ornamentation (sense of self-esteem, socioeconomic class, general character)人工製品(e) kinethetics: touching肢體動覺(f) olfactory dimensions: smell嗅覺

3.6.9 Research findings on SLA(a) Adults and adolescents can acquire a L2(b) The learners creates a systematic IL with the same systematic errors as the child learning the L1(c) There are predictable sequences in acquisition(d) Practice doesn’t make perfect(e) Knowing a linguistic rule doesn’t mean knowing how to use it(f) Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective: esp complex rules(g) More adult learners fossilize: positive affective + cognitive feedback(h) One cannot achieve nativelike command of a L2 in one hour a day(i) The learners’ task is enormous since language is complex(j) A meaningful context is paramount.

Innatist (Krashen) (Book 2 p. 288)

Cognitive (McLaughlin/Bialystok)

Constructivist (Long, Swain & Seliger)

Subconscious acquisition superior to learning and monitoringComprehensible inputLow affective filter

Controlled/automatic processing (M)Focal/peripheral attention (M)Restructuring (M)= subsumption

Interaction hypothesisIntake from input through social interactionOutput hypothesis (Swain)


Natural order of acquisitionZero option for grammar instruction

Implicit/explicit (B) processingUnanalyzed/analyzed knowledge (B)Form-focused instruction

High Input Generators (Seliger)AuthenticityTask-basked instruction

Part III: Practice1. Introduction of important terminology of TESOL 2. Development of English Teaching Methodology3. Curriculum design4. Teaching the four and sub-skills5. Language testing

Part IV: Reviewing previous exam questions & discussion of heated issues

Definitions of important terms:TESOL, TEFL, TESLTESOL—an acronym for teaching English to speakers of other languages, used, particularly in the USA, to describe the teaching of English in situations where it is either a second language or a foreign language.TEFL—an acronym for teaching English as a foreign language, used to describe the teaching of English in situations where it is a foreign language.TESL—an acronym for teaching English as a second language, used either to describe the teaching of English in situations where it is a second language or to refer to any situation where English is taught to speakers of other languages.

ESL & EFL (Book 2 p. 193-4) & EILESL—an abbreviation for English as a second language e.g. learning English of an Arabic speaker in the USAEFL— an abbreviation for English as a foreign language in a context where English in one’s own culture with few immediate opportunities to use the lg within the environment of that culture. E.g. a Japanese learning English in JapanThe ESL/EFL terminology seems to have created a world view that being a native speaker of English will somehow bestow on people not only unquestionable competence in the use and teaching of the lg but also expertise in telling others how English ought to be taught. However, native speakers do not necessarily exemplify the idealized competence. The multiplicity of contexts for the use of English worldwide demands a careful look at the variables of each situation before making any generalization that the two models apply. Although on the surface L2 learning in a


culture involves the deepest form of culture acquisition, we should not too quickly dismiss L2 learning in the native culture from having a potential acculturation factor.* ph.D: pizza-hut delivery

EAP & ESP & EGPEAP--- English for Academic Purposes are courses and programs of study for helping learners develop the skills needed for speaking and writing for academic English, for example, writing essays and reports, taking part in tutorial discussions, giving academic presentationsESP—English for Specific Purposes are courses designed around the specific needs of particular groups of learners, for example, “ English for computer engineers. “ EGP--- English for general purposes, contrasting with ESPEOP--- English for Occupational Purposes

Deductive v.s. inductive learning of grammarDeductive learning— an approach to language teaching in which learners are taught rules and given specific information about a language. They then apply these rules when they use the language. (such as grammar translation method)(time-saving; used in EFL more often)Inductive learning— an approach to language learning in which learners are not taught grammatical or other types of rules directly but are left to discover or induce rules from their experience of using the language. Language teaching methods which emphasize use of the language rather than presentation of information about the language such as the direct method, communicative approach and counseling learning. (time-consuming; used in ESL more often) (Refer to Book 2 p.193; Book 3 p.118)

Approach, method, procedures, and technique (Book 2 p 169-172)Approach— refer to different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned such as cognitive (the most general of three, the broadest); an approach describes how lg is used and how its constituent parts interlock and also how people acquire their knowledge of the lg and makes statements about the conditions which will promote successful lg learning.* cognitive code approach—language learning is a process which involves active mental processes and not simply the forming of habits. The communicative approach makes some use of these principles.Method— a set of procedures, a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a language such as the silent way; a practical realization of an approach where decisions


about types of activities, roles of teachers and learners, the kinds of material which will be helpful and some model of syllabus organizations, including procedures and techniques.Procedures--- an ordered sequence of techniques which can be described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that…. It is smaller than a method but bigger than a technique.Technique— a classroom device or activity such as silent viewing when using video materials to facilitate language practice

* term definitions: Book 2, p.171; Book 3 p. 13-16 (Anthony’s distinction among approach, method and technique; Richards & Rodgers’ distinction among method (methodology), approach, design and procedure; a set of definitions reflecting the current usage)

1. methodology方法論: The study of pedagogical practices in general. Whatever considerations are involved in how to teach are methodological.

1. approach 教學觀: Theoretical positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings.

3. method 教學方法: A generalized, prescribed set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be primarily concerned with teacher and student roles and behaviors, and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences n a variety of contexts.

4. curriculum 課程 for U.S. /syllabus 大綱 for U.K. : Designs for carrying out a particular lg program. Features include a primary concern with the specification of linguistic and subject-matter objects, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated group of learners in a defined context.

5. technique 教學技巧: any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used in the lg classroom for realizing lesson objectives.

Error & mistake in error analysisError—a piece of speech or writing that is recognizably different in some way from native speaker usage. They can occur at the level of discourse, grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation. (* local & global errors) Errors have been studied to discover the processes learners make use of in learning and using a lg and explain the development


of learner lg (interlanguage).Mistake—deviations is usage that reflects learners’ inability to use what they actually know of the target language caused by lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness or some other aspect of performance.

fluency & accuracy /function & form/ language use & language analysisFluency—the ability an individual to speak or write without undue hesitationAccuracy—the ability an individual to speak or write grammatically

receptive & productive language (a current view: interactive listening/reading)receptive (not passive) language: listening and readingproductive language: speaking and writing

declarative (know what) & procedural (know how) knowledge by AndersonDeclarative knowledge (factual knowledge)—knowledge that can be stated or declared, such as grammatical rules and can consist of concepts or ideas that can be stored as propositions. E.g. an account of the tense system in English can be presented as a set of statements, rules or facts, i.e., it can be learned as declarative knowledge.Procedural knowledge—the ability to use the knowledge to get things done, for example, being able to use grammatical rules and principles to communicate meaning such as how to ride a bicycle or how to speak German; it is acquired gradually through practice and underlies the learning of skills. Many aspects of SLA consist of procedural rather than declarative knowledge.In the three stages of skill acquisition by Anderson (1995), learners use conscious declarative knowledge in the cognitive stage, then in the association stage, they start to proceduralize this knowledge and finally in the autonomous stage performance becomes more or less automatic and errors disappear. performance and competence by Chomsky Performance-- a person’s actual use of language; how a person uses his knowledge of a language in producing and understanding sentences.Competence-- a person’s knowledge of a language (usually refers to the ideal speaker/hearer, not a real person who would have a complete knowledge of the whole lg); a person’s ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before and the knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular lg; the focus of language learning (based on an ideal listener/speaker)People may have the competence to produce a long sentence but when they actually try to use this knowledge, there are reasons why they restrict it. For example, they may run out of breath or their listeners forget what has been said if the sentence is too


long. Due to performance factors such as fatigue, lack of attention, nervousness or excitement, their actual use of language may not reflect their competence. The errors they make are described as examples of performance.

Acquisition vs. learning (Book 2 p. 132, 277) by Krashen, a dichotomyAcquisition--the implicit and subconscious processes by which people naturally develop proficiency in a language; similar to children picking up L1Learning-- the explicit and conscious processes by which people formally develop language proficiency.

Bottom-up processing vs. top-down processing from Schema Theory, coined by Barlett, 1932 (Book 6, p 201)Top-down processing—a way in which humans analyze and process language as part of the process of comprehension and learning by making use of previous knowledge (higher-level knowledge) in analyzing and processing information which is received such as one’s expectations, experience, schemata in reading the text.Bottom-up processing— a way making use principally of information which is already present in the data (words, sentences, etc.) such as understanding a text mainly by analyzing the words and sentences in the text itself.

Minimal pairs: two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning, such as bear and pear; it is also sometimes used for any two pieces of lg that are identical except for a specific feature e.g. The boy is here/the boys are here.Minimal pair drill where minimal pairs are practiced together to help learners distinguish a sound contrast.

The Phonics Approach vs. the Whole Language ApproachPhonics— a method of teaching children to read. Children are taught to recognize the relationship between letters and sounds. They are taught the sounds which the letters of the alphabet represent and then try to build up the sound of a new or unfamiliar word by saying it one sound at a time.Whole language— an approach to reflect principles of both first and second language acquisition:Language is presented as a whole and not as isolated pieces: it attempts to teach language in real contexts and situations and emphasizes the purposes for which a language is usedLearning activities move from whole to part. For example, students might read a


whole article rather than part of it.All four modes of language are used, thus lessons include all four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing.Language is learned through social interaction with others, hence students often work in pairs or groups instead of individually.

Teacher-centered vs. learner-centered teachingTeacher-centered (fronted) teaching— a teaching style in which instruction is closely managed and controlled by the teacher, where students often respond in unison to teacher questions, and where whole-class instruction is preferred to other methods.Learner-centered teaching— methods of teaching which emphasizes the active role of students in learning, tries to give learners more control over what and how they learn and encourages learners to take more responsibility for their own learning. It is encouraged by many current teaching approaches.

Target language vs. native language Target language—the language which a person is learningNative language— a first language or mother tongue which is acquired first.

Form vs. function (Language analysis vs. language use)Form— the physical characteristics of a thing-> in language use, a linguistic form is like the imperativeFunction— a linguistic form can perform a variety of different functions: (Speech acts)Come here for a drink-> invitationWatch out-> warningTurn left at the corner-> directionPass the salt-> request

Structural syllabus & Notional syllabus & notional-functional syllabusStructural syllabus—A syllabus organized around lists of grammatical structures. E.g. the Audiolingual MethodNotional syllabus—A syllabus organized around sets of general concepts, such as abstract concepts (existence, space, time, quantity, quality) and contexts/situations (travel, health, education, shopping and free time)Notional-functional syllabus (or functional syllabus)- the functional part of the syllabus attended to functions as organizing elements of a foreign language


curriculum such as identifying, reporting, denying, apologizing, etc. (Van Ek & Alexander, 1975) e.g. CLT. It provided popular underpinnings for the development of communicative textbooks and materials in English lg courses. But this syllabus, not a method, does not necessarily develop communicative competence in learners since it is only a syllabus and it still presents lg as an inventory of units- functional rather than grammatical units. Communicative competence implies a set of strategies for negotiating meaning. But it attends to pragmatic use of lg and provides contextual (notional) settings to realize the functional purposes.

CALL-- computer-assisted language learningsuch as collaborative projects, peer-editing of compositions, E-mail, web page design, reinforcement of classroom material, games and simulations, computer adaptive testing and speech processing.

3 P (or PPP)- a classroom teaching procedure of presentation, practice and production (from the Situational Approach) (See also Handout A Part I)

Multiple Intelligences Theory—by Howard Gardner in “Frames of Mind”Human do not possess a single intelligence, but a range of intelligences. They are c, verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical/rhythmic, intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences. All people have all of these intelligences but in each person one or more of them is more pronounced. Gardner in 1993 added an eighth intelligence, Naturalistic intelligence to account for the ability to recognize and classify patterns in nature. If we accept this concept, it suggests that the same learning task may not be appropriate for all students. By keeping our eye on different individuals, we can direct students to learning activities which are best suited to their own proclivities.


