Groundwater

Held underground in aquifers (Ogalla has only 40% of original amount left!)Area in an aquifer, below the water table, that has pores filled with water is the zone of saturationZone of aeration is upper soil areas that hold both air and water

Ocean currents

Surface currents - result of wind, rotation (the Coriolis Effect) and the shape of ocean basinsDeep currents - density driven by differences in salinity and temperature of water massesBoth bring warm equatorial waters towards the poles and cooler polar water towards the equator

Acid Rain

Man made source: sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide released from burning fossil fuels (which damage lungs when inhaled) Natural source: volcanic eruptions or decayResults in acidification of lakes/streams, damages trees and forest soil, accelerates the decay of building materials and paints

Nonpoint Source Pollution

does not come from a single, identifiable sourceex's.)oil runoff from roads, gas leaks in boats, fertilizer /pesticide runoff from farms...

Abiotic factor

nonlivingex's.) pH, water, sunlight, humidity, soil...

Biosphere

the global sum of all ecosystems, "zone of life"includes organisms' interaction with the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere

Alternative Energy in North Carolina

Solar - uses toxic materials to make costly panelsWind -unsightly, loud, and may kill birds and batsNuclear -potential for accidents, requires long term storage of radioactive material (all of the above cause little pollution or habitat destruction)Biomass - can use plants not suitable for eating but causes air pollution and increased soil erosionHydroelectric - dam provides flood control and recreational area but disrupts habitat

Weathering

Chemical - reaction causes break down, ex.) acid rain, rustingPhysical - force of movement (wind, water, ice) causes breakdown; ex.) frost wedgingCreates soil

Weathered Particles

Ordered from smallest size/ least pore space/ least permeability to largest size/ most pore space/ greatest permeabilityClay Silt Sand Gravel

Volcanoes

Cinder - small; eruption is explosive containing liquid lava and cinders (pumice rocks)Composite/ Stratovolcano - medium; eruption is explosive with lots of debris (pyroclastic material like ash, rocks, smoke, etc.) in eruptionShield - largest; eruption is quiet with liquid lava

Earthquakes

Focus - point within the earth, or the exact spot, where the earthquake occurs; Epicenter - point on surface of earth directly above the focus P Waves - compressional /primary waves, move through liquid and solid earth, straight and fast S waves- secondary waves, move only through solid earth, moves in waves

Faults/Boundaries

Convergent /Reverse- coming together, occurs when the crust is shortened; most powerful earthquakes; creates mountainsDivergent /Normal - pulling apart, occurs when the crust is extended; least powerful earthquakes; creates new sea floorStrike slip/Transform- side to side motion, ex.) San Andreas Fault in CA

Rock Cycle

Recycling of earth materials due to convection , which is the movement/ recycling of Earth's interior heat to the surface and the core's gradual cooling (theory of continental drift) which forms rocks and volcanoes

Rock Types

sedimentary - "settle", settling of sediment creates easy to break rock, ex.) sandstoneigneous - "fire", cooling of magma, ex.) basalt and obsidianmetamorphic - "morph", intense heat and pressure, ex.) marble and slate

Atmosphere Layers

Troposphere - contains all life and weather, decreasing temperature; Stratosphere -where planes fly, temp increases, includes ozonosphere which protects UV rays; Mesosphere - protects from meteors, temperature decreases; Thermosphere - includes ionosphere, magnetosphere (which contains earth's magnetic field and causes Northern Lights), and the exosphere (where artificial satellites orbit), temperature increases

Fronts

Falling (low) pressure brings "bad" weatherWarm Front - warm air rises slowly; drizzleCold Front - cold air (denser) sinks quickly; stormsStationary Front - stalled front; long period of rainOccluded Front - cold front overtakes warm front; violent storms

Greenhouse Effect

trapping of EMR (electromagnetic radiation) leads to higher temperatures 2 Major Gases: carbon dioxide (CO2) and methaneEnergy production (coal plants) greatest contributor to CO2Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of CO2

