Moringa Seeds for Potable Water Treatment

ENGR 493: Engineering Leadership Practicum

6 December 2010

Alex Thomson

Dan Seery

Erick Froede

Lauren McCullough

Mary Paskewicz

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Table of Contents

I. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………3

II. Materials & Methods………………………………………………………..……………6

a. Large U-bend Prototype………………………………………………………………6

b. Small S-Bend Prototype………………………………………………………………8

c. Flexible Tubing Prototype……………………………………………………...……11

III. Results & Discussion……………………………………………………………………13

a. Large U-bend Prototype…………………………………………….……………..…13

b. Small S-bend Prototype……………………………………………………………...13

c. Flexible Tubing Prototype…………………………………………………………...15

IV. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..….17

V. Appendices…………………………………………………………………………….….18

a. Appendix A: Numerical Methods…………………………………………..…………18

b. Appendix B: Optimization……………………………………………………….……22

c. Appendix C: Possible Implementation Site – Haiti……………………...……………27

d. Appendix D: Leadership & Group Development…………………………..…………33

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Introduction

Moringa oleifera, often called the “miracle tree” is a tropical tree that originated in the

Himalayas. The overlap between incidence of Moringa oleifera and regions of the world that are most in

need of its benefits is almost exact.

This member of the family Moringa produces two main sources of nutrition. The green seed pods contain

a balance of all of the amino acids and more vitamin C than other tropical plants. The leaves contain

vitamins A and B, the amino acids methionine and cysteine and amazing levels of iron. In addition to

these food sources, the seeds can be pressed for biodiesel, lamp oil, skin oil, and lubricating oil. Perhaps

the most exciting property of this plant is that the dried seeds can be crushed and used to clean water.

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Figure 1: Regions of the world affected by malnutrition

Figure 2: Areas of the world where Moringa oleifera has been introduced

Figure 3: A sketch of a Moringa oleifera branch and seed pod

The dried seeds perform this amazing feat of purifying water by flocculating sediment and killing

bacteria. A specific protein within the seeds, Moringa Oleifera Cationic Protein (MOCP) contains amino

acid sequences that have been identified to be the source of the flocculation and antimicrobial action of

the crushed seed matter.

The Peace Corps has developed a method of using Moringa seeds to clarify turbid water infected with

bacteria that results in clean, clear drinkable water. The problem is that this water still contains the excess

organic matter from the seeds. This water cannot be stored for long periods of time since the organic

matter will encourage new bacterial growth.

One solution to this problem is to immobilize the positively charged MOCP onto negatively charged sand

granules. This allows the excess organic matter to be rinsed away. The protein remains bound to the sand

granule and the sand can be used to cleanse water. Previous work has shown that gently rolling sand in a

solution of crushed Moringa seed in water and rinsing thoroughly will result in functionalized sand ( f-

sand). This f-sand is then gently rolled with model turbid solutions consisting of kaolin clay particles in

water or model bacterial solutions using a non-pathogenic strain of Escherichia coli. The f-sand has been

shown to effectively clarify both model solutions. The water clarified using f-sand does not contain

excess organic matter and can be consumed immediately or stored for future use1.

1 Jerri, Huda. Department of Chemical Engineering. Pennsylvania State University. 14 August 2010.

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Figure 4: A diagram depicting the active regions of MOCP

The remaining barrier to implementing this method of procuring potable water is to develop a reliable

system of making and using f-sand in developing nations. It is necessary to develop a design that can be

easily assembled using locally available and sustainable materials. The following pages will discuss

preliminary design and testing possibilities as well as proof that f-sand will clarify water when the

solution is flowed through a column rather than rolled for an extended period of time.

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Figure 5: The results of treating kaolin solution with f-sand: (a) kaolin solution rolled with f-sand (b) kaolin solution rolled with bare sand (c) the original kaolin solution

Materials & Methods

U-bend Prototype:

Development of a household sized device to be utilized in combination with f-sand to clarify

water

The device seen in Figure 6 consists of a U-shaped length of open Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)

pipe with a reservoir on one side and an exit spout on the other side. The device utilizes a difference in

height between the dirty water inlet and clean water outlet to create a pressure head to push the water

through f-sand packed in the bottom of the device as well as up through the two 1 ½ foot sections of pipe.

The inlet side is topped by a reservoir to provide a constant pressure head. The height of this reservoir can

be increased to create in increase in pressure head as needed to push the water through the sand. The

presence of the reservoir also makes the device easier to use because it can be customized to

accommodate large amounts of water at once. The water will run through the system as fast as the packed

sand will allow without the user needing to continually add additional water. The inlet and outlet sides

can be easily switched by removing the tee and the lower coupling then replacing them on the opposite

sides to reverse the flow of water and unclog the system as necessary. The amount of sand used to fill the

system can be adjusted to account for differences in sand granule size and beginning water quality found

in target locations. The plug on the bottom of the device can be removed to exchange exhausted sand for

newly functionalized sand as necessary.