2 English Teaching MethodologyMethod as a unified, cohesive, finite set of design features, is now given only minor attention in the past two decades since we recognize the diversity of lg learners in worldwide contexts which demand an eclectic blend of tasks. So there will never be a method for all as what the designer methods claimed to be. The focus in recent years has been “a search for valid communicative, interactive techniques suitable for specified learners pursuing specific goals in specific contexts.” The interaction between one’s approach and classroom practice is the key to dynamic teaching. Still getting to know issues, findings, conclusions and principles of lg learning and teaching along with teaching methods available equips lg teachers with more promise to success. A: Grammar-translation method (Prussian Method or Classical Method) (1840-1940)Origin: In the Western world, foreign language learning in schools was synonymous with the learning of Greek or Latin. Latin was thought to promote intellectuality through mental gymnastics (exercise) and was taught by “the Classical Method,” whose focus was on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and translation of texts, and doing written exercises. Little thought was given at the time to teaching oral use of language and foreign languages were taught as any other skill.This approach became the Grammar-Translation Method late in the 19th century. Goals:it helps students read and appreciate foreign language literature; through the deductive study of the grammar of the target language, students would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language;that will help them grow intellectually ;(metal-discipline theory)reading and writing are the major focus;accuracy is emphasizedCurriculum design: teacher’s role: teacher-centeredlearner’s role: passiveL1’s role: dominantClassroom interaction: teacher-student interactionActivity design and evaluation: early reading of difficult classical texts, translation, rote memory (p.19) of lists of isolated words; classroom quizzes and formal written testsAdvantages (a and b) and drawbacks (c-f):(a) reading training and easily constructed tests of grammar and translations which can be graded objectively(b) few specialized skills required on the teacher


(c) an inability of students to use L2 for communication(d) tedious approach(e) no theory/rationale to support it in terms of linguistics, psychology or educational theory(f) little attention to the content of texts

B. Direct Method: (1860-1920) (Book 2 P.43-5) affected by Gouin’s Series Method and Berlitz’s efforts but declined both in Europe and USA by the end of the first quarter of the 20th century when a reading approach became popular in the USA.

I. BackgroundOrigin: toward the mid-nineteenth century, a reaction to the grammar-translation method and its failure to produce learners who could use the foreign language they had been studying were formed. Naturalistic principles of language learning were proposed since speech was the fundamental elements of language. (L. Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz ) For example:1. the spoken language is primary and that this should be reflected in an oral-based methodology; lg learning is primarily a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions.2. the findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training (1886, IPA)3. learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form4. words should be presented in sentences; that is in context5. the rules of grammar should be taught only after the students have practiced the grammar points in context (inductive)6. translation should be avoidedApproach:Principle: meaning is to be conveyed directly in the TL through the use of demonstration on everyday vocabulary and sentences and visual aids and no translation is allowed.Characteristics:No use of L1Beginning with dialogs and anecdotes to build up oral communication skillsGrammar and culture taught inductivelyActions and pictures to make meanings clearAdvantages: learners are highly motivated and the use of native-speaking teachers are the normDrawbacks:It overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic first language


learning and classroom foreign language learning (F. Gouin, mid 19th century)It lacked a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory Only native- speaker teachers are required although at times L1 is more efficient to comprehension; it largely depends on the teacher’s skill It is time-consuming and can only be conducted in small classes

C. Background of Audiolingualism (the 1930s to 1960s): (also called the Michigan Method or the Army Method)Origin: By the 1920s, use of the Direct Method in noncommercial schools in Europe had declined. In France and Germany, it was gradually modified into versions that combined some Direct Method techniques with more controlled grammar-based activities. On the other hand, the European popularity of the method in the early 20th century caused foreign language specialists in the U.S. to have it implemented but with caution. The goal of trying to teach conversation skills was considered impractical due to the restricted time available in school, the limited skills of teachers and the perceived irrelevance of conversation skills in a foreign language for the average American college student. Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a reading-based approach through the gradual introduction of words and grammatical structures in simple reading texts. Reading then became the goal of most foreign language program in the U.S. until World War II. In order to supply the U.S. government with personnel who were fluentin other foreign languages, the government commissioned American universities to develop foreign language programs for military personnel. The objective of the programs was for students to attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages. Linguists, such as Leonard Bloomfield at Yale, had already developed training programs known as “the informant method”. The informant, a native speaker of the language, served as a source of phrases and vocabulary and provided sentences for imitation and a linguist supervised the learning experience. The students and the linguist were able to take part in guided conversation with the informant and gradually learned how to speak the language. This was adopted by the army and in small classes of mature and highly motivated students, excellent results were often achieved. The Army Specialized Training Program lasted only about two years but attracted considerable attention. It convinced a number of linguists of the value of an intensive, oral-based approach to the learning of a foreign language. In addition, With America emerging as a major international power, there was a growing demand for English teachers to thousands of foreign students entering the U.S. to study in universities. These factors led to the emergence of Audiolingualism in the mid-fifties.


Charles Fries, trained in structural linguistics, established the first English Language Institute in the University of Michigan in 1939. For him, unlike Direct Method, the language was taught by systematic attention to pronunciation and by intensive oral drilling of its basic sentence patterns. Expertise in linguistics was regarded as a necessary foundation for expertise in language teaching. Particularly, the Contrastive Analysis in applied linguistics was strongly applied to predict language interference. Influenced by the launching of the first Russian satellite in 1957, the U.S. government acknowledged the need for a more intensive effort to teach foreign languages in order to prevent Americans from being isolated from scientific advanced made in other countries. Funds for the study and analysis of modern languages were provided. Language teaching specialists combined structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, behaviorist psychology and aural-oral procedures to propose Audiolingualism. (coined by Nelson Brooks in 1964) It even provided methodological foundation for English teaching materials at college and university level to prosper such as the Lado English Series (1977) and English 900 (1964).Principles:A language is speech; speaking skills should be presented first.Language mastery is represented as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response chains, a habit formation. Students developed correct language habits by repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language labs.Analogy, the processes of generalization and discrimination, provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Drills can enable learners to form correct analogies.The meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.Characteristics of the approachA conversation is followed by an introduction to sentence patterns and drills of them.Students’ errors have to be corrected right away to prevent the formation of bad habits.A variety of drills are presented to reinforce positive learning.Vocabulary learning is kept to minimum.Influences:(1) Language learning is a process of habit formation.(2) A variety of drills are introduced to language teaching.Drawbacks:(1) Students are found to be unable to transfer skills acquired to real communication outside the classroom.(2) The experience of studying through audiolingual procedures may be boring and unsatisfying.


(3) The theoretical foundation of auidolingualism was attacked as being unsound both in terms of language theory and learning theory.(4) Language is not a habit structure: Ordinary linguistic behavior involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns. (Transformation Grammar by Noam Chomsky 1966)(5) Human language use is not limited behavior but is created anew from underlying knowledge of abstract rules. Sentences are not learned by imitation and repetition but generated from the learner’s underlying competence.

D. The Silent Way Method: (the early 1970s) one of the Designer Methods by David Nunan (promises of success; one size fits all)Origin: This method was devised by Caleb Gattegno to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are coded by specific colors with cuisenaire rods (developed by Georges Cuisenaire, a European educator who used them to teach math). He believed that learning is best facilitated if the learner discovers and creates language rather than just remembering and repeating what has been taught. The Audio-lingual Method has the problem that students are unable to transfer the habits they have mastered in the classroom to communicate use outside it. Furthermore, the idea that learning a language meant forming a set of habits was seriously challenged in the early 1960s, particularly by Linguist Noam Chomsky. He proposed that speakers have knowledge of underlying abstract rules, which allow them to understand and create new utterances.In addition, in the early 1970s, the emphasis on human cognition led to see learners in a more active role to formulate hypotheses to discover the rules of the target language. When errors occur, they are signs that learners are testing their hypotheses. The general objective of this method is to give beginners oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language such as near-native fluency, correct pronunciation and mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language. It adopts a basically structural syllabus, with lessons planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary. Language items are introduced according to their grammatical complexity. The “function vocabulary” because of their high utility such as numbers, prepositions, pronouns, quantifiers and so on is introduced early in the course. The Silent Way shares certain principles with the Cognitive Approach.Principles:Teaching should be subordinated to learning= learning through self-reliance (key words- independence, autonomy and responsibility) Learning is a problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which learners are


expected to become independent, autonomous and responsible.Learning is not primarily imitation or drill- The teacher’s strict avoidance of repetition forces alertness and concentration on the part of the learners:The teacher should be silent as much as possible to let the learners do the learning. So the teacher does not dominate learning processes. Each student has a retaining system. What students have experienced is recorded in their language systems. There is no need to repeat the language concept they have already gained from their L1. In silence, students concentrate on the task to be accomplished.Silence, as avoidance of repetition, is thus an aid to alertness, concentration, and mental organization.Students’ self-awareness leads to self-correction.When students are aware of how their learning is and become alert to it, they can try it and correct themselves at any time.Characteristics of the method:The teacher silently monitors students’ interaction and creates an environment that encourages student risk taking.Special teaching aids are used such as a pointer, cuisenaire rods, sound-color chart, fidel charts and word charts to provide students physical foci for their learning and also create memorable images to facilitate student recall.Influences:Teaching is subordinated to learning. (discovery learning, responsible learners)Language learning can also train students to be independent and responsible.Teachers don’t model pronunciation but direct and monitor students’ performance.It promotes the use of phonemic charts and points to objects and sounds and Cuisenaire rods as well as the use of discovery techniques. (Book 6, p 161)Criticism:It was too harsh a method and the teacher was distance. Some aspects of language can be taught directly instead of having students struggle for hours.The rods and charts wore thin after a few lessons. Other than those, it resembled any other language classroom.

E. Desuggestopedia: one of the Designer Methods, tapping subconscious resourcesOrigin: Originator: in the 1970s by Georgi Lozanov, a Bulgarian psychiatrist-educatorAn affective-humanistic approach (respect for learners’ feelings): derived from SuggestologySuggestology: science concerned with the systematic study of the nonrational and


nonconscious influences that human beings are constantly responding to; involving loading the memory banks with desired and facilitating memoriesDesuggestion: involving unloading the memory banks or reserves of unwanted or blocking memories; in this method the suggestive atmosphere takes place with soft lights, baroque music, cheerful room decorations, comfortable seating and dramatic techniques used by the teacher in the presentation of material

Principles:(1) Most learning takes place in a relaxed but focused state so attentiveness can be manipulated to optimize learning and recall.(2) The emphasis on memorization to vocabulary pairs—a target language item and its native language translation—suggests a view of language in which lexis is central and in which lexical translation rather than contextualization is stressed(3) Six principal components through which desuggestion and suggestion operateAuthority: people remember best and are most influenced by information coming from an authoritative sourceInfantilization: a teacher-students relation is like that of parent to child; learners take part in role playing, games, songs and gymnastic exercises that help the older students regain the self-confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of the child.double-planedness (involving both hemispheres of the brain (analysis + synthesis) & using both the conscious and unconscious mind): the learner learns not only from the effect of direct instruction but from the environment in which the instruction takes placeintonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness: Varying the tone and rhythm of presented material helps both to avoid boredom through monotony of repetition and to dramatize, emotionalize, and give meaning to linguistic material. Both intonation and rhythm are coordinated with a musical background. The musical background helps to induce a relaxed attitude, concert pseudo-passiveness in which anxieties and tension are relieved and power of concentration for new material is raised.


