FRANCE, 1789 – 1804

WHAT WERE THE AIMS AND DOMESTIC PROBLEMS OF FRENCH POLITICIANS FROM 1789 – 1795?

LONG TERM CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION- The ancien regime had been in power in France for a long time, encouraging absolute

monarchy and discouraging reform at a time when change was happening in other parts of the World.

- Nobles. The nobles and the clergy retained substantial privileges and low/zero taxes. Nobles and the clergy supported the monarchy and opposed reforms that would affect their power.

- Regionalism. People in different parts of France had different customs, language, culture and law. This made it a difficult country to rule effectively.

- Finance. The crown had severe financial difficulties thanks to the Seven Years War (involvement of Louis’s grandfather), and the subsequent intervention in American War of Independence (Louis XVI). Also a problem was the luxurious lifestyle of the royal court. They had defaulted on debts and the tax system was outdated. The popular Jacques Necker tried to introduce reforms, but these were defeated and he was later removed.

- Hunger. Poor harvests and bad weather resulted in food shortages and rising prices of foods. These were made more apparent against the lifestyle of Marie Antoinette.

- Enlightenment. The ideas of Enlightenment were on the rise, ideas which undermined and challenged the authority of the aristocracy/church. Some of these came from the soldiers returning from America.

SHORT TERM CAUSES – failure of the Estates General- The main short-term cause was the refusal of the nobility/clergy to accept the reforms that

would interfere with their traditional privileges. In the French tax system, the heaviest taxes were placed on the third estate.

- Louis XVI called the Estates General in 1789 out of desperation (last called in 1614). People weren’t sure how it worked. The voting system was unfair on the Third Estate (Each state had one vote, even though the Third Estate was made up of 90% of the population)

- Louis XVI asked each of the Estates to draw up a list of grievances (called Cahiers). All estates supported certain measures e.g. press liberty, the need for a constitution and an end to internal trade barriers.

- BUT they couldn’t agree on taxation privileges for the First and Second Estates. The situation became deadlocked.

- The Third Estate broke away from the Estates General and formed the National Assembly. At first, they worked with the King BUT the King was upset by the challenge to his authority. On 19 June, 1789, he locked them out, and the members swore the Tennis Court Oath in response, vowing not to disband. The REVOLUTION HAD STARTED.

THE REACTION OF LOUIS XVI TO THE REVOLUTION- Louis’s reaction to the revolution only worsened the situation.- He believed it would ‘burn itself out’.

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- He continued to engage in his strange hobbies like lock-making. His reputation was already damaged by his early inability to conceive a male heir.

- He proved his lack of leadership at the Estates General by failing to take firm decisions, and by being influenced by the First and Second Estates.

- He showed his lack of foresight by locking the National Assembly out of the Estates General, thus strengthening their resolve.

- He showed that he wasn’t in touch with the Parisians by staying in Versailles (20km away from Paris) and gathering troops, which resulted in the storming of the Bastille.

- Louis XVI was forced to accept some of the proposals – he accepted the August Decrees (which abolished feudalism) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

- BUT secretly he was worried and opposed the changes, demonstrated most obviously with his flight to Varennes with his family in 1791.

COUNTER REVOLUTIONARY GROUPS- Outside France, many foreign governments opposed the revolution – they were afraid that it

would spread. - Their worry was stirred up by the émigrés, who encouraged action, and by the threat to

Marie and Louis that became apparent after they were imprisoned after the flight to Varennes.

- These worries resulted in the First Coalition, which surrounded France with a ring of enemies. The

- There were also counter-revolutionaries within France. In strongly Catholic regions such as Brittany, many people remained loyal to the Catholic King.

- Similarly, people in the provinces of France felt that Parisians were destroying their provincial freedoms and were willing to use violence.

- Amongst the Counter-revolutionaries, though, there were divisions. Some were hardliners who wanted to restore the ancien regime. More moderate ones were willing to accept some changes.