All fittings and piping used were 2 inch in diameter PVC pipe. The three sections of pipe were

cut to be 1 ½ feet, 1 ½ feet, and ½ feet. The two sections of 1 ½ feet pipe were inserted into both sides of

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the trap fitting. On one side, the top of the 1 ½ ft. length of pipe was inserted into the tee which was fitted

at 90 degrees with a bushing with a ½ inch threaded adapter. A ½ inch elbow fitting was screwed into this

bushing. On the top of the other 1 ½ ft. pipe, a coupling was fitted to the ½ ft. piece of pipe. At the top of

the 6 inch pipe another coupling was fitted with a 2 inch to 1 inch adapter. The diameter of the adapter

was chosen to allow a milk gallon or other similar sized easily accessible plastic container to sit upside

down on top of the device. The gallon had the bottom cut off to provide an open pouring space. The

connecting areas (except for the ones designed to be removable) were sealed with a silicon sealant.

To test the prototype, the lowest portion of the U-bend was packed with 50-70 mesh sand. The

mesh size refers to the size of the openings in wire mesh sieves which closely translates into particle

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Figure 3: U-bend Prototype

diameter. Based on standard U.S. mesh sizes, the majority of grain diameters ranged from 300 to 212

microns for 50 to 70 mesh sizes respectively (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesh_(scale) ). Then tap

water was poured slowly and carefully through as to not force out the sand grains. This was repeated three

times.

S-bend Prototype:

Development of a lab sized prototype for testing flow rates and kaolin clearances with

conservation of limited Moringa seeds

In order to construct the prototype, the following PVC components were purchased from Lowe’s.

Table 1: Parts List

Part QuantityLength of .5 inch diameter pipe 2Ball valve sockets 2Thread-socket adapters 4Elbows 4Tees 2Bushings 2

Notes: One of the representatives at the store stated that for a gravity-fed system, sealing our pipes would not be necessary. Rather, fitting them together “snugly” should work just fine.

Before the prototype could be built, some light fabrication or modification of current components

had to be undertaken. First, the two tees that were previously purchased were cut in half with a band saw

in order to hold the two horizontal pipes. Next, several custom lengths of pipe were cut also from the

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band saw, ranging from three to six inches, so adjustments could be made to the prototype’s

configuration. Then, two supports were made by attaching a single tee and bushing to an extended piece

of pipe. Finally, a base was constructed by taking a square piece of plywood and drilling two

appropriately spaced holes with a diameter equal to the bushings. This entire process took approximately

three hours.

The two supports were attached to the base on their bushing side, and as seen in Figure 7, and masking

tape was added to increase their diameter and ensure a tight fit. Then, the piping of the prototype was

assembled with the primary features of an inlet/outlet valve and two “kinks” in the center to impede the

flow of sand.

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Figure 4: The assembled lab-scale prototype with major components labeled. For reference, the reservoir is approximately eleven inches in height.

The prototype is intended to function as follows: water will be supplied via reservoir at the high

inlet section of the device. The water will then flow as a result of hydraulic head to the first length of

horizontal pipe, which will serve as the f-sand repository. From there the water will flow upward to the

second horizontal length, hopefully leaving the sand behind, and exit from the lower right.

To evaluate this design for use in the lab, the horizontal portion (Figure 8 - left) was packed with

50-70 mesh sand. Then tap water was poured slowly and carefully through as to not force out the sand

grains. The second identical trial was conducted with 30 to 40 mesh sand, or 425 to 600 micron sand.

The first step in adjusting the s-bend prototype was increasing the height of the vertical tube

following the f-sand. This was meant to stop sand from flowing out of the device by increasing the

necessary pressure to push sand out. Altering the prototype was simple. The PVC joints and pipe made

for easy transition between parts. Once the device was modified, water was flowed through the system.

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Flexible Tubing Prototype:

Development of a system to test f-sand’s clearing ability without design complications

To determine if f-sand can clarify a model turbid solution when packed in a column, a kaolin

solution was flowed through tubing containing f-sand and the concentration of the effluent solution was

determined. The experimental setup (pictured below) included 3/8” silicone tubing that was held in the

shape of a U on a corkboard by push pins. The “receiving” end of the tubing was run through a peristaltic

pump then into a beaker or flask containing the kaolin solution to be cleared. The effluent end was held in

place also by push pins and the exiting, treated solution was collected in 15 mL conical centrifuge tubes.

Kaolin stock solution of concentration 0.377 mg kaolin per 1 ml of water was diluted 50 % by

adding 100 ml of kaolin stock solution to 100 ml deionized (DI) water. The resulting concentration was

0.195 mg kaolin per 1 ml of water. The concentration of the kaolin solution was found using UV Vis

absorbance measurements and the Beer-Lambert law. An absorbance-concentration relationship was

found by finding the mass of kaolin in 1 ml of stock solution and finding the corresponding absorbance

measurement. The stock solution was then diluted by factors of ten until the absorbance was past the error

of the machine (1/100 of a unit). The Beer-Lambert law ensures that the relationship is linear as long as

the absorbance measurement is below 1. The equation for this kaolin stock solution was found previously:

concentration (g/ml) = 0.0004026*absorbance (a.u.).