Characteristics:(1) The students with a new identity and personal information(2) The decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative behavior of the teacher to create an optimal learning environment(3) Teachers trained to read dialogues in a special way of using voice quality, intonation, and timing to deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly and have students understand and create solutions of problems(4) The centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning(a) Three functions of music in therapy by Gaston in 1968(i) to facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal relations(ii) to bring out increased self-esteem through increased self-satisfaction in musical performance(iii) to use the unique potential of rhythm to energize and bring order (Lozanov calls upon in his use of music to relax learners as well as to structure, pace and punctuate the presentation of linguistic material)(B) The type of music: slow movements (sixty beats a minute) in 4/4 time for Baroque concertos strung together into about a half-hour concert (the body relaxed, the mind alert)an eight-second cycle for pacing out data at slow intervals: the first four beats of the cycle is silence, the second four beats the teacher presents the material (The experiments show that not only human but vegetable subjects thrive under 60-beat stimulation)The procedure: At the beginning of the session, all conversation stops for a minute or two, and the teacher listens to the music coming from a tape-recorder. He waits and listens to several passages in order to enter into the mood of the music and then begins to read or recite the new text, his voice modulated in harmony with the musical phrases. The students follow the text in their text-books where each lesson is translated into the mother tongue. Between the first and second part of the concert, there are several minutes of solemn silence. In some cases, even longer pauses can be given to permit the students to stir a little. Before the beginning of the second part of the concert, there are again several minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard again before the teacher begins to read the text. Now the students close their textbooks and listen to the teacher's reading. At the end, the students silently leave the room. They are not told to do any homework on the lesson they have just had except for reading it cursorily once before going to bed and again before getting up in the morning. (Lozanov 1978: 272)Influences and contributions:


(1) fine arts to relax learners(2) emphasis of keeping students’ privacy and dealing with their feelings(3) contexualized dialogues that are culturally based for developing functional proficiency through role-plays and other interactive activities(4) an interest in the development of accuracy, as explanations are provided for grammatical structures learnedDrawbacks:(1) questionable results from Suggestopedia of Lozanov’s experiment data(2) lack of practicality(3) the input material is almost pedagogically prepared: lack of authenticity

F. Community Language Learning (Counseling- Learning): (1970s) one of the Designer Methods stressing the role of the affective domain in promoting cognitive learningOrigin:CLL was developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates in Chicago, 1955. It is sometimes cited as an example of a humanistic approach and derives its primary insights from counseling. With that, the roles of the teacher are the counselor and learners, the clients. The counselor does not automatically assist the clients but passively offer his help to them. CLL involves humanistic techniques which engage the whole person, including the emotions and feelings as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioral skills. Influenced by Carl Roger’s humanistic psychology, Curran found that adults often feel threatened by a new learning situation or fear that they will appear foolish. A way to deal with the fears of students is for teachers to become language counselors, skillful understanders of the struggle students face as they attempt to internalize another language. In this way, teachers can help students overcome their negative feelings and further turn them into positive energy in learning.Principles:Learning is persons: human individuals need to be understood and aided in the process of fulfilling personal values and goals; this is best done in community with others striving to attain the same goals ; whole-persons learning in a relationship of trust, support, and cooperation between teacher and students and among studentsLearning is dynamic and creative: learning is a living and developmental processBuilding a relationship with and among students is important as well as lessening their fears to a new learning situation.Teachers do not remain in the front of the classroom to reduce threat to them.To let students feel secure facilitates their learning such as use of L1, more


cooperation in the community, understanding what will happen in each activity and so on.Characteristics:a conversation in a beginning class in L1 with translation of the teacher and later on transcriptionstudents sitting in a circle with a tape recorder: a dependent community to cooperate with each other rather than compete with each other.teachers as counselors and students as clients: sensitive to students’ feelings and fearssix elements necessary for nondefensive learning: security, aggression, attention, reflection, retention and discriminationContributions and influences:the role of teachers as counselors who understand and assist students to help them overcome the threatening affective factorsemphasis of classroom interaction in cooperation, not competitionrespect for students’ choice of learning content with a learner-generated conversationno translation but for Ss to induce rulesDrawbacks:The procedure doesn’t ensure that a variety of contexts necessary for coping in the target culture is included since the content is determined by the participants.Students may feel uncomfortable with the apparent lack of structure or sequence in the introduction of grammatical and lexical items; that is too much reliance on an inductive strategy of learning. Besides, there is no syllabus for CLL, a posteriori approach to syllabus specification. The teacher is too nondirective. Finally, the success of CLL depended largely on the translation expertise of the counselor. Review of the principles: (Book 1) ten key questions to answerWhat are the goals of teachers who use the CLL method?-- To learn how to use the target language communicatively in a nondefensive mannerWhat is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?T—a counselor; S—a clientThe relationship between T and S from dependency to independency through five stages (focus of fluency or accuracy)What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?a conversation in L1-> translation in chunks recording of the conversation a transcript with L1 equivalents activities based on the conversationsix elements necessary for nondefensive learningsecurity—non-threatening learning environmentaggression—actively involved in the learning experienceattention—ability to attend to many factors simultaneously by narrowing the scope of


attention initiallyreflection—when Ss reflect on the language as the teacher reads the transcript three times; when Ss are invited to stop and consider the active experience they haveretention—the integration of the new material that takes place within the whole selfdiscrimination—sorting out differences among target language forms such as Human ComputerWhat is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student interaction?S-T first and S-S interaction afterwards; teacher-student-centered with both being decision-makers in the classHow are the feelings of the students dealt with?Inviting Ss to comment on how they feel to keep their securityHow is language viewed? How is culture viewed?Language for communication in a supportive learning process; culture as an integral part of language learningWhat areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?Grammar points, pronunciation patterns and vocabulary based on the language Ss generate; the importance of understanding and speaking the language at first, then reading and writingWhat is the role of the students’ native language?L1 to enhance students’ security as a bridge from the familiar to the unfamiliar; literal L1 equivalents but less L1 in later stagesHow is evaluation accomplished?An integrative test rather than a discrete-point one such as writing a paragraph or an oral interview or self-evaluation tooHow does the teacher respond to student errors?T repeats correctly what Ss say incorrectly without calling further attention to the error

G. Total Physical Response (TPR): by James Asher, 1977, one of the Designer MethodsOrigin:Developed by James Asher in the 1970s, TPR is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action. TPR is linked to the developmental psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy. It is based on the belief that the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is to follow instruction uttered by the instructor without native language translation.In psychology, it is linked to the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more


often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. Retracing can be done verbally such as rote repetition or in association with motor activity. In addition, in a developmental sense, Asher claims that speech directed to young children consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to produce verbal responses. The emphasis on developing comprehension skills before the learner is taught to speak links to the so-called Comprehension Approach, the principles of which share the belief that (1) comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning a language; (2) the teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are established; (3) skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills; (4)teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form; (5) teaching should minimize learner stress (Richards & Rodgers, 1986). There are other methods being practiced under this common ground such as Krashen and Terrell’s Natural Approach, which emphasizes students’ developing basic communication skills and vocabulary through their receiving meaningful exposure to the target language. By using pictures and occasional words in the students’ native language, teachers have to make sure their input is comprehensible, acquisition will proceed naturally and a low affective filter should be created to reduce anxiety. Another example is Winitz and Reed’s self-instructional program and Winitz’ The Learnables. In this method, students listen to tape-recorded words, phrases, and sentences while they look at accompanying pictures. The meaning of the utterance is clear from the context the picture provides.Another method is the Lexical Approach developed by Michael Lewis. It is more concerned that students receive abundant comprehensible input. Especially at lower levels, teachers talk extensively to the students while requiring little or no verbal response from them. They are particularly encouraged to notice multi-word lexical items such as I see what you mean.Principles:Understanding of the target language should be developed before speaking.Meaning can often be conveyed through actions, especially by using commands.Feelings of success and low anxiety facilitate learning.Spoken language should be emphasized over written language.Teachers should be tolerant of errors which are expected to be made by students.Meaning is more important than form.Influences:Learning a foreign language is similar to the first language acquisition.Make language learning as enjoyable as possible in a low-anxiety environment->Feelings of success and low anxiety facilitate learning, especially effective for


beginnersTPR represents a useful set of teaching ideas and techniques that can be integrated into other methodologies for certain instructional purposes.Limitations:There may be substantial limitations on what can be effectively accomplished in terms of proficiency goals through commands only (especially for advanced learners)There is little emphasis on the development of accuracy in Asher’s description of the method.

H. The Natural Approach (one of the Designer Methods): Tracy Terrell since 1982, influenced by Stephen Krashen’s theories in the 1970sOrigin: a set of principles for language teaching adapted from ways in which a first language is acquired, based on Krashen’s theoriesAssumptions:The goal is the ability to communicate with native speakers of the target language: the level of communicative competence needed for minimal communication acceptable to native speakers is much lower than that supposed by most teachers so the expectations for structural accuracy should be lowered and the key to comprehension and oral production is the acquisition of vocabulary.Comprehension precedes production due to the silent period.Production emerges naturally in stages. (inevitable errors within but correction of errors is negative in terms of motivation, or attitude)Group work encourages speech.The affective filter should be lowered usually by TPR activities for the beginners.Students are permitted to respond in both L1 and L2.Influence of Krashen’s theories(1) The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis: Adult L2 learners have two means for internalizing the interlanguage but learning cannot lead to acquisition. Learning and acquisition are mutually exclusive so large doses of acquisition activities in the classroom with little rote learning is recommendedAcquisition LearningImplicit, subconscious process of constructing the system of a lg, similar to children picking up their L1

Explicit, conscious process where students attend to form, figure out rules, and are aware of the process

Informal situations Formal situationsInductive learning of grammar Deductive learning of grammarBased on attitude Based on aptitudeStable order of acquisition Simple to complex order of learning


(2) The Monitor Hypothesisassumption: Conscious learning can function only as a monitor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system and we may call upon learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate.The monitor is involved conscious learning, not in acquisition.Three conditions that limit the successful use of the monitor--Time, focus on form, and knowledge of rules

(3) The Natural Order Hypothesis: following the earlier morpheme order studies of Dulay & Burt, 1974 (there was a natural order in which grammar was acquired, the order didn’t reflect the order in which items were taught, the natural order could not be altered by instruction.-> it was not necessary to drill grammar)Assumption: Grammatical items will be acquired in a predetermined order that cannot be changed by formal instruction.cross-linguistic influence and learner language-naturalistic developmental processes especially during acquisition, not learning.

(4) The Input Hypothesis: the relationship between input and language acquisitionAssumption: (i) learners subconsciously acquire language from input, a little beyond their current competence; the acquirer understands input lg that contains structure a bit beyond his current level of competence. So speaking cannot be taught directly or very early in the lg classroom because speech will emerge as long as input is sufficient.(ii) The hypothesis relates to acquisition, and not to learning(iii) The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly but emerges independently in time after learners have built up linguistic competence.(iv) if there is a sufficient quantity of comprehensible input, I+1 will usually be provided automatically.Input gets converted to intake: input is language a learner hears or receives from which he or she can learn e.g. reading a book, listening to a conversation or watching a movie; intake is the subset of all input that actually gets assigned to our long-term memory store (what you can remember over a period of time) so input should not be too difficult for learners to convert input to intake through a learner’s process of linking forms to meaning and noticing gaps between the learner’s current internalized rule system and the new input.Caretaker speech (provided to child acquirers of L1, rough-tuned to their present level of understanding) & foreigner talk (to adult acquirers, native speakers use simplified communication with foreigners)


Criticism:1. The distinction between subconscious (acquisition) and conscious (learning) is fuzzy- what is conscious and subconscious?2. There is no evidence to show that there is no overlap between acquisition and learning: Krashen’s zero option (don’t teach grammar by Ellis) is not supported: Varying degrees of learning and acquisition can both be beneficial, depending on the learner’s styles and strategies3. Success in a foreign language cannot be attributed to input alone since the Input Hypothesis ascribes little credit to learners, and their own active engagement.4. How input turns to intake is not clearly operationalized or consistently proposed.5. The notion of i + 1 is nothing new but a reiteration of meaningfulness or subsumability.6. Enough input does not guarantee speech/production.Refutation: 1.High/Low Input Generators by Seliger: a broader conceptualization of the role of input that gives learners more credit for eventual successHIG- people who are good at initiating and sustaining interaction or generating input from others; high levels of interaction both in the classroom and outside so faster rate in learningLIG- more passive learners who do little to generate input from others; less interactive in the classroom2. Comprehensible Output Hypothesis by Swain Comprehensible input must at least complemented by a significant amount of output that gives credit to the role of the learner’s production. Output serves an important role in SLA because it generates highly specific input the cognitive system needs to build up a coherent set of knowledge.(5) The Affective Filter Hypothesisthree kinds of affective variables related to SLA- motivation, self-confidence and anxietyAcquirers with a low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact with confidence, and are more receptive to the input they receive* Implications for language teachingAs much comprehensible input as possible must be presentedWhatever helps comprehension is important such as visual aidsFocus should be on listening and reading.Meaningful communication rather than form as well as interesting input and a relaxed classroom atmosphere should be centered to lower the affective filter

* Criticism of Krashen’s theories:


Drawbacks of the Natural ApproachThe lack of form-focused instruction or corrective feedback in classroom instruction and students’ responsibility for self-correctionStudents speak much too soon, thereby raising anxiety and lessening the possibility of further risk-taking as the learner tries to progress.* He modified this assertion in later years that an advance organizer to establish form-meaning relationships in communicative activities is beneficial.