Köppen climate classification system

Temperate climates - near mid latitudes (areas between equator and poles), generally have seasons; moderate temperaturesTropical - near equator, high temperaturesPolar climates - at poles, very cold, very strong wind, least diversity

Weather Patterns

El Nino - warming of water in the Pacific Ocean; brings storms and flooding; disrupts ocean food chains La Nina - cooling of water in the Pacific Ocean; brings rain/snow to the West Coast, colder in Alaska, and warmer in rest of US; droughts in the SW & more hurricanes off east coast

Atmosphere

Impacted most by aerosols, chlorofluorocarbons (cfc's), burning, industrial waste, and over farmingHelped by using scrubbers in smokestacks of factories, reducing emissions from cars and factories, and using alternative energy (hydropower, natural gas, solar, wind) to reduce pollution

Kepler's Law

1st Law of Ellipses - Planets have elliptical orbit2nd Law of Equal Areas - Planets speed up when closer to the sun3rd Law of Harmonies - T2 = D3 where T is the time of one orbit and D is distance from the sun.

Precession

The change in direction of the axis is pointing, but without any change in tilt—this changes the stars near (or not near) the Pole, but does not affect the seasons (as long as the angle of 23.5 degrees of tilt stays the same).

Nutation

Wobbling around the precessional axis (This is a change in the angle—½ degree one way or the other). This occurs over an 18 year period and is due to the Moon exclusively. This movement slightly increases or decreases the amount of seasonal effects.

Barycenter

The point between two objects where they balance each other; the moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a point on a line between the Earth and the Moon approximately 1,710 km below the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses balance

Earth

The tilt of Earth's axis and the sun causes Earth's seasons; one rotation around the axis =1 day; one revolution around the sun = 1 year

Sun

Energy is created from FUSION of hydrogen. This energy flows to the earth mostly by electromagnetic radiation - heat and light. But there is a solar wind that consists of real particles. This causes the Aurora on earth at high altitudes.

Sizes of Celestial Objects from Largest to Smallest

Universe → Galaxies → Solar Systems → Stars→ Planets → Moons → Meteoroids

Moon

It creates tides when the moon is located in a certain points above the Earth, and the force of the moon's gravity pulls the ocean closer to the moon.

Magnetic Field

Forms a shield (the magnetosphere) protecting the planet's surface from energetic, charged particles (solar wind) coming from the Sun and other places. It reflects the solar wind away from the earth, so it does not harm us.

density

compactness; how closely molecules are to one another; the amount of mass in a given volume

infiltration

the seepage of water into soil or rock

porosity

the amount of open space (pore space) in an area of soil/rock

reservoir

a natural or artificial place where water is collected and stored for use

desalinizing

removing salt from ocean water to have fresh water

dependable

reliable, worthy of trust

dependent

relying on someone or something else for aid, support, etc.

troposphere

the lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather conditions occur

stratosphere

contains ozone layer; area that absorbs UV radiation that is dangerous to life

compressible

to press together; force into less space

altitude

the height above sea level on earth; similar to elevation

gradually

taking place, changing, moving, etc., by small degrees or little by little

frontal boundary

where two fronts meet

cyclonic

of or pertaining to a cyclone

sulfur dioxide

a chemical released by coal-burning power plants that increases acid precipitation

El Niño

a warm ocean current that develops every year in December that brings wetter conditions to the west coast of South America

methane

greenhouse gas released by volcanic eruptions or the ocean; increases global warming

water vapor

#1 most significant greenhouse gas

subduction zones

move together to create largest volcanoes and largest earthquakes

reverse fault

a fault in which the rock above the fault plane is displaced upward relative to the rock below the fault plane (gravity fault).