The f-sand used was prepared by crushing 2 grams of dried Moringa oleifera seeds and gently

rolling them in water for 1 hour. This Moringa serum was then allowed to settle for 40 minutes. 30 ml of

the supernatant was pulled off in 10 ml fractions each of which was rolled with 2 grams of sand for an

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additional hour. Each sand sample was rinsed 10 times each and spread on a petri dish to dry overnight.

The f-sand used in this procedure was prepared on June 9, 2010.

6 grams of f-sand was put into the silicone tubing and the receiving end of the tubing was put into the

diluted kaolin stock solution. The pump was set to setting 2. 22 fractions of 4 mL were collected and

absorbance measurements were taken on a UV vis at 450 nm with a DI control.

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Figure 8: Flexible tube prototype

Results & Discussion

U-bend Prototype:

Development of a household sized device to be utilized in combination with f-sand to clarify

water

An adequate flow rate was achieved with careful pouring; however, this condition is not ideal for

filter implementation because it requires constant attention. Filling a reservoir is a more ideal solution.

Challenges faced throughout this experiment included loss of sand with effluent unless the inflow rate

was carefully controlled. Also, the design leaked badly through the outlet at the base of the U-bend. The

cause of the leak was sand trapped in the cap threading. This problem was easily rectified by lubricating

the cap threading with hand lotion to obtain a tighter seal, and could be fixed permanently with the use of

pipe thread sealant. Furthermore, a constant flow rate could be obtained by containing the sand in the

filter with gravel or porous stone caps.

S-bend Prototype:

Development of a lab sized prototype for testing flow rates and kaolin clearances with

conservation of limited Moringa seeds

There was some preliminary testing, and it was found that sand could be added easily by using a

simple funnel, which was initially a concern. Also, no leaks were observed in the system, confirming that

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press fitted pipes do work in this situation. However, there were two problems – the sand is carried

through with the water, and the supports were not entirely stable. The advantage of this design is

adaptability as new parts and lengths of pipes can be easily added. Also, the flow of water in the system

can be reversed by simply inverting the orientation of the inlet and outlet of the system, allowing for

“back washing” of the f-sand. In addition, as previously mentioned, due to low water pressure the parts

only need to be press fitted rather than sealed in place; this was tested by running water through it, which

produced no leaks. Furthermore, the dual ball valve design allows the water flow to be controlled easily.

No flow rates were determined for this set of trials with the S-bend prototype due to the high

incidence of sand exiting the filter with the water flow. The vertical pipe pieces on either side of the

horizontal length were not long enough to allow the grains to settle before water rushed out. It was

determined that the design would be a viable test apparatus if the vertical pipe pieces were lengthened to

contain the sand. Another option would be to cap edges of the sand with gravel or porous stone to contain

them. However, after adjusting the height of the vertical pieces, sand still came out. After further tests

and combinations of height difference, a solution to stop sand from flowing out of the device was not

found. A change in our prototype was needed.

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Flexible Tubing Prototype:

Development of a system to test f-sand’s clearing ability without design complications

A switch was made from the PVC system 3/8” silicone tubing. This new prototype made

changing the head in and out of the system simple and quick. Joints were removed from the system to

prevent any leaks or loss of pressure. This also allowed change in height difference to be created with

additional PVC pipe to be cut which saved materials. Corkboard and push pins were used to create the

shape of the tubing and make it stable. This allowed easy change to the shape of tubing when needed

while still keeping it consistent between tests.

This device kept the flow of the water in the tube constant. While this would not work for site

implications, it allowed lab easier testing of the concept and calculations. This also kept flow constant

which would help with consistent calculations. We used this device a few times and were able to

calculate the flow of water through the pipe. However, on our first attempt we were not able to conduct a

successful test using sand during this time in the lab.

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0 5 10 15 20 250

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Kaolin clearance when flowed through f-sand

Fraction Collected

Kaolinconcentration

(mg/mL)

As can be seen in Figure 10, the f-sand cleared the kaolin solution 63.5% from 0.195 mg of

kaolin per 1 mL of solution to0.071 mg/mL of kaolin at its lowest point. This is extremely significant

because it shows for the first time, that it is possible to clear kaolin from solution using a flow through

method rather than the traditional method of rolling the f-sand with the model solution for one hour. The

use of dry sand makes this data conclusive because there was not excess water present to dilute the kaolin

concentration. The next step would be to run a control with bare sand to verify the amount of clearance

that was due to the MOCP adhered to the sand versus a regular sand filter. In order to begin optimizing

this process it would be necessary to develop a way to control the flow rate of solution through the sand

without introducing water, which causes dilution, or allowing kaolin solution to sit in the sand, which

would use MOCP binding sites on the sand and affect the results.