I. Communicative Language Teaching (A functional approach since 1970s (Hadley, p.116)): since 1970s it is an approach, not a method; a unified but broadly based theoretical position about the nature of language and of language learning and teaching. (by Richards & Rodgers, 1986)BackgroundThis approach is found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. A lot of British linguists contributed to the formation of the Communicative Approach which aims to make communicative competence (Hymes, 1972) the goal of language teaching and develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. Communicative competence is what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community.

Richards and Rodgers (1986) described CLT as an approach rather than a method, since it represents a philosophy of teaching that is based on communicative lg use. Advocated by many applied linguists, CLT in their views emphasizes notional-functional concepts and communicative competence, rather than grammatical structures, as central to teaching. The major characteristics are:1. Meaning is primary; contextualization is basic.2. Attempts to communicate in TL are encouraged in the beginning of instruction.3. Material sequencing is determined by the content, meaning, and function.4. L1 is acceptable when feasible.5. Activities and strategies for learning are varied.6. Communicative competence is the goal of instruction.

In Hyme’s view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge and ability for language use with respect towhether something is formally possible;whether something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;whether something is appropriate in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;


whether something is in fact done, actually performed and what its doing entailsHalliday’s functional account (1975) of language use is also favored in CLT. He described seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first language:the instrumental function: using language to get thingsthe regulatory function: using language to control the behavior of othersthe interactional function: using language to create interaction with othersthe personal function: using language to express personal feelings and meaningsthe heuristic function: using language to learn and to discoverthe imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imaginationthe representational function: using language to communicate A functional approach: CLT (Hadley, p.116)

Richards and Rodgers (1986) described CLT as an approach rather than a method, since it represents a philosophy of teaching that is based on communicative lg use. Advocated by many applied linguists, CLT in their views emphasizes notional-functional concepts and communicative competence, rather than grammatical structures, as central to teaching. The major characteristics are:6. Meaning is primary; contextualization is basic.7. Attempts to communicate in TL are encouraged in the beginning of instruction.8. Material sequencing is determined by the content, meaning, and function.9. L1 is acceptable when feasible.10. Activities and strategies for learning are varied.6. Communicative competence is the goal of instruction.Canale and Swain (1998) identify four dimensions of communicative competence:Grammatical competence- similar to linguistic competence by Chomsky by what is formally possibleSociolinguistic competence- understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the purpose for their interactionDiscourse competence- the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of cohesion and coherenceStrategic competence- the coping strategies to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect communicationPrinciple: communication, task, meaningfulness principles

1. the communication principle: Activities that involve communication promote lg learning.

2. the task principle: Activities that involve the completion of real-world tasks promote learning.


3. the meaningfulness principle: Learners must be engaged in meaningful and authentic language use for learning to take place.

Influences:The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.Language is a system for the expression of meaning.The activities that truly communicative have features of information gap, choice, and feedback; they must be guided by the teacher for unrehearsed situations. Authentic materials should be used.True communication is purposeful.Activities are better carried out in small groups in which interaction among students are maximized.Criticism:Being prejudiced in favor of native-speaker teachers by demanding a relatively uncontrolled range of language use and expecting the teacher to be able to respond to any and every language problem which may come up.A basis of group and pairwork and less teacher intervention against education traditionsLack of the explicit teaching of grammar -> a consequent loss among students in accuracy in the pursuit of fluencyPractice in the classroom:Grammatical structures had better be subsumed under various functional categories.Authentic materials are preferred.There should be less attention to grammatical rules but fluency should never be encouraged at the expense of clear, unambiguous, direct communication.Technology and increased teachers’ lg proficiency now make achieving the goals of CLT possible.Communication continuumNon-communicative activities Communicative activitiesNo communicative desire A desire to communicateNo communicative purpose A communicative purposeForm not content Content not formOne language item only Variety of languageTeacher intervention No teacher interventionMaterials control No materials control

J. Cooperative Language Learning (focus on teamwork) (& Collaborative Learning-focus learning with able peers or elders)


Background1. Features: group learning activities to promote cooperation among

students rather than competition.2. antecedents: John Dewey, an US educator in the early 20th century,

promoted the idea of building cooperation in learning into regular classrooms on a regular and systematic basis.ApproachTheory of languageEnvironment: “ All normal children are born to talk.”-> Communication is generally considered to be the primary purpose of language.Conversation: Most talk is organized as conversation.conversational maxims 格言 (cooperative rules) (Grice 1975)the ways of application of the maxims: through casual , everyday conversational interactionin SLA, cooperatively structured interactional activities realize the maximsTheory of learningThe importance of social interaction in learning (Piaget and Vygotsky)critical thinking: “the Question Matrix” by Wiederhold, 1995 from simple recall of information to forming conceptual judgmentssix learning advantages for ESL students in CLL classroomsincreased frequency and variety of second language practicedevelopment or use of language in ways that support cognitive development and increased language skillsintegration of content-based instructionvarious curricular materials to stimulate language and concept learningteachers’ freedom to master new professional skills, emphasizing communicationstudents as resources for each otherDesign Objectives: to foster cooperation, to develop critical thinking, and to develop communicative competenceSyllabus: no particular form but use of group-based procedurestypes of learning and teaching activities* three aspects to attend to: (a) types of cooperative language learning groups (Johnson,1994)

Time Purposes FeaturesFormal cooperative learning groups

One class period to several weeks

To achieve shared learning goals

A specific task involving students


working togetherInformal cooperative learning groups

A few minutes to a class period

To focus student attention

Cooperative base groups

Long term in heterogeneous learning groups

To allow members to cooperate with each other to succeed academically

(b) key elements of successful group-based learning in CLL (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)(i) positive interdependence: mutual support(ii) group formation

-- decide on the size of the group up to the kind of tasks, age of learners, time limits-- assign students to groups e.g. teacher-selected, random or

student-selected(iii) individual accountability（責任制）: group and individual performance(iv) social skills: explicit instruction in social skills(v) structuring and structures: ways of organizing student

interaction(c) three major kinds of cooperative learning tasks (Coelho, 1992)(i) team practice from common input-skills development and mastery of facts(ii) Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined input-evaluation and synthesis of facts and opinions(iii) Cooperative projects: topics/resources selected by student-discovery learninglearner roles: to learn teamwork skills, and to self-evaluate usually in pair tasks

teacher roles: facilitator of learning by create a learning environment and providing broad questions to challenge thinking

role of instructional materials: variations of materials to suit Ss’ variability

Criticism:the use with learners of different proficiency levels benefits only intermediate and advanced learnerstoo many demands on teachers

K. Content-Based Instruction (especially for ESP, EOP, and immersion programs) (Book 3 p. 49)Background:


Acquiring content (a subject matter) through language under the influence of Immersion Education where foreign language instruction is taught through the medium of the foreign language or for learners who need language to carry out specific roles such as nurse, engineer and so on (Language for Specific Purposes)Approach:Theory of LanguageLanguage is text- and discourse-basedLanguage use draws on integrated skillsLanguage is purposefulTheory of Language Learning(1) People learn a second language most successfully when the information they are acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful, and leading to a desired goal.(2) Some content areas are more useful as a basis for language learning than others. (e.g. Geography)(3) Students learn best when instruction addresses students’ needs.(4) Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners.DesignObjectives(1) to activate and develop existing English language skills(2) to acquire learning skills and strategies that could be applied in future language development opportunities(3) to develop general academic skills applicable to university studies in all subject areas(4) to broaden students’ understanding of English-speaking peoplesSyllabusthe macro syllabus: a sequence of modules selected to reflect students’ interests and a multidisciplinary perspectivethe micro syllabus: more specific modules and mastery of certain skillsTypes of learning and teaching activitiesStroller (1967): six activities according to their instructional focuslanguage skills improvementvocabulary buildingdiscourse organizationcommunicative interactionstudy skillssynthesis of content materials and grammarMohan’s knowledge framework (1986): six universal knowledge structuresLearner roles: autonomous learners who learn by doing


Teacher rolesneeds analysisessential skills for this method by Stryker and LeaverThe role of teaching materials: materials typically with the subject matter of the content courseCriticism: most language teachers are not trained to teach a subject matter but team-teaching proposals can workAdvantages: it yields to an increase of intrinsic motivation and combination of language learning and different disciplines

L Task-Based Language Teaching: not a new method but from a perspective of CLTBackgrounddefinition of “task”Richards (2001:224): an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, making a phone call, etc. Tasks should resemble real-life language use. (CLT)Nunan (1989:10): the communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.Breen (1987): a language learning task is a structured plan for the provision of opportunities for the refinement of knowledge and capabilities entailed in a new language and its use during communication.Prabhu (1987): a task is an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate the processCrookes (1986): a task is piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research (not only summaries, essay and class notes but drills, dialogue readings)the key assumptions (Feez, 1998:17)process over productpurposeful activitiescommunicative interactionlife need or pedagogical purposedifferent factors of the difficulty of a taskthree kinds of tasksoccupational tasks


team tasksacademic tasksApproach

1. Theory of languageLanguage is primarily a means of making meaningMultiple modes of language inform TBI: criteria to classify tasks(a) structural model (determining the linguistic complexity of tasks): Language is simply seen as less-to-more complex in fairly traditional ways, since linguistic complexity is interpretable as constrained by structural syllabus consideration.(b) functional model: task goals (Berwick); personal, narrative, and decision-making tasks (Foster & Skehan) (c) interactional model: interactional activity and communicative goal (Pica)Lexical units are central in language use and language learning: to consider lexical phrases, sentence stems, prefabricated routines, and collocations since speech processing is based on the production and reception of whole phrase units larger than the word-> fluency over accuracyConversation is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition.2. Theory of language learning: besides those from CLT, additional learning principles areTasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for language acquisitionThe negotiation of meaning is the central element in SLADuring the negotiation of meaning, some part of a learner’s utterance requires modification (e.g. pronunciation, grammar, lexicon)(c) Comprehensible input is not enough for adequate second language development; opportunities for productive use of language are also critical for full language development (by Swain, the Output Hypothesis); tasks is the pivot point for simulation of input-output practice, negotiation of meaning, and transitionally focused conversation.Task activity and achievement are motivational: because tasks are genuinely authentic, easy to understandLearning difficulty can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes: to develop fluency and an awareness of language form by selecting tasks with appropriate demands of cognitive processingDesignObjectivesBoth objectives and selection of tasks are determined by the specific needs of particular learners