convergent plate boundary

creates largest earthquakes which can create largest tsunamis

jetties

a pier or structure of stones, piles, or the like, sticking out into the sea

turbidity

muddiness created by stirring up sediment

biomass

plants used as a fuel; the amount of living matter in a given habitat

dissolved oxygen

needed in water environments for fish and aquatic plants to survive

wetland

a marsh, swamp, or bog that acts as a helpful buffer by filtering/cleaning water

conservation techniques

ways to save water or energy that do not damage the environment, like turning off the lights when you leave a room

thermohaline current

ocean currents created by temperature and salinity difference

inhibit

to stop or prevent from happening

red shift

a shift toward longer wavelengths of the spectral lines emitted by a celestial object that is caused by the object moving away from the earth; used to prove the universe is expanding

universe

the totality of known or supposed objects and phenomena throughout all of space

galaxy

a large system of stars held together by mutual gravitation and isolated from similar systems by vast regions of space; example includes the milky way (which is where we live!)

solar system

the sun together with all the planets and other bodies that revolve around it

carrying capacity

the maximum, equilibrium number of organisms of a particular species that can be supported indefinitely in a given environment.

biotic

any living plant or organisms in an ecosystem

biome

a complex biotic community characterized by distinctive plant and animal species and maintained under the climatic conditions (temperature and rainfall) of the region

tundra

one of the vast, nearly level, treeless plains of the arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and North America

savanna

a plain characterized by coarse grasses and scattered tree growth, especially on the margins of the tropics where the rainfall is seasonal, as in eastern Africa

desert

a region so arid because of little rainfall that it supports only sparse and widely spaced vegetation or no vegetation at all

taiga

the coniferous evergreen forests of subarctic lands, covering vast areas of northern North America and Eurasia.

solar radiation

the process in which energy from the sun is emitted as waves

rainforest

a tropical forest, usually of tall, densely growing, broad-leaved evergreen trees in an area of high annual rainfall.

abiotic

factors that are non-living in an ecosystem; includes light, water, wind, temperature...

photosynthesis

the synthesis(making) of complex organic materials, especially carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic salts, using sunlight as the source of energy and with the aid of chlorophyll and associated pigments

Kepler's first law

the law of ellipses

deciduous

shedding the leaves annually, as certain trees and shrubs.

coniferous

trees that are cone bearing evergreens; boreal

invasive species

Non-native organism that threaten ecosystems, habitats or species

detritivore

an organism that uses organic waste as a food source, as certain insects.

limiting factor

an environmental factor that tends to limit population size, like space or amount of food

keplers 2nd law

the law of equal areas - states that planets move quicker when closer to the sun

kepler's third law

the law of harmonies- states that planets take less time to make one revolution when closer to the sun

precession

the motion of the rotation axis of a rigid body, as a spinning top, that changes the orientation of where the axis is pointing

nutation

the periodic oscillation (change) of the tilt earth's axis

ecological efficiency

percentage of usable energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next highest trophic level

biomass

the dry weight of all organic matter contained in its organisms

weather

the state of the atmosphere with respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness, moisture, pressure, etc.

climate

the general weather conditions of a region, as temperature, air pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness, and winds, throughout the year, averaged over a longer period of time

atmosphere

the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth; the air.

stratosphere

the region of the upper atmosphere extending upward from the tropopause to about 30 miles (50 km) above the earth, characterized by little vertical change in temperature; jets and ozone are found here

troposphere

the lowest layer of the atmosphere, 6 miles (10 km) high in some areas and as much as 12 miles (20 km) high in others, within which there is a steady drop in temperature with increasing altitude and within which nearly all cloud formations occur and weath

thermosphere

the region of the upper atmosphere in which temperature increases continuously with altitude, encompassing essentially all of the atmosphere above the mesosphere; where find the northern lights and space shuttles

ozone layer

located in the stratosphere and is composed of gas made of 3 oxygen atoms (O3); Absorbs 99% of suns harmful UVB rays

air pressure

the force exerted by air, whether compressed or unconfined, on any surface in contact with it.

barometer

any instrument that measures atmospheric pressure.

cold front

the zone separating two air masses, of which the cooler, denser mass is advancing and replacing the warmer; brings storms

warm front

a transition zone between a mass of warm air and the colder air it is replacing; brings drizzle or snow flurries

stationary front

a front between warm and cold air masses that is moving very slowly or not at all; brings longer periods of rain

occluded front

a composite front formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front and forces it aloft; creates the most severe storms