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Figure 9: graph showing kaolin concentration with respect to the fraction collected

Conclusion

The ultimate goal was to build a working water filter utilizing the anti-microbial and flocculent

properties of MOCP f-sand that could be easily implemented in a developing nation. Strides were made

in meeting this goal including the construction of PVC prototype. With modifications to control leakage

and gravel caps to hold in the sand, it will be successful design. A limited quantity of sand and Moringa

seeds prevented further testing of the large scale prototype. Successful kaolin clearance was achieved

using the scaled-down peristaltic pump prototype. Calculations to model and optimize the process were

investigated. Penn State’s Trade Space Visualizer was utilized to create optimization plots relating

certain variables. Unfortunately, a flaw in the calculation analysis prevented any conclusive information

from being drawn for the plots. The original test location was slated to be a village in the highlands of

Puerto Rico that was out of compliance with EPA drinking water standards. However, it was discovered

on an implementation trip that they water had extremely low turbidity and the villagers were not getting

sick from the water. The reason for non-compliance was their resistance to chlorinate their water. Since

Puerto Rico turned out to be an un-ideal location for implementation other sites were investigated. Haiti

was investigated as an alternate implementation site, and proved to be a great candidate to benefit from

the environmental, nutritional, and water treatment advantages of Moringa oleifera. In conclusion a

functional prototype, scientific evidence that f-sand filtration will work, numerical analysis and

optimization methods, and a technology transferability study were the results of this reasearch. Areas of

further study include finding the ideal particulate clearance level and corresponding residence time,

investigation the effectiveness of f-sand filtration on bacterial removal, finding how much water a given

amount of f-sand can treat before needing to be recharged, and functionalizing other filtration media such

porous clay pots or activated carbon. While many questions remain, this investigation cemented the

potential of MOCP functionalized sand as a viable water treatment solution.

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Appendices

Appendix A: Numerical Methods

Introduction

Tests of two prototype filters, both the lab bench and full size design, revealed that a much more

methodical and calculation-based approach would be necessary to produce a successful design.

Determining the residence time of the water in the filter, or the amount of time a volume of water was in

contact with the functionalized sand, was imperative. It was also necessary to adjust the prototypes to

provide the hydraulic head difference necessary to achieve the desired contact time without pushing out

the sand media. The sand was very fine with an average diameter of 256 microns, thus ideal for

achieving a longer residence time, but required a substantial head difference to push fluid through the

tightly packed grains. Once loosened, however, the grains easily disseminate due to their small size

unless gravel or porous stone capping is used. The goal of this numerical methods analysis was to

develop a spread sheet that would take filter parameters and sand properties as inputs and provide

information like the achievable residence time. The spread sheet could also be used in reverse to

determine filter parameters to achieve a desired residence time.

Materials and Methods

The first step to addressing this challenge was identifying the variables involved include those pertaining

to the sand grains themselves, the bulk properties of the sand used as filter media, and the mechanical

properties of the filter. Table 2 below shows lists the variables involved and their mathematical symbols.

Variables used directly in the following calculations are listed in italics. The equations were initially used

for a peristaltic pump set-up with three-eighths inch diameter tubing with the pump on setting two.

Volume flow rate was calculated by measuring the volume of water passed through two grams of 50-70

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mesh sand for a given amount of time. The volume flow rate provided the basis for determining variables

such as average velocity and residence time. The porosity of sand was also determined experimentally.

Table 2: Variables and Constants Considered in Filter Design Parameter Spreadsheet

Sand Grain Properties Bulk Sand Properties Filter/Device Properties

Surface area (SAsand) Total surface area (SAtotal) Head difference (hp)

Diameter (dsand) Total volume (Vtotal) Pipe diameter (d)

Volume (Vsand) Density (ρ) Flow length (L)

Water Properties Porosity (η) Mass flow rate (ṁ)

Kinematic Viscosity (υ) Hydraulic conductivity (k) Average velocity (V)

Physical Properties Packing factor (J) Volume flow rate (Q)

Gravitational acceleration (g) Shape factor (S) Residence Time (θ)

Equations

Residence time, equation (1) was calculated by dividing porosity multiplied by Volume of sand divided

by volume flow rate. Because the peristaltic pump provided fluid flow at a constant pressure, Bernoulli’s

equation (4) was modified to neglect both pressure and velocity terms. Head loss due to the pipe material

was negligible in comparison to the frictional head loss cause by the sand; therefore, pressure head was

approximately equal to the frictional head loss. This relationship can be quantified using equation (5).

Volume Flow Rate

Q=VA w here cross sectional area, A=π ( d2 )

2

Residence Time

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θ=ηV total

Q(1 )

Darcy’s Law

Q= kAd hdl

(2 ) k= QdlAd h

(3)

Bernoulli’s Equation

hp+z1+P1

γ+

V 1

2 g

2

=z2+P2

γ+

V 22

2 g+hL,major (4 )

Bernoulli Derivation for Frictional Head Loss (Modified Kozeny-Carmen Equation)

hP ≈ hL

hL, frictional

¿=L[ Jυ( 1−η)2 V S 2

gη3 d sand2 ]¿(5)

Results & Discussion

Using Microsoft Excel to calculate residence time and head difference based on the measurements from

the peristaltic pump resulted in unreasonably high values of hundreds of meters for head difference to

attain reasonable residence times. Therefore a functioning, but not completely accurate Excel sheet was

developed. The error may have been the result of a calculation or conversion error, but was most likely

the result of a flaw in the analysis. Equating pressure head to frictional head loss was a significant logical

leap for several reasons. First of all, a typical filter situation will not include a peristaltic pump so a drop

in pressure will occur from inlet to outlet. Secondly, the hydraulic conductivity, a measure of

permeability was not taken into account. This value could be easily calculated from Darcy’s equation (3).