- These divisions hindered the progress of the counter-revolutionaries.- Louis XVI was unable to provide leadership and decisiveness for the counter-revolutionaries.

PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION- The Revolutionaries did make some gains:- AUGUST DECREES – ended feudalism, granted rights to peasants, abolished law courts run

by nobility, Church gave up right to collect payments from rest of population.- DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN - based on American Declaration of Independence,

all men born free with liberty, security, equality, property, no imprisonment without trial, taxation fairly apportioned according to wealth.

- CIVIL CONSTITUTION OF THE CLERGY – Pope deprived of authority, number of clergy reduced, clergy paid by Church rather than state THEN clergy to sign an oath of loyalty (Refused by many).

BUT, the progress was limited by:

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- lack of clarity over what exactly they were fighting for (what is liberty, how far should it go etc)

- ANDDIVISIONS BETWEEN JACOBINS AND OTHER GROUPS

- The two leading groups were the Girondins (moderates, supported rights of the provinces, hated the Church, continued negotiation with Louis after Varennes) and the Jacobins (started moderate but became extreme, led by Robespierre, hated the Church, wanted a Republic).

- Also causing trouble were the Sans-Culottes (mob, very violent, working class).- Jacobins were able to get control (more in touch with Parisians whilst also appealing to

provincial groups, garnered the support of the Sans-Culottes, offered radical solutions to the growing problems, well lead and organised by Robespierre, embraced policies to improve economic problems (assignats, although they failed, and maximum prices).THE AIMS OF THE JACOBINS WERE:

- Mainly to DEFEND the revolution (which was in danger in 1792)- Execute the King (the only way to kickstart the Revolution properly).- ‘Do away’ with royalist sympathisers (policy of terror, see below).- Fight the Revolutionary Wars effectively (although they were initially against the War).

REIGN OF TERROR- Used by the Jacobins between 1792 and 1794. They set up the Committee of Public Safety

to supervise military and legal affairs. They used the Reign of Terror to consolidate their power.

- Robespierre set up a Revolutionary Tribunal to put on trial any ‘enemies of the Revolution’. - In September 1792, more than 1000 prisoners were massacred. - Robespierre called for a ‘Republic of Virtue’ to replace Catholicism. He then attacked

Christianity and introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being. - The ‘Law of Suspects’ allowed people to be arrested on the basis of accusation rather than

independence. - 40,000 people were killed during the Reign of Terror, mostly aristocrats and clergymen, but

also common people as well.

WHY WERE FRENCH GOVERNMENTS UNSTABLE BETWEEN 1789 AND 1795?

During this time, governments changed regularly. (Louis’s monarchy, National Assembly, National Convention..(Committee of Public Safety), Directory). Why?

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS- The financial problems from Louis’s reign (see above) continued. Debts remained.- The Revolutionary Wars (see below) started. Fighting war is expensive (paying for uniforms,

weaponry etc)! Note that later Napoleon was able to make gains and benefit financially from e.g. the Treaty of Campo Formio.

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- The inefficient tax collection system continued. Tax farmers were used. These were hated private individuals who had purchased the right to collect taxes. They often kept a percentage of themselves.

- A series of unfair taxes continued (e.g. La Gabelle – the salt tax, La Vengtieme – 5% property tax)

- Farmers were hoarding their grain instead of distributing it (even though the Assembly outlawed this practice).

- Assignats (paper currency) were issued, but their value fell as people lost faith in the currency.

- Some middle-class people benefitted as they could buy property seized from the Church and the nobility.

- However, those with nothing continued to struggle thanks to high food prices etc.

THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS- Émigrés gathered support for royalty in continental Europe.- Other nations were scared of the Revolution spilling over.- The threat to Louis and Marie’s lives was evident after Varennes..- The Duke of Brunswick, commanding the Austrian and Prussian forces, promised to restore

Louis XVI to his powers. The First Coalition was formed. The Declaration of Pillnitz promised to attack Paris if the royals were heard. However, this only resulted in the French population being stirred up