Coriolis effect

the apparent deflection of a body in motion with respect to the earth, as seen by an observer on the earth, attributed to a fictitious force but actually caused by the rotation of the earth and appearing as a deflection to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and a deflection to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

albedo

The reflectiveness of a surface. Black absorbs all colors while white reflects all colors.

rain gauge

an instrument for measuring rainfall

anemometer

any instrument for measuring the speed of wind

wind vane

any instrument for measuring the direction of wind

isotherm

a line on a weather map or chart connecting points having equal temperature.

El Niño

a warm ocean current of variable intensity that develops after late December along the coast of Ecuador and Peru and sometimes causes catastrophic weather conditions.

latitude

the angular distance north or south from the equator of a point on the earth's surface, measured on the meridian of the point.

tropical

very hot and humid

Temperate Zone

the part of the earth's surface lying between the tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere or between the tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere, and characterized by having a climate that is warm in the summer, cold in the winter, and moderate in the spring and fall.

aerosol

a system of colloidal particles dispersed in a gas; smoke or fog; causes destruction of ozone

greenhouse effect

an atmospheric heating phenomenon, caused by short-wave solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the earth's atmosphere but longer-wavelength heat radiation less readily transmitted outward, owing to its absorption by atmospheric carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and other gases; thus, the rising level of carbon dioxide is viewed with concern.

global warming

an increase in the earth's average atmospheric temperature that causes corresponding changes in climate and that may result from the greenhouse effect

high pressure

pressure resulting in clear weather

low pressure

pressure resulting in stormy weather

density current

produced by differences in temperature, salinity, and turbidity (the concentration of material held in suspension)

surface current

a continuous, directed movement of ocean water generated by the force of wind

infiltration

the seepage of water into soil or rock

tributary

a stream that flows to a larger stream or other body of water

water cycle

processes by which water circulates between the earth's oceans, atmosphere, and land, involving precipitation as rain and snow, drainage in streams and rivers, and return to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration

groundwater

the water beneath the surface of the ground, consisting largely of surface water that has seeped down: the source of water in springs and wells

aquifer

any geological formation containing or conducting ground water, especially one that supplies the water for wells, springs, etc.

zone of saturation

the area in an aquifer, below the water table, in which relatively all pores and fractures are saturated with water

water table

the planar, underground surface beneath which earth materials, as soil or rock, are saturated with water; the top of the zone of saturation

porosity

the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the volume of the pores of a substance, like a rock or rock stratum, to the total volume of the mass

permeability

the capability of a porous rock or sediment to permit the flow of fluids through its pore spaces

salinity

dissolved salt content of a body of water. It is a general term used to describe the levels of different salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium and calcium sulfates, etc.

density

mass per unit volume (amount of "stuff" packed into a given space)

upwelling

the process by which warm, less-dense surface water is drawn away from along a shore by offshore currents and replaced by cold, denser water brought up from the subsurface.

relative density of cold water

higher density; "sinks"

relative density of warm water

lower density; "floats"

relative density of freshwater

lower density; "floats"

relative density of ocean water

higher density; "sinks"

transpiration

the passage of water through a plant from the roots through the vascular system to the atmosphere.

biosphere

the part of the earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere that supports life (all life on earth)

reservoir

a natural or artificial place where water is collected and stored for use, especially water for supplying a community, irrigating land, furnishing power, etc.

runoff

something that drains or flows off, as rain that flows off from the land in streams

zone of aeration

the underground region where groundwater can move but does not fill the pore space in the rock or sediment

coastal climate

increased precipitation than inland climate, more moderate temperatures than inland climate (cooler in summer but warmer in winter)

eutrophication

Excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen

potable

Safe to drink; drinkable

recharge

The addition of water to rivers or to aquifers by natural infiltration, that tends to raise the water table

watershed

The entire land area that contributes surface runoff to a given drainage system.