Once hydraulic conductivity is known, head difference can be easily calculated by solving for the dh

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term. Finally, more research must be done to ensure that the correct packing factor and shape factor are

used for the Kozeny-Carmen determination of frictional head loss2. While this initial analysis was

flawed, it has provided invaluable information for future research. Furthermore, the calculations allow

for filter parameter optimization using Penn State’s Trade Space Exploration software which has provided

for successful optimization of external fuel tank design for space shuttles3.

Conclusion

In final analysis, the numerical method chosen, the modified Kozeny-Carmen equation may have been

unnecessarily complex. A much simpler and functional method existed in the manipulation of Darcy’s

Law to determine hydraulic conductivity. This type of analysis would provide a good starting point to

better understand filter dynamics before delving into the complexities of the Kozeny-Carmen relationship.

2Levicky, R. “Flow through Porous Media.” ChE3110. Web. 4 Dec. 2010 <http://www.columbia.edu/~rl268/ChESite/E3110/Handout_15.pdf>.

3 “Examples.” Trade Space Exploration. 2010. Web. 4 Dec. 2010 <http://www.atsv.psu.edu/sampleproblems.html>.

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Appendix B: Optimization

Introduction

Within any design, there are a number of variables to take into account and weigh against one

another. In the case of this filter, there are two that are critically apparent - contact time and head

difference. Contact time defines how long it will take a given volume of water to pass through another

given volume of sand, and will determine the clean water producing capacity of our filter. As for head

difference, it represents the change in height between the inlet of the filter and the surface of the water in

the reservoir; clearly, this is a major aspect of the overall design. On a more basic level, these two

variables are governed by pipe diameter and the mass of sand in the filter, respectively.

It is possible to control both the pipe diameter and mass of the sand, but this provokes several

questions; primarily, what is the optimal pipe diameter and mass of sand that should be used? There are a

number of implicit tradeoffs in each case, and the answers will change depending on the application and

subsequent performance demands of the filter. There are a great number of options to consider, and since

these variables are interrelated the problem of optimizing the design becomes daunting. However, using a

piece of Penn State software known as Trade Space Visualizer (TSV)4, it is possible to address this

challenge.

Materials/Methods

First, a spreadsheet defining and relating the previously mentioned factors was created (Appendix

A). This serves as the underpinnings of TSV, allowing it to perform the required calculations. These

calculations are conducted by running a user determined number of points through the equations, stepping

4 PSU ATSV. Penn State Applied Research Lab. 12/2/2010. <http://www.atsv.psu.edu/>.

22

through the possible range of input values and producing a set of outputs. In order for this to happen, the

following inputs and outputs were defined within TSV (Table 3):

Table 3: Input/Output Parameters

Input OutputPipe Diameter (m) Head Difference (m)Mass of Sand (g) Contact time (s)

Now, it is possible for the program to calculate and plot any given number of possible outcomes based on

these variables, allowing them to be represented on a 2D scatter plot.

Results

Applying TSV produced graphical relations of several variables. Specifically, there are three

graphs available: Contact Time vs. Mass of Sand (Graph 1), Head Difference vs. Pipe Diameter (Graph

2), and Head Difference vs. Contact Time (Graph 3).

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Graph 1: Mass of sand (g) vs. contact time of water with the sand (s) represented by a scatter plot constructed from

relationships within TSV (Appendix A). The points, of which there are 1000, are distributed along an input range of 2 g to

333 g.

Graph 2: Pipe diameter (m) vs. head difference between the input and output water levels (m) as represented by a scatter

plot constructed from relationships within TSV (Appendix A). The 1000 data points are distributed between the metric

equivalent of .5 and 3 inch pipe diameters.

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Graph 3: Each point in this scatter plot represents a unique combination of contact time (s) vs. head difference (m) as

defined by the equations found in Appendix A. Again, 1000 points were calculated and are distributed based in the

previously outlined ranges for mass of sand (governing contact time) and pipe diameter (governing head difference).

By examining these results, several characteristics of these variables become clear. First, Graph 1

represents a linear, positive relationship between mass of sand and contact time, which makes sense –

when more sand is added, it provides more of a barrier for the water to pass through. As for Graph 2,

there is a non-linear, inverse relationship between pipe diameter and head difference. Both of these results

are much different from Graph 3, and rather than plotting an input and an output directly related by their

respective equations it represents the relationship between two output variables. This is the true power of

TSV, which will then allow these points to be eliminated not only by contact time and head difference

requirements, but also by mass of sand and pipe diameter. This leads to the graph being much deeper than

it appears to be, and a useful tool for considering various tradeoffs and possible configurations.