The syllabus should be communicative or task-basedA communicative syllabus1. This syllabus developed from the communicative language teaching in the 1980 and 90s.2. It attempts to develop a framework either for a general course or a restricted setting3. versions of a communicative syllabus: competency-based, text-based, and task-based

Rationale ExamplesCompetency-based syllabus

1. It is based on a specification of the competencies learners are expected to master in relation to specific situations and activities2. It is also widely used in social survival and work-oriented language programs.* competencies= the essential skills, knowledge, and attitudes required for effective performance of particular tasks and activities

“telephone”1. read and dial phone numbers2. identify oneself on the phone when answering and calling3. requests to speak to sb4. respond to request to hold5. respond to offer to take messages

Text-based syllabus 1. It is built around texts and samples of extended discourses2. A context for language learning should be identified. (e.g. telephone negotiations with contractors)

e.g.1 exchanges- simple, complex, or casuale.g.2 forms- simple or complex formatted texts

Task-based syllabus 1. Tasks are activities that drive the SLA process2. Grammar teaching is not central here since learners will acquire it as a by-product of carrying out tasks3. Tasks are motivating for learners and engage them in meaningful communication

Two types of tasks for syllabus design1. pedagogical tasksjigsaw tasksinformation-gap tasksproblem-solving tasksdecision-making tasksopinion exchange tasks2. real-world tasks


Syllabus: comparison of a conventional syllabus (specify content and learning outcomes)and a task-based one (concerned with the process dimensions of learning)two kinds of tasks by Nunan(i) real-world tasks: to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found importance in a needs analysis and turn out to be important and useful in the real world e.g. using the phone(ii) pedagogical tasks: having a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but do not necessarily reflect real-world tasks e.g. an information-gap taskconsiderations to sequence tasks by Honeyfieldprocedures, input text, output required, amount and type of help given, role of teachers and learners, time allowed, motivation, confidence, and learning stylesTypes of activitiessix task types by Willis (1996)-- listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, sharing personal experiences, creative taskstasks according to types of interaction by Pica (1993)(i) Jigsaw tasks(ii) information-gap activities(iii) problem-solving tasks: a single solution of the outcome(iv) decision-making tasks: usually several possible outcomes for the problem given(v) opinion exchange tasks: no need to reach agreementone-way or two way; convergent or divergent; collaborative or competitive; single or multiple outcomes; concrete or abstract language, simple or complex processing, simple or complex language; reality-based or not reality-based

(4) learner roles(a) group participant(b) monitor: attend to both meaning and form in the message(c) risk taker and innovator: to create and interpret messages for

which the lack full linguistic resources and prior experience(5) teacher roles

(a) selector and sequencer of tasks(b) preparing learners of tasks(c) consciousness-raising: form-focusing techniques e.g. attention-focusing pre-task activities, text exploration, guided exposure to parallel tasks, and use of highlighted material


(6) Role of Teaching materials(a) pedagogical materials(b) realia: newspapers, TV, the Internet

Procedurepretask activities: introduction to topic and tasktask activity: task, planning, reportposttask activitiesinfluence:dependence on tasks as the primary source of pedagogical input in teaching and the absence of a systematic grammatical or other type of syllabus to characterize itaspects justified in TBLT: proposed schemes for task types, task sequencing, evaluation of task performance(3) weakness: the basic assumption of it remains in the domain of ideology rather than fact

* In conclusion: TBLT views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals they serve, the purposes of which extend beyond the practice of lg.A task is an activity in which1. meaning is primary2. there’s some communication problem to solve3. task completion has some priority4. the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome

M. Neurolinguistic Programming by John Grindler and Richard Bandler (the mid 1970s)Definition: neuro= about brain, linguistic=communication (both verbal and nonverbal), programming=observable patterns of thought and behavior

Neuro linguistic programming (NLP for short) was developed in the early 1970s by an information scientist and a linguist at the University of California at Santa Cruz. They had observed that people with similar education, training, background, and years of experience were achieving widely varying results ranging from wonderful to mediocre. They wanted to know the secrets of effective people. What makes them perform and accomplish things. They were especially interested in the possibility of being able to duplicate the behavior, and therefore the competence, of these highly effective individuals. It was the golden era of modeling and simulation. They decided to model human excellence. They looked at factors such as education, business and


therapy. They have then zeroed in on the communication aspect. They started studying how the successful people communicated (verbal language, body language, eye movements, and others). By modeling their behavior, John Grinder and Richard Bandler were able to make out patterns of thinking that assisted in the subject's success. The two theorized that the brain can learn the healthy patterns and behaviors and that this would bring about positive physical and emotional effects.

What emerged from their work came to be known as Neuro-Linguistic Programming.The basic premise of NLP is that the words we use reflect an inner, subconscious perception of our problems. If these words and perceptions are inaccurate, they will create an underlying problem as long as we continue to use and to think them. Our attitudes are, in a sense, a self-fulfilling prophecy.

The neuro linguistic therapist will analyze every word and phrase you use in describing your symptoms or concerns about your health. He or she will examine your facial expressions and body movements. After determining problems in your perception, the therapist will help you understand the root cause. The therapist will help you remodel your thoughts and mental associations in order to fix your preconceived notions. These preconceived notions may be keeping you from achieving the success you deserve.

NLP will help you get out of these unhealthy traits and replace them with positive thoughts, and patterns that promote wellness.how people influence each other and how behaviors of very effective people could be duplicated (Modeling successful performance leads to excellence)

key principles:outcomes: We learn how others have responded to a particular situation we are facing. We see the differences in the approaches and in the outcomes. Based on it, we may voluntarily make changes to our own behavior.Rapport: No one is wrong or broken. People work perfectly to accomplish what they are currently accomplishing.sensory acuity: Every one of us uses one or a combination of these senses to perceive the world.

Flexibility: The person who is most likely to do well responds to changing (or unchanging) circumstances appropriately.

L. The Lexical Approach by Lewis, 1993An approach to teaching languages that has a lot in common with the

communicative approach, but also examines how lexical phrases, prefabricated chunks of language, play an important role in producing fluent speech. The lexical


approach was first coined by Michael Lewis. The fundamental principle of the lexical approach is "language consists of

grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar." What this means is that lexical phrases offer far more language generative power than grammatical structures. Accordingly, advocates of this kind of approach argue that lexis should move to the center of language syllabuses. Justification for this theory comes from statistical analysis of language which shows that we do indeed speak in chunks and collocations.chunks: Several words that commonly occur together in fixed phrases sometimes referred to as a lexical phrase. We tend to speak in chunks which reduces the energy required for processing language. So chunks are parts of an utterance. For example, “It was because of the rain that I was late” has two chunks or parts- It was because of the rain and that I was late. Collocations: the tendency for certain words to occur with or near other words with higher frequency than chance such as “perform” is used with “operation”, but not with “discussion.”Application of The Lexical Syllabus (Willis, 1990)- the Collins Cobuild English Course

O. The Post-Methods Era (Book 4, p.244): death of methods and approaches by the end of the 20th century because some of them are unlikely to be widely adopted, for they are difficult to understand and use, lack clear practical application, require special training, and necessitate major changes in teachers’ practices and beliefs.Approach: CLT, Competency-based Language Teaching, Content-based Instruction, Cooperative Learning, Lexical Approaches, MI, the Natural Approach, Neurolinguistic Programming, Task-based Language Teaching, and Whole LanguageMethod (lasting up till the late 1980s): ALM, Situational Language Learning, the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, TPR, Counseling-Learning (CLL)More specifically, the criticisms are: The top-down criticismRole of contextual factorsThe need for curriculum development processesLack of research basisSimilarity of classroom practicesSo for teachers nowadays, they should attend to:Self-awareness and self-observationreflective teaching: an approach to teaching and to teacher education which is based on the assumption that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences. In


teacher education programs, activities aim to develop the skills of considering the teaching process thoughtfully, analytically and objectively, as a way of improving classroom practices, including journals they write about, audio and video taping of a teacher’s lesson, or group discussion with peers or a supervisor.action research: classroom-based research where teachers formulate research hypotheses, design a study, and a test, observe and give feedback to teach other and treat errors. So teachers have to convert their ideas into specific research questions, operationally define the elements of the question, determine how they will answer the question, and interpret the results appropriately. Portfolios: collections of Ss’ works over a period of time in various lg learning tasks, allowing for a far more accurate form of lg learning evaluation than the traditional one, which may measure specific, isolated skills and abilities at a specific time and doesn’t offer a full assessment of lg learning. So the benefits of using portfolios are (1) linking assessment to instruction to ensure teachers are measuring what they have taught, (2) planning for and evaluating portfolios to reveal any weaknesses in instructional practices and (3) no time lost on assessment, good for individualized instruction.

Overview 1: The Dynamics of Methodological Change

1. 1840s to 1860s: The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM; also the Classical Method):

Inspired by Latin and Greek learning in grammar schools for centuries in Europe; aiming at appreciation of foreign literature and mental exercise (Mental Discipline Theory) by deductive teaching of grammatical rules, memorization of lists of isolated words, translations of texts and doing


Part III: Practice

* Overview of teaching methodology and culture teaching1. Introduction of important terminology of TESOL2. Development of English Teaching Methodology3. Curriculum design4. Teaching the four and sub-skills5. Language testing6. Teacher development

written exercises. It is criticized of being a tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of unusable grammar rules and vocabulary and attempting to produce perfect translations of literary prose. It is fully “theory-lessness”. However, it requires few specialized skill on the par of teachers. Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. It is at times successful in leading a student toward a reading knowledge of a L2.

The Direct Method (popular in the early 20th century): Deriving from Gouin’s Series Method and then developed by Berlitz, who called it the Berlitz Method

Refutation to GT, which ignored language use, and application of IPA (1886) to assist teaching of pronunciation; L2 learning similar to L1 learning where lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the lg, no translation, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules are found. Ss are highly motivated and native-speaking teachers are employed. But it was only favored in private schools which could afford small classes and high budget. It is also criticized for its weak theoretical foundations. Its success may have been a factor of the skill and personality of the teacher rather than the method itself.

2. 1930s-60s: The Audio-lingual Method: (after the Reading Approach)

Based on Behavioral Psychology, Structuralism and the Contrastive Analysis (the morpheme studies), this method aims at using the target language communicatively by intensive oral drilling of basic sentence patterns but it was challenged by Noam Chomsky in the early 60s.At the same time, the Situational Approach prevailed in the U.K.It is criticized for its failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency, misconceptions of learning as a process of habit-formation and overlearning, avoidance of errors, and inadequate theoretical foundations of structural linguistics which did not tell us everything about lg that we needed to know.

3. 1970s (the Designer Methods: promises of success, one size fits all by David Nunan, 1989 ): Influenced by the theories of second language learning such as the Error Analysis, Krashen’s theories, Shumann’s pidginization/acculturaltion Model; the 1970s is significant, for since


then research on SLA became a single discipline in its own right, and a number of innovative methods were conceived.

The Cognitive Approach: (p.6)The emphasis on human cognition led to see learners in a more active role to formulate hypotheses to discover the rules of the target language. When errors occur, they are signs that learners are testing their hypotheses. Deductive and inductive grammar exercises were developed.

The Silent Way (by Caleb Gattegno): a problem-solving approach to learningDiscovery learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects (Cuisenaire rods, wall charts) and problem-solving. In this way, learners develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility. Ss benefit from healthy doses of discovery learning and less teacher talk. However, it was too harsh a method and the teacher too distant. The rods and charts wear thin after a few lessons and other materials then must be introduced instead.

Desuggestopedia (by Georgi Lozanov): superlearning (relaxed concentration)It assumes that the human brain could process great quantities of material if given the right conditions for learning, among which are a state of relaxation and giving over of control to the teacher. So it capitalizes on relaxed states of mind for maximum retention of material where Ss are encouraged to be as childlike as possible. Influenced by humanistic psychology, this method respect learners’ feelings and desuggest their limitations on learning via integration of the fine arts (music, paintings, and drama) and peripheral learning. It is criticized for the highly questionable experimental data of Lozanov and a lack of practicality as well as the issue of the place of memorization, excluding references to understanding or problem-solving. However, deliberately induced states of relaxation may be beneficial in the classroom and music has proved to help relax people.