point source pollution

Pollutants discharged from any identifiable point, including popes, ditches, channels, sewers, tunnels, and containers of various types.

nonpoint source pollution

comes from many diffuse sources; caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground

epicenter

a point on the ground that is directly above the true center of where the shock waves of an earthquake apparently radiate

focus

the point of origin of an earthquake.

seismogram

a printed or visual record made by a seismograph

seismograph

any of various instruments for measuring and recording the vibrations of earthquakes

earthquake

a series of vibrations induced in the earth's crust by the abrupt rupture and rebound of rocks in which elastic strain has been slowly accumulating

elastic rebound

theory that states that when tension builds up, earth stretches and warps until friction is overcome and the two pieces of land move, snapping back to their original shapes

S wave

a transverse earthquake wave that travels through the interior of the earth and is usually the second conspicuous wave to reach a seismograph

P wave

a longitudinal seismic wave that travels through the interior of the earth and is usually the first conspicuous wave to be recorded by a seismograph

mantle

the portion of the earth, about 1800 miles (2900 km) thick, between the crust and the core

crust

the outer layer of the earth, about 22 miles (35 km) deep under the continents and 6 miles (10 km) deep under the oceans

core

the central portion of the earth, having a radius of about 2100 miles (3379 km) and believed to be composed mainly of iron and nickel in a molten state.

L wave

an earthquake wave that travels around the earth's surface in mostly an up and down motion

chemical weathering

involves the change in the composition of rocks, often leading to a 'break down' in its form. This is done through a combination of water and various chemicals to create an acid which directly breaks down the material

mechanical weathering

When rocks are broken down into smaller pieces, or when sharp rock fragments become smooth and rounded

thermal

of, pertaining to, or caused by heat or temperature

metamorphic

pertaining to or characterized by change of form, or metamorphosis

sedimentary

formed by the deposition of sediment as certain rocks

igneous

produced under conditions involving intense heat, as rocks of volcanic origin or rocks crystallized from molten magma

divergent boundary

where new crust is being created as the old crust on each side moves away as if on a conveyor belt

convergent boundary

also known as a destructive plate boundary (because of subduction), is an actively deforming region where two (or more) tectonic plates or fragments of lithosphere move toward one another and collide

transform boundary

a boundary in which two plates (portions of Earth’s lithosphere) slide past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere

magma

molten material beneath or within the earth's crust, from which igneous rock is formed

lava

the molten, fluid rock that escapes from a volcano or volcanic vent onto earth's surface

plume

a deep-seated upwelling of magma within the earth's mantle

asthenosphere

the region below the lithosphere, variously estimated as being from fifty to several hundred miles (eighty-five to several hundred kilometers) thick, in which the rock is less rigid than that above and below but rigid enough to transmit transverse seismic waves.

lithosphere

the solid portion of the earth

convection

the transfer of heat by the circulation or movement of the heated parts of a liquid or gas

composition

the act of combining parts or elements to form a whole, what an object is made up of

Ring of Fire

the linear zone of seismic and volcanic activity that coincides in general with the margins of the Pacific Plate

deep focus earthquake

an earthquake that occurs at depths between 300 and 700 km beneath the Earth's surface as a result of subducted lithosphere

shallow focus earthquake

An earthquake with a focus less than 70 km below Earth's surface that occur at all plate boundary types

reverse fault

blocks of earth move towards each other

normal fault

blocks of earth are pulled apart

strike slip fault

blocks of earth shift past each other in a horizontal movement

oceanic lithosphere

more dense (compacted), so it does not float; is subducted under continental lithosphere

continental lithosphere

it is buoyant (less dense) than oceanic lithosphere

mid-ocean ridge

a general term for an underwater mountain system that consists of various mountain ranges (chains), typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine

rift

an opening made by splitting, cleaving, etc.; fissure; cleft; fault

seafloor spreading

a process in which new ocean floor is created as molten material from the earth's mantle rises in margins between plates or ridges and spreads out