Conclusion/Discussion:

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The use of TSV in reference to the project was a mixed success. Our equations as they stand seem

to work well with TSV’s solver, and produced relationships that make sense logically, as represented by

Graphs 1 and 2. However, Graph 3 doesn’t seem to have a clear trend, which is a cause for concern. Due

to a lack of a pattern, any point chosen might be misleading because there is the potential that another,

more advantageous point exists but was just not generated. Therefore, caution must be used before one is

chosen, and several runs would be appropriate before a final decision is made. Additionally, the input

ranges produced questionable values for the outputs, which were often unrealistically large. This indicates

that either the input values must be revaluated or our basic equations should be reworked.

TSV, like any other tool, can only produce results that are as good as what it was given initially.

Therefore, refining the algorithm it is based on through further research or lab experimentation would be

very beneficial. The more that the program in grounded in reality, the more usable are its outputs and the

greater chance it will provide valid solutions within Graph 3. Eventually, when reasonable confidence in

the results is achieved and the requirements of the device are determined, TSV will be able to present an

optimal design solution.

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Appendix C: Possible Implementation Site – Haiti

Background

Haiti’s history is one marked by frequent tragedy,

ranging from destructive political unrest to devastating

natural disasters. Since the country’s independence in

1804 following a successful slave rebellion, Haiti has

struggled to establish itself as a self-sufficient nation. 5

Politically, it has failed to achieve any kind of long-term

sustainability; the 32 coups Haiti has suffered during its

lifetime have been identified as a major factor in its

modern issues.6 Economically, the country continues to

be one of the poorest nations, taking the bottom-most position on the Human Development Index for the

Americas.7 Environmentally, Haiti has neglected to attend to its natural resources effectively, as

evidenced by the 96% decline in forest cover between 1923 and 2006.8 However, these shortcomings

have only been exacerbated by recent events, the most significant of which is the 7.0 earthquake in

January 2010, followed by the massive cholera outbreak of October 2010.9 Haiti’s economy and

infrastructure are in shambles – consequentially, it isn’t difficult to understand how the country’s ability

to provide clean water to its citizens is severely limited.

Climate & Geography

5 "CIA - The World Factbook." Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. 9 Nov. 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html>6 Haiti Starts Over, Once Again by Michele Kelemen, March 2, 2004, NPR: National Public Radio. Retrieved 2010-02-16.7 United Nations. "Statistics | Human Development Reports (HDR) | United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)." Human Development Reports (HDR) - United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Web. 23 Nov. 2010. <http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/>.8 Country Profile: Haiti. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (May 2006). 9 "Cholera in Haiti: Another Plague | The Economist." The Economist - World News, Politics, Economics, Business & Finance. 28 Oct. 2010. Web. 22 Nov. 2010. <http://www.economist.com/node/17363407?story_id=17363407>.

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Figure 5: Map of Haiti 5

Haiti is an island country in the Caribbean, surrounded almost entirely by water. Haiti is a relatively small

country, about the size of Maryland, with a disproportionate amount of coastal area due to its horse-shoe-

like shape. The only border it shares with another country, the Dominican Republic, can be seen from

space due to the stark difference in forest conservation policy between the two nations.10 The degree of

Haiti’s deforestation is startling: once covered by as much as 60% by forest, that number has since

declined to about 2%.11 Deforestation and the accompanying

desertification are two of the most prominent environmental issues facing Haiti, since decreased arable

land means greater susceptibility to foreign food prices, a decreased ability to create local value, as well

as an increased pressure on whatever existing foliage and land remains.12 Haiti is considered to be a

mountainous and tropical country, with fertile valleys balanced by semi-arid regions to the east where the

trade-winds are cut off by the mountains. Average temperatures range from 73 oF to 88 oF.13

Current State of Water Treatment

Haiti has one of the worst infrastructures for sanitation in the world. The country’s capital city Port-au-

Prince, lacks a centralized sewer system.14 In 2000, only 46% of all citizens had access to safe drinking

water, down from 53% ten years earlier.15 With the earthquake in January, the conditions there have

unquestionably become worse. As proof, the recent outbreak of cholera in the country has already

claimed at least 300 lives, with 4500 more diagnosed and thousands of others at risk.16 Even if Haiti were

to invest in a more centralized form of water delivery and sanitation, the impact would most likely be

10 Than, Ker. "Haiti Earthquake, Deforestation Heighten Landslide Risk." Daily Nature and Science News and Headlines | National Geographic News. 14 Jan. 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010. <http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/01/100114-haiti-earthquake-landslides/>.11 Country Profile: Haiti. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (May 2006).12 Bourne, Jr., Joel K. "National Geographic Magazine - NGM.com." Sept. 2008. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. <http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/soil/bourne-text/1>.13 "CIA - The World Factbook." Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. 9 Nov. 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html>14 Harris, Richard. "Planning For Haiti's Future Presents Many Challenges : NPR." NPR : National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. 3 Mar. 2010. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=124113458>.15 Joint Monitoring Programme. UNICEF, 2001. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. <http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/about/sgreport-pdf/03_SafeDrinkingWater_D7341Insert_English.pdf>.16 "Cholera in Haiti: Another Plague | The Economist." The Economist - World News, Politics, Economics, Business & Finance. 28 Oct. 2010. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. <http://www.economist.com/node/17363407?story_id=17363407>.