Community Language Learning (by Charles Curran, 1972): A counseling-learning model in which non-defensive learning is achieved with six elements (security, aggression, attention, reflection, retention, and discrimination) and learners are considered “whole persons.” It aims at building a supportive community of Ss to interact in an interpersonal relationship, to lower defenses, and to meet learner needs.


The principles of discovery learning, student-centered participation and development of student autonomy (independence) remain viable in the application to lg classrooms. But it was too restrictive for institutional lg programs. Teachers are too non-directive, and their translation expertise determines success. Finally, there is too much reliance on an inductive strategy of learning.

Total Physical Response (by James Asher, 1977):Based on the Comprehension Approach (p.6), understanding precedes production. Meaning is conveyed through actions (instructions given by the teacher); memory is increased if it is stimulated or traced through association with motor activity which is a right-brain function (the trace theory of learning). Learners’ learning anxiety has to be lowered. It seems to be especially effective in the beginning level and its appeal to the dramatic nature of lg learning is attractive. It can also be used into more advanced proficiency levels by incorporating more complex syntax into the imperative. However, in TPR reading and writing activities, Ss are limited to spinning off from the oral work in the classroom.

The Natural Approach (by Tracy Terrel and Stephan Krashen, 1982):Acting on the claims of the Comprehension-based Approach, NA maintains

that production delayed until speech emerges and basic personal communication skills taught in a relaxed atmosphere where the teacher provides comprehensible input. Fluency is pursued instead of accuracy.

The most controversial aspects of NA are its advocacy of a silent period and emphasis on comprehensible input since speech does not always emerge naturally and the decision of which structure to be included is somehow intuitive. However, NA’s advice of a silent period is good while Ss grow accustomed to a new lg since their lg ego is not easily threatened and no immediate risk-taking is forced.

4. 1980s: significance of communicative competence by Dell Hymes; functional approaches

The Communicative Language Teaching: (learn to use English) the notional-functional syllabus as a precursor to CLT

1. goal: communicative competence by using activities of information gap, choice and feedback (Johnson and Morrow, 1981)

2. authentic language and materials


3. integration of forms, meanings and functions4. the principles of task, meaningfulness and

The Content-based approach: (use English to learn it)1. the integration of content learning which is relevant to and interesting to

Ss with lg teaching aims2. Its effective form, competency-based instruction, develops learners’

language skills at the same time they learn survival or life-coping skills.3. an increase in intrinsic motivation and empowerment

The Whole Language Approach: to describe cooperative learning, participatory learning, learner-centered learning, focus on the community of learners and the social nature of lg, use of authentic, natural lg, meaning-centered lg, holistic assessment techniques in testing and integration of the four skills

1. Language is regarded holistically, rather than pieces.2. Learners work from the top-down to understand the meaning of whole

texts before they work on the linguistic forms- purposeful use of language

3. the interaction and interconnection between oral lg and written lg4. the importance of the written code as natural and developmental as the

oral code is.The Task-based approach: (use English to learn it)

1. learning as a set of communicative tasks (techniques or activities) that are directly linked to the curricular goals they serve, the purposes of which extend beyond the practice of lg for its own sake

2. meaning is primary3. there is some communication problem to solve4. comparable real-world activities5. task completion has some priority6. the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome

The Participatory approach: (use English to learn it)1. help learners to understand the social, historical, or cultural forces that

affects their lives and thus take action and make decisions to gain control over their lives

2. The nature of the content is based on issues of concern to learners (experiencec-centered)(difference to the Content-based approach)


Learning strategy training:1. good language learners by Rubin 19752. Build on learners’ prior knowledge and learning experiences3. To teach learning facilitates learners’ academic success4. Learning strategies by Chamot and O’Malley (1994)

(a) metacognitive strategies

(b) cognitive strategies

(c) social-affective strategies

Cooperative Learning: (related to Grice’s Conversation Maxims)1. Positive interdependence among students in groups in a cooperative way2. Social skills to be taught3. Responsibility and accountability for each other; distributed leadership4. more structured and more directive to Ss about how to work together in

groups than collaborative learning where Ss engage with more capable others who provide assistance and guidance.

Interactive learning: 1. Most meaning is a product of negotiation-> group/pair work2. authentic classroom tasks in real-world contexts by practicing oral

communication3. based on the Interaction Hypothesis by Michael Long: the importance of

input and output in the development of lg where Ss interact with each other through oral and written discourse to enhance their communicative abilities.

Learner-Centered Instruction: one concern within a CLT framework1. focus on learners’ needs, styles, and goals2. empowerment of Ss3. no presupposition of curricular objectives in advance4. creative and innovative techniques5. enhancement of Ss’ sense of competence and self-worth.

Multiple Intelligences: by Howard Gardner (1983)1. two kinds of learners by Hatch, 1974

(a) data-gatherers(b) rule-formers

2. multiple intelligences: Learners bring with them specific and unique


strengths(a) logical/mathematical(b) visual/spatial(c) body/kinesthetic(d) musical/rhythmic(e) interpersonal(f) intrapersonal(g) verbal/linguistic(h) naturalistic

Overview 2 Development of TESOL

I. pre-twentieth-century trends1. Before 14th and 15th centuries: focus on language use when first Greek and

then Latin were used as lingua francas.2. During the Renaissance, Latin as the formal object of instruction in schools

(classical Latin) and for everyday purposes (vulgate Latin)3. in the 17th century: Latin ceased to be a lingua franca and the European

vernaculars grew for language use4. in the early 19th century: The Grammar-Translation Approach used to

teach modern languages as well as Latin.5. in the late 19th century: popular in Germany and France with the emphasis on

language use when IPA was established in 1886 which focused on spoken language via phonetic training

6. in the early 20th century: The Direct Method was implemented in the US but didn’t succeed due to few foreign language teachers

7. In the late 1930s to early 1940s: the Reading Approach was adopted based on the Coleman Report (1929) where reading some of the great works of literature and philosophy was introduced. Also it was used for the decline of DM due to lack of native-speaking teachers, no opportunities for L2 use, and usefulness of the Reading Approach.

8. During the World War II: the Audiolingual Method was developed due to military needs of foreign language learners when the Oral or Situational Approach gave rise in Britain (1940-60s) which advocated organizing structures around situations that would provide the learner with maximum opportunity to practice the target language, usually choral repetition.

II. Nine Twentieth-century Approaches to Language TeachingIn addition to the five approaches above, four other approaches were widely used during the final quarter of the 20th century


1. Cognitive: reaction to the Audiolingual Approach(1) language learning as rule acquisition(2) responsible learning(3) both deductive and inductive grammar instruction(4) de-emphasize pronunciation(5) balance the four skills(6) importance of vocabulary instruction(7) errors as inevitable(8) general language proficiency of the teacher

2. Affective-humanistic: reaction to the general lack of affective considerations in both Audiolingualism and the Cognitive Approach(1) respect learners’ feelings(2) meaningful communication(3) pair and group work(4) importance of class atmosphere(5) peer support and interaction(6) self-realization from language learning(7) teacher as a counselor or facilitator(8) translation as necessary in the initial stages only

3. Comprehension-based: an outgrowth or research in L1 acquisition(1) importance of listening comprehension(2) nonverbal responses in meaningful ways(3) a silent period(4) comprehensible input(5) monitoring(6) little error correction(7) appropriate teaching materials for non-native teachers

4. Communicative: an outgrowth of Hymes and Halliday to see language as a system for communication(1) the ability to communicate in the target language(2) social functions of language(3) group and pair work(4) role play and dramatization(5) authentic materials(6) integrative skills(7) teacher as a facilitator(8) teacher to use TL fluently and appropriately

*Communicative competence is a linguistic term for the ability not only to apply the


grammatical rules of a language to form correct utterances, but also to know when to use these utterances appropriately. The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966, reacting against the inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. According to a 1980 paper by Canale and Swain which has become canonical in applied linguistics, communicative competence consists of four components:grammatical competence: words and rulessociolinguistic competence: appropriatenessdiscourse competence: cohesion and coherencestrategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategies A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence.Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin.

central points of each approach1. cognitive approach: Language is rule-governed cognitive behavior,

not habit formation2. affective-humanistic approach: learning a foreign language is a

process of self-realization and of relating to other people3. comprehension approach: language acquisition occurs if and only if

the learner comprehends meaningful input4. communicative approach: the purpose of language is

communication

Review: the key issues of TESOL

I. Brainstorm the following terms with their correspondent theories1. Mental Discipline Theory2. Behaviorism3. the Contrastive Analysis4. Language Acquisition Device and Universal Grammar5. Whole person


6. The Designer Methods7. Communicative Competence8. Top-down processing & bottom-up processing9. the 8th intelligence by Gardner10. The Classical Method11. IPA12. The Army Method13. Habit formation14. Cruisenaire Rods, sound-color chart, fidel charts, word chart15. adoption of fine art, music and drama16. Imperatives17. Lexical chunks learning18. i+119. time, focus on form, and knowledge of rules20. survival methods 21. Conversational maxims (Grice)22. the Comprehension Approach23. experienced-centered content

II. short-answer questions1. What makes an activity communicative (Morrow)?2. Three kinds of task-based activities?3. six elements necessary for nondefensive learning?4. What is 3 P?5. What are three kinds of learning strategies defined by Chamot and

O’Malley?6. What are five hypotheses Krashen proposed?7. What is Grice’s maxims?8. two kinds of learners by Hatch?9. six principal components through which desuggestion and suggestion

operate?

Review Culture Teaching (Teaching language in context by A.O. Hadley)

1. Why teaching culture?(1) lg study is an essential component in the curriculum in part because it can

lead to greater cross-cultural understanding(2) lg and culture are inseparable.However, little has been discussed about the relationship between lg and


culture and little consensus on how the teaching of lg and culture should be integrated has been reached.

2. problems in the teaching culture(1) Too much time has to be involved if culture is taught.(2) Teachers are afraid of teaching it due to lack of cultural knowledge- A facts-only approach to culture teaching is ineffective.(3) Teachers may neglect it since it involves dealing with student attitudes, a somewhat threatening area

3. four ways of teaching culture by Galloway, 1985(1) the Frankenstein Approach: A taco from here, a flamenco dancer from there, a gaucho from here, a bullfight from there(2) The 4-F Approach: folk dances, festivals, fairs, and food(3) The Tour Guide Approach: the identification of monuments, rivers and cities(4) The “By the Way” Approach: sporadic (偶然) lectures or bits of behavior selected indiscriminantly to emphasize sharp differences4. indefinite definition of “culture” as the source of difficulty in culture teaching(1) Brooks (1975): culture is everything, and event the best in human life so exposure to the great literary masterpieces of L2 is to cultivate learners. (Olympian culture or culture MLA (music, literature and art))(2) Seelye (1993): Culture is a broad concept that embraces all aspects of human life form folktales to carved whales; it includes both Olympian culture and Hearthstone culture (culture BBV- beliefs, behavior, and values)e.g. ALM in the 1960s contains hearthstone culture (little-c) which began to emphasize formal (big-C) culture- five-part definition of cultureCulture 1: Biological growthCulture 2: Personal refinementCulture 3: Literature and the fine artsCulture 4: Patterns for living (Teachers should focus on this first, and then 3 or 5)Culture 5: The sum total of a way of life

(3) Nostrand’s Emergent Model (1967): 9 objectives in various social situations for Ss to be able to react appropriately by analyzing and describing a culture using the main “themes”, not topics.e.g. French culture- individualism, realism, intellectuality and the art of living. Themes are not any topics or values but an emotionally charged concern, which motivates or strongly influence the culture bearers’ conduct in situations

(4) Seelye (1993): modified the kinds of understanding by Nostrand by developing a set of six instructional goal- to help Ss develop interest in who in the target culture did what, where and when, and why, and finally the


ability to explore the culture and evaluate generalizations.(5) Lafaytte (1988): a simple direct approach that exploits existing content and

practice by applying five goals, knowledge of formal or high culture ( geography, history, art), knowledge of everyday or popular culture, affective objectives (valuing different peoples and societies), multicultural objectives (e.g. TL-related ethnic groups in U.S.), and process objectives (evaluating the validity of statements about a culture and developing research and organizational skills).