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Figure 6: Satellite Image of Haitian Border 10

reduced to urban areas, which encompass only 47% of the population as a whole.17 What is needed is a

water sanitation method that is quick to implement, completely independent of centralized sanitation

systems, and can be constructed economically and from local materials. Our f-sand filter meets all of

these requirements.

Application

There are a number of limitations with our current design that may affect its ability to be implemented in

a Haitian environment: the material composition, the current inability to prevent the sand from escaping

the filter, and the rate at which the f-sand inside would be depleted from use. Fortunately, Haiti naturally

offers a number of solutions to these issues.

With regards to the resources readily available in Haiti, Moringa oleifera is a species that already grows

in Haiti.18 Wood, coffee and textiles are also in significant supply, since they represent some of Haiti’s

most profitable industries.19 Clay is a common material in the country as well, widely available in many

areas.20 Sand is expected to be a plentiful resource, due to the extensive coastline – the significant amount

of biosand filters (>2000) deployed in the Artibonite Valley of Haiti would suggest that this is the case

(although the the size and quality of the sand may have a negative impact on the effectiveness of the f-

sand).21 With these assets in mind, it is conceivable that the various elements of this filter could be

constructed entirely from locally available materials. For instance, the frame and channels of the filter

could be constructed from wood for support and fired clay to provide a long-lasting reservoir. To keep the

sand from flowing out of the filter during use, a new technology called ceramic filters could be utilized.

In essence, ceramic filters are pot- or cone-shaped filtration devices that are created using a mixture of 17 "CIA - The World Factbook." Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. 9 Nov. 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html>18 World Agroforestry Centre. "Moringa Oleifera." Web. 24 Nov. 2010. <http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb2/AFTPDFS/Moringa_oleifera.pdf>.19 "CIA - The World Factbook." Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. 9 Nov. 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html>20 "Video: Clay Eating Discouraged." Daily Nature and Science News and Headlines | National Geographic News. 8 Nov. 2007. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. <http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/11/071108-clay-video-ap.html>.21 Baker, D. L., and W. F. Duke. "Intermittent Slow Sand FIlters for Household Use - A Field Study in Haiti." Center for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology. Web. 4 Dec. 2010. <http://www.cawst.org/assets/File/Slow_Sand_Filter_Study.pdf>.

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clay and some other finely ground and sifted organic material (usually sawdust or coffee grounds) and

fired just like a normal clay object (either over a wood or cow-dung fire).22 These filters have been proven

to not only separate particulates from the water, but have demonstrated an ability to reduce turbidity,

improve taste and color, and to filter out a substantial amount of bacteria as well (for instance, on average,

~98% of Escherichia coli is removed during a typical filtration).23 However, current clay pot filters are

lined with colloidal silver, which is believed to kill most of the bacteria that is prevented from going

through.24 Moringa-functionalized sand could replace colloidal silver in these kinds of filters by

incapacitating the pathogens that don’t pass through the ceramic membrane. Finally, to make the filter last

longer between each new supply of f-sand, a pre-treatment procedure where the contaminated water is

passed through folded cloth may remove many of the contaminants and bacteria before it even reaches the

filter. These “sari filters” are commonly used in Bangladesh as an effective method of fighting

waterborne pathogens, removing as much as 99% of Vibrio cholerae (the bacterium responsible for

cholera) before any other filtration method is even applied.25 However, for forms of bacteria smaller than

Vibrio cholerae, cloth filtration is not as effective, so a secondary method is usually needed. 26 With these

adaptations to our current design applied, it is likely that a sustainable, economical, and effective filter

could be created by the citizens of Haiti for immediate effect.

22 Klarman, Molly. "Investigation of Ceramic Pot Filter Design Variables." Lewis and Clark College, May 2009. Web. 4 Dec. 2010. <http://www.filterpurefilters.org/pdf/Investigation%20of%20Ceramic%20Pot%20Filter.pdf>.23 Lemons, Ansley. "Maji Salama: Implementing Ceramic Water Filtration Technology in Arusha, Tanzania." FilterPure, Spring 2009. Web. 4 Dec. 2010. <http://www.filterpurefilters.org/pdf/Implementing%20Cermaic%20Water%20Filtration.pdf>.24 "FilterPure Filters OR Filter Pure Filters Provide save Water for the Underserved. Non-Profit Organization." FilterPure Filters :: Ceramic Water Filters to Provide Clean and Safe Drinking Water to the People with the Greatest Need. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. <http://www.filterpurefilters.org/the_filter.htm>.25 Colwell RR, Huq A, Islam MS, et al. (February 2003). "Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 100 (3): 1051–5.doi:10.1073/pnas.0237386100. PMID 12529505.26 Ibid.

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Figure 7: A simple design that incorporates both a ceramic filter and f-sand

Possible Obstacles

There are a few questions and considerations to make before implementing this system in full force:

Can Haitians take advantage of Moringa oleifera’s known nutritional benefits as well?

Can f-sand be created from Moringa seed with the oil extracted? Can this oil be used to contribute

to the growing biofuel industry in Haiti?

How will the nation’s logging industry affect the ability to cultivate Moringa? Alternatively, can

the planting of Moringa be used to combat deforestation?

How will the growth of Moringa be affected by natural events such as hurricanes, earthquakes,

heavy rainfall, or droughts?

What affect does the Moringa tree on the surrounding soil? Will it damage other crops?

Will Haitians accept the responsibility of maintaining this kind of filter?

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Wooden Frame

Clay Reservoir

Ceramic Filter

Functionalized Sand

How difficult will it be to teach individuals how to create & maintain them?

How can we ensure that materials such as the sand and coffee grounds can be produced finely

enough to be effective?

How will Haitians create an environment sterilized enough to create effective f-sand?

How difficult will it be to obtain the appropriate materials?

How rapidly can a filter be created?

How rapidly can a filter be repaired when damaged?

How much will it cost to make these kinds of filters?

Will the cost exceed available means for most Haitians?

Will this kind of filter eliminate the taste associated with normal Moringa filtration? If it does not,

will this affect the adoption of this technology?

How will the water produced through this process be stored?

Will the creation of this product negatively affect other industries?

Will the creation of this product allocate resources away from other necessary services?

Will Haitians accept this type of filter?

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Appendix D: Leadership & Group Development

The outcome of this project was defined by the initial failures, and eventual successes, of several

leadership principles. In the beginning of the semester, our group struggled due to the failure to establish

the key components of a successful team. In other words, we fell victim to the “five dysfunctions of a

team” :

Figure 8: Patrick Lencioni's Five Dysfunctions

To explain, we were not results driven and failed to push towards our initial goals concerning the

prototype and lab work. This was caused by a lack of accountability, as demonstrated by the total absence

of an agenda or plan of action at the majority of our first meetings. That didn’t bother us enough to

correct, because we didn’t feel committed to the project or its outcome. There was no discussion taking

place to plan a course of action or force a change because we were not comfortable with the prospect of

coming into conflict with one another. And finally, the root of all this was a lack of trust that prevented

our team from functioning on any substantial level. We all recognized this was happening to some degree,

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and as good leaders we should have stepped up to the challenge of fixing things, or taken the initiative to

seek help from the various resources available to use (e.g each other, TA’s, sponsors, etc). Instead, we fell

into a passive response that paralyzed us for half the semester. There are likely a large number of reasons

for this, and they are difficult to fully define, but we were able to determine that the two biggest issues we

failed to handle appropriately were those related to authority and complexity. There were a large number

of authority figures involved in the project from the beginning, ranging from the overarching EPA grant,

to the sponsors, as well as our TA’s and our professor. This produced conflicting interest and information

at times, and frankly made for a crowded playing field - we struggled to assert our own ideas and

direction as a result. Also, the inherent complexity of the project posed a unique challenge, as the

majority of our team had little experience with Moringa and were faced with a fairly steep learning curve.

Also, there were a number of deep issues that had to be addressed, such as the cultural implications that

are associated with developing a water filter for a variety of developing nations.

Things changed, however, when we were confronted at a meeting with the fact that half the

semester was over and we had not produced anything substantial. Faced with the potential of failure, we

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Students

TA’s

Sponsors

Clean Water

Cheap, Rugged Design

Cultural Acceptance

Figure 10: Authority Figure 9: Complexity

held a meeting and refocused our efforts, setting realistic goals that defining individual responsibilities for

the remainder of the time we had available. By bringing the team together and having this open and

honest discussion, we were able to address the five dysfunctions from the bottom up. Trust was finally

built because we all shared our personal situations and feelings regarding the semester thus far, allowing

us to feel comfortable expressing opinions and risking conflict. Also, due to the fact that we had all come

together and agreed on a course of action, commitment and accountability developed naturally. And

perhaps most importantly, we became determined to produce the results that had continually eluded us.

From that point on, the team functioned as it should have from the beginning of the semester, and we

were making progress on a daily basis equivalent to what had previously taken us a week. Unfortunately,

we could not regain lost time, and the semester quickly came to a close despite the strides we had made;

we had progressed through the team phases of forming, storming, norming, and were on the cusp of

performing. Looking back, we were heavily critical of ourselves because despite our dysfunctions, we

were all high performing students that had lofty hopes and standards from the very beginning - we had

simply just let things get out of hand. Yet, despite all the setbacks, we managed to learn important lessons

and apply them to make the best of a dire situation. Therefore, from the perspective of leadership we were

able to claim success, for the true test is not when everything is going right, but rather when everything is

going wrong and what you end up doing about it.

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