(6) AATF (the American Association of teachers of French): cultural competence- communication in cultural context, the value system, social patterns and conventions, social institutions, geography and the environment, history, literature and the arts.

5. Models for building cross-cultural understanding(1) Galloway: convention (context- or function-determined conventions), connotation, conditioning, comprehension(2) Hanvey: four levels- superficial traits, significant traits, intellectual level, the level of empathy (living)

6. strategies for teaching culture(1) plan cultural lessons carefully as lg activities and integrated into lesson plans(2) Present cultural topics in conjunction with related thematic units and related grammatical content(3) Use a variety of techniques in the four skills.(4) Make good use of textbook illustrations and photos.(5) Use cultural information when teaching vocabulary.(6) Use small-group techniques for culture instruction(7) Avoid a facts only approach.(8) Use L2 whenever possible to teach cultural content(9) Test cultural understanding as carefully as lg is tested


Charts of Important Teaching Methods (You can add each method’s origin, originator, the time of popularity, influences and shortcomings.)

The Grammar-Translation Method

The Direct Method

goals 1. to read literature written in the target language

2. to develop students’ mind

To communicate in the target language by learning to think in the target language

The role of the teacher authority Director and partnersThe role of the students Passive listeners partnersCharacteristics of the teaching/learning processes

Translation, deductive learning of grammar, memorization of words and equivalents

1. T demonstrates word meanings through the use of realia, pictures, or pantomime

2. situation or topic-based syllabus

3. inductive learning of grammar

4. practice vocabulary in complete sentences

5. Ss speak a lotS-T or S-S interaction Mostly T->S bothThe feelings of the students no noView of culture & language 1. literary language is

superior to spoken language

2. culture consists of literature and fine arts

1. language is primarily spoken

2. culture consists of the history of the target culture, the geography of the country, and information about the daily lives of the speakers

Emphasis of skills & areas Reading and writing; vocabulary and grammar

1. vocabulary over grammar

2. pronunciation teaching in the beginning

3. oral communication as


basicThe role of L1 Mostly used in class for

translationNo L1

evaluation Written tests (translation) and practice of grammatical rules

Oral interviews or paragraph writing (not to demonstrate the knowledge about the language but how to use the language)

Error correction T provides the correct answer; the correct answer should be got

Self-correction

techniques Translation of a literary passage, reading comprehension questions, antonyms/synonyms, cognates, deductive application of rule, fill-in-the-blanks, memorization, use words in sentences, composition

Reading aloud, question and answer exercise, getting students to self-correct, conversation practice, fill-in-the-blank exercise in the target language, dictation, map drawing, paragraph writing

The Audio-lingual Method Communicative Language Teaching

goals To use the target language communicatively by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their L1

To enable students to communicate in the target language based on the knowledge of the linguistic forms, meanings, and functions

The role of the teacher An orchestra leader/modeler

Facilitator, advisor, co-communicator

The role of the students imitator Communicator to negotiate meaning

Characteristics of the teaching/learning processes

1. dialogues learned through imitation and repetition

2. drills are conducted

1. Communicative activities that have features of information gap, choice, and


3. induce grammar from examples

4. positive reinforcement for correct responses

5. cultural information is contextualized in the dialogues

6. reading and written work based on the oral work

feedback2. communication is

purposeful3. the use of authentic

materials4. group/pair work

S-T or S-S interaction Teacher-directed S-S interaction; mostly T to S

S-S in pairs or groups

The feelings of the students no 1. learning to communicate motivates students

2. allow students to express their individuality

3. cooperative activities to enhance student security

View of culture & language 1. every language is seen as having its own unique system which is comprised of phonological, morphological, and syntactic levels

2. Everyday speech is emphasized

3. the complexity of speech is graded

4. culture consists of everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers

1. language is for communication; linguistic competence+ communicative competence

2. culture is the everyday lifestyle of the target population, including verbal and nonverbal behaviors

Emphasis of skills & areas 1. Minimum of vocabulary2. practice the sound

1. a functional syllabus2. language at the


system and “grammatical patterns”

3. pronunciation teaching with minimal pairs

4. oral skills over receptive skills

suprasentential level (cohesion and coherence)

3. integration of the four skills

The role of L1 L1 interference by the Contrastive Analysis

No L1 except for explaining activities or assignments

evaluation Discrete-point tests Evaluation of both fluency and accuracy in students’ performance or integrative tests such as writing to a friend

errors Should be avoided Tolerance of errors during fluency-based activities

techniques Dialogue memorization, backward build-up drill, repetition drill, chain drill, substitution drill, transformation drill, question-and-answer drill, use of minimal pairs, complete the dialogue, grammar game

Scrambled sentences, language games, picture strip story, role play


The Silent WayDesuggestopedia

goals To enable students to express themselves and develop independence from the teacher and their own inner criteria for correctness

To tap more of students’ mental power for learning a foreign language for everyday communication by desuggesting their psychological barriers

The role of the teacher Technician or engineer for learner autonomy

Authority students must trust and respect

The role of the students Independent and responsible learner

Trusted partner


1. a sound-color chart to associate sounds of the target language with particular colors

2. minimal spoken cues to produce structures in situations

3. feedback from students about the class

1. bright and cheerful learning environment with posters displaying grammatical information for peripheral learning

2. new identity for Ss3. handouts with lengthy

dialogues with translation of L1

4. two concerts to activate the whole brain - receptive (active and passive concerts)and activation phases (dramatization, songs, games)

S-T or S-S interaction S->T, S-S verbal interaction T initiates interaction collectively or individually, Ss respond nonverbally and then verbally

The feelings of the students 1. T observes students2. S’s feedback to express

how they feel

1. desuggest students’ psychological barriers

2. suggest they can


3. a relaxed, enjoyable learning environment by cooperation

succeed3. give a new identity for

Ss to feel secureView of culture & language 1. language universals and

individual features2. culture and language are

interconnected

1. two-plane process of communication: language (conscious), nonverbal behaviors that affect how one’s linguistic message is interpreted (subconscious)

Emphasis of skills & areas 1. pronunciation and structures at the beginning

2. no, fixed, linear, structural syllabus: recycle structures according to learning needs

3. integrate four skills but usually speaking and listening first

1. Emphasize vocabulary2. teach grammar

explicitly but minimally3. emphasize speaking

communicatively4. include reading and

writing also

The role of L1 1. L1 only in instructions or during feedback sessions

2. L1 transfer

1. L1 translation to make the meaning of the dialogue clear

2. L1 used in class when necessary but less and less

evaluation Assess students all the time but no praise or criticism

No formal tests but normal in-class performance

errors Self-correction or peer correction

Errors gently corrected

techniques Sound-color chart, peer correction, teachers’ silence, rods, self-correction gestures, word chart, fidel charts, structured feedback

Classroom set-up, peripheral learning, positive suggestion, role play, concerts, creative and adaptive activities


Community Language Learning

Total Physical Response

goals To use the target language communicatively in a nondefensive manner

To learn to communicate in a foreign language enjoyably as Ss did in acquiring L1

The role of the teacher Counselor who recognizes learners’ fear of learning

director

The role of the students From dependence to independence

imitator


1. learner-generated conversation in L1

2. T translates to L2 and Ss record the lines in chunks

3. transcript in L1 and L24. Ss reflect on what they

learn5. six elements for

nondefensive learning: security, aggression, attention, reflection, retention, and discrimination

1. modeling of the instructor

2. recombine elements of the commands

3. read and write

S-T or S-S interaction S-S, T-S (teacher-student-centered)

1. T to the whole class or individuals; Ss respond nonverbally

2. Later Ss command and T respond

The feelings of the students Student security from feedback, knowing time limits, the amount of language they can handle at one time

1. allow learners to speak when they are ready

2. Make language learning more enjoyable

3. not too much modeling and no rush

View of culture & language 1. Language is for 1. Speech is primary


communication where learning is persons

2. culture as an integral part of language learning

2. culture is the lifestyle of the target people

Emphasis of skills & areas Listening and speaking at first, particular grammar points, pronunciation patterns and vocabulary

1. emphasize vocabulary and grammatical structures (imperatives)

2. spoken over written language; comprehension before production

The role of L1 Use of L1 to enhance student security from unfamiliar to familiar by equivalents of L1 and L2

L1 in introducing TPRBody movements to convey meaning

evaluation Integrative tests or self-evaluation

Evaluate students’ performance of a series of actions

errors Repeat students’ errors in a nonthreatening way

Tolerate errors and only correct major errors unobrusively

techniques Tape recording student conversation, transcription, reflection on experience, reflective listening, human computer, small group tasks

Commands, role reversal, action sequence


3. Curriculum Design: syllabus design, selection of teaching materials, lesson plans

Whole-class teaching (Book 6, Chapter 8)Advantages: It reinforces a sense of belonging among the group

members; it is suitable for activities where the teacher is acting as a controller, it allows teachers to gauge the mood of the class in general; it is the preferred class style in many education settings where students and teachers feel secure.

Disadvantages: It favors the group rather than the individual; individual don’t have much chance to speak on their own; many students are disinclined to participate in front of the whole class; it may not encourage students to be responsible for their own learning; it is not the best way to organize CLT. Individual teaching

Advantages: It allows teachers to respond to individual differences; it is likely to be less stressful for students than performing in a whole-class setting; it can develop; learner autonomy and promote skills of self-reliance; it can be a way of restoring peace and tranquility to a noisy and chaotic situation.

Disadvantages: It doesn’t help a class develop a sense of belonging; much thought and materials preparation are involved. Pair-work teaching:

Advantages: It dramatically increases the amount of speaking time, it allows students to work and interact independently; it promotes cooperation in the classroom; it is relatively quick and easy to organize.

Disadvantages: Pairwork is frequently noisy; students may veer away; it is not always popular with students; the actual choice of paired partner can be problematic.

3. Classroom management:(a) physical environment: (1) sight, sound, comfort (2) seating arrangement (semi-circles, U-shapes or concentric circles), (3) chalkboard use (neat and orderly), (4) equipment(b) your voice(to be heard) and body language(c) teaching under adverse circumstances(i) teaching large classes

problems of large classes variable proficiency and ability


minimized individual T-S attention fewer student opportunities to speak limited feedback from T on Ss’

written worksolutions

To make each student feel importance by learning names and using them

To assign Ss as much interactive work as possible

To optimize the use of pair work and small-group work

To do more listening comprehension activities

To use peer-editing, feedback, and evaluation in written work

To give a range of extra-class work To collect written work at different

times To set up small learning centers To organize informal conversation

groups and study groups(ii) teaching multiple proficiency levels in the same class

Do not overgeneralize your assessment of Ss’ proficiency levels Diagnose Ss’ competencies which may vary among different skillsOffer choices in individual techniques that vary according to needs and challenges (varying extra-class work)Use learning centersTalk toward the middle of the levels of proficiency in your class

The role of the mother tongue in class(a) Why students use L1 in class?

-The language required by an activity is hard to use in L2- It is natural to use L1, even code-switching- Teachers use L1 often.- The amount of L1 use is related to Ss’ differing styles and abilities.


(b) Attitudes to L1 in the classroom- advantages of L1 use: grammar explanations, checking comprehension, giving instructions, discussing classroom methodology, and checking for sense. There is no evidence L2 only improves learning efficiency.- Whether we should try and stop L1 use?

Ss are likely to use L1 but it should depend on when they use it, for oral fluency or comprehension. Teachers still have to provide comprehensible input and teacher-talking time is important in lg acquisition. However, L1 use may help especially for low-level students. So teachers have to set clear guideline of when to use L1, choose appropriate tasks which students are capable of doing in English, create an English atmosphere, and use persuasion and other inducements.

Strategies-Based Instruction: to equip Ss with a sense of what successful language learners do to achieve success and to aid them in developing their own unique, individual pathways to success especially in a large class (p.97)

(a) good language learners (Book 3 p.209)(b) how to teach strategies in the classroom(i) teach strategies through interactive techniques (Book 3 p.216)(ii) use compensatory techniques: e.g. to overcome low tolerance of ambiguity by brainstorming, paraphrasing(iii) administer a strategy inventory (Book 3 p.221-5 by Oxford)(iv) make use of impromptu teacher-initiated advice (to develop style awareness) e.g. Did you practice a lot?

* strategic investment: A learner’s own personal investment of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language. So two major pedagogical implications are: (1) the importance of recognizing and dealing with the wide variety of styles and strategies that learners successfully bring to the learning process and (2) the need for attention to each separate individual in the classroom through specific strategies-based instruction.

Computers in language teaching: birth of educational technology in the 1940s actually and growth in the 1970 and 80s

(a) what computers can’t do(i) machine translation(ii) providing appropriate feedback to learners(iii) voice recognition(iv) grammar checking


(v) essay marking(b) what computers can do(i) drills: word processor for composition(ii) adaptive testing(iii) reference: corpora and concordancing (for preparation of teaching materials, creation of lists of collocations, and looking at the context where a given word occurs); the Internet (authentic English, access to kinds of information) (iv) computer mediated communication: E-mail exchange (usually in informal styles for fluency promotion), chatmultimedia production: digital video, hypertext(c) use of videos (Book 6 Chapter 20)(i) why use video: seeing language –in-use; cross-cultural awareness; the power of creating; motivation(ii) problems: the nothing new syndrome, poor quality tapes and disks; poor viewing conditions, stop and start, the length of extracts, fingers and thumbs(iii) types: off-air programs, real-world video, lg learning videoviewing techniques: fast forward, silent viewing for lg or music, freeze frame, partial viewing(iv) listening techniques: pictureless listening (lg, music, and sound effects), picture or speech(c) Development of technology: the 1950s (lg lab)-> the 1980s (PC)-> now (multimedia(combination of images, sounds, and texts with interactive control by the learner); the Internet)(d) benefits of technology: - multimodal practice with feedback- individualization in a large class- pair/group work on projects- the fun factor- variety in the resources available and learning styles used- exploratory learning with large amounts of lg data

- real-life skill-building in computer use


Integrating the Four Skills- a recent trend toward skill integration , a whole lg approach, manifested in five models

1. Why integration? (Book 3 Ch15 p.232-44)(a) It gives students greater motivation that converts to better retention of principles of effective speaking, listening, reading and writing.(b) Students are given a chance to diversify their efforts in more meaningful tasks.(c) Support of observations: for a skills-integrated approach within a communicative framework(i) production and reception are two sides of a coin.(ii) Interaction means sending and receiving messages.(iii) Written and spoken language are interrelated.(iv) For literate learners, the interrelationship of written and spoken language is an intrinsically motivating reflection of language and culture and society.(v) By attending to what learners can do with language, all of the four skills are invited to the classroom.(vi) Often one skill reinforce another.(vii) Most of our natural performance involves the integration of skills and connections between language and the way we think, feel and act.

2. models of integration of skills:(1) Content-based instruction內容取向教學: the strong version (subject first) and the weak version (both the subject and the lg valued-> theme-based instruction)主題取向教學

(a) integrates the learning of some subject-matter with the learning of a second language(b) examples: immersion programs for elementary-school children(strong version)沈浸式課程(c) purpose: applying the meaningful learning principle to set useful and practical objectives and increase the intrinsic motivation(d) targeted students: usually pertains to academic or occupational instruction over an extended period of time at intermediate-to-advanced proficiency levels.(e) Challenges: too demanding on teachers since they should possess both knowledge of the lg and the subject matter(a double expert)(f) Integration of skills in reading, discussing, problem-solving, writing reports, etc.


(2). Theme-based (topic-based) instruction for EAP 學術英語(a) especially for the intermediate to advanced levels e.g. in an intensive English course; to structure a course around themes or topics to serve multiple interests of Ss while focusing on content as well as institutional needs for a lg course(b) major principles of theme-based and content-based instruction(i) automaticity 運用自如(ii) meaningful learning 有意義的學習(iii) intrinsic motivation 內在動機(iv) communicative competence 溝通能力(c) possible activities: environmental statistics and facts for reading, writing, discussion and debate

(3) Experiential learning 體驗學習(a) give students concrete experiences through which they discover language principles by trial and error by processing feedback, by building hypotheses about language and by revising the assumption to become fluent; include activities that engage both left and right-brain processing, that contextualize lg, that integrate skills toward authentic purposes(b) foundations from Dewey(i) learning by doing(ii) inductive learning by discovery (c) popular in elementary- school teaching to activate psycho-motor aspect (physical actions) of language learning e.g. the Language Experience Approach(Book 3 p.239)語言經驗法advantages: intrinsic involvement of students in creating their own stories; directly involved in the creative process of fashioning their own products


(4) The Episode Hypothesis (John Oller, 1983) Book 3 p.240 故事情節假設說(a) inspired by “The Series Method “by Gouin in the 19th century: present language in an easily followed storyline; the Series Method teaches Ss directly (no translation) and conceptually (no rule) a series of connected sentences that are easy to perceive.(b) Assumption: Text will be easier to reproduce, understand, and recall to the extent that it is structured episodically like drama without knowing what’s going to happen next.(c) Strengths: to form expectancies (a certain sense of drama of what’s going to happen next, i.e. suspense), stories are universal, integration of skills

(5) Task-based teaching 任務導向教學: an overall approach to organize a course around communicative tasks that learners need to engage in outside the classroom (Handout A p.113)

(a) principles: a task is an activity in which(i) meaning is primary(ii) there is some communication problem to solve(iii) there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities(iv) task completion has some priority (the functional purposes whose input can be from speeches, interview, cartoon strips..)(v) the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome(b) distinction(i) target tasks (real-world tasks) 目標任務

student musts accomplish beyond the classroommore specific and explicitly related to classroom instruction than the functions of language in the Notional-Functional Syllabusese.g. giving personal information in a job interview

(ii) pedagogical tasks 教學任務the nucleus of the classroom activityinclude both formal and functional techniquese.g. drills in the use of frequency words


(c) distinctiveness of task-based curricula: more language- based than content-based, theme-based and experiential instruction by maintaining the centrality of functions like greeting people, expressing opinions to build learners’ pragmatic language competence; focus on a whole set of real-world tasks from authentic sources e.g. interviews, public announcement

4. teaching the four skills and the subskills


5. Language testing: ypes of tests: contrasting categories of ESL tests

Knowledge tests Performance (or skills) testsSubjective tests Objective testsProductive tests Receptive testsLanguage subskill tests Communicative skills testsNorm-referenced tests Criterion-referenced testsDiscrecte-point tests Integrative testsProficiency tests Achievement testsDiagnostic tests Aptitude tests

Knowledge tests: how well students know facts about the languagePerformance (or skills) tests: (today’s concern)how well students can use the lgSubjective tests: (translation and essay) measure language skills naturally, almost the way English is used in real life. But many teachers are not able to score such tests quickly and consistentlyObjective tests: (multiple-choice and matching tests)Productive tests: like speaking tests that require active or creative answersReceptive tests: like multiple-choice reading tests that tend to rely on recognition, with students simply choosing the letter of the best answerLanguage subskill tests: measure the separate components of English such as vocabulary, grammar and pronunciationCommunicative skills tests: how well students can use the language in actually exchanging ideas and informationNorm-referenced tests: compare each student with his classmates (most classroom tests are like this) Criterion-referenced tests: rate students against certain standards, regardless of how other students doDiscrete-point tests: each item tests something very specific such as a preposition or a vocabulary itemIntegrative tests: like dictation that combine various language subskills much the way we do when communicate in real lifeProficiency tests: measure overall mastery of English or how well prepared one is to use English in a particular setting such as an auto mechanics course or a universityAchievement tests: simply measure progress-gains for example in mastery of count-noun use or mastery of the skills presented in an entire language text or


coursediagnostic tests: diagnose a particular aspect of a language such as a diagnostic test in pronunciation which aims to determine which phonological features of English are difficult for a learner and should become a part of a curriculum. Usually, such tests offer a checklist of features in pinpointing difficulties. A general achievement test is not advisable to be a diagnostic test since they analyze the extent to which students have acquired language features that have already been taught but not offer information on student need that will be worked on imminently.aptitude tests: a test given to a person prior to any exposure to L2, a test that predicts a person’s future success by measuring a person’s capacity or general ability to learn a foreign language performance tests: tests in which assessment is carried out in a context where the candidate is involved in an act of communicationself-assessment: the process by which learners are trained to evaluate their own performances, e.g. imagining how well they would cope in a range of real-life settingsplacement tests: to place a student into an appropriate level or section of a language curriculum or school; including a sampling of material to be covered in the curriculum (content validity) as to indicate an appropriately challenging level or class to a student.

Traditional Assessment / alternative assessmentTraditional Assessment Alternative assessmentOne-shot, standardized exams Continuous long-term assessmentTimed, multiple-choice format Untimed, free-response formatDecontextualized test items Contextualized communicative tasksScores suffice for feedback Formative, interactive feedbackNorm-referenced scores Criterion-referenced scoresFocus on the right answer Open-ended, creative answersSummative FormativeOriented to product Oriented to processNon-interactive performance Interactive performanceFosters extrinsic motivation Fosters intrinsic motivation


6.5 Alternative assessments: a movement for the reform of school-based assessment, away from standardized multiple choice tests and towards assessments which are more sensitive to the goals of the curriculum, typically includes portfolio assessment, exhibitions, records of participation in classroom activity, etc.

self- and peer-assessment: oral production, listening comprehension, writing, readingJournals: purpose, clear directions, guidelines, imminent feedbackConferences: formativePortfolios: a purposeful collection of students’ work that demonstrates to students and

others their efforts, progress, and achievements in given areas such as essays, compositions, book reports, art work, video- or audiotape recordings of a student’s oral production, journals, etc.

cooperative test construction

6.6 Recent developments in classroom testing6.6.1 new views on intelligence: multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner6.6.2 performance-based testing: open-ended problems, hands-on projects, student portfolios, experiments, labs, essay writing, group projects, etc.6.6.3 interactive language tests: tests have to involve people in actually performing the behavior that we want to measure such as requesting, speaking, interacting; a lively exchange of stimulating ideas, opinions, impressions, reactions, positions or attitudes6.6.4 alternative assessment: e.g. portfolio assessment, performance assessment6.6.5 new directions: computers/technology and language testing

(a) computer based testing (CBT): stimulus texts and prompts are presented not in examination booklets but on the screen, with candidates being required to key in their responses(i) advantages: scoring of fixed response items can be done automatically; the computer can deliver tests that are suitable to the particular abilities of the candidate (e.g. computer adaptive tests with an item bank); test security(ii) limitations: question of validity for those unfamiliar with the computer(b) a semi-direct test by using tape recorders instead of a live face-to-face interview: is favored due to cost considerations and the logistics of mass test administration(c) three basic critical dimensions of tests whose demands need to be balanced: validity, reliability, and feasibility(practicality) due to the test context and test purpose


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exocorriges.comexocorriges.com/doc/38273.doc · Web viewLinguistic-oriented theories of language learning tend to emphasize genetic mechanisms (socalled "universal grammars") in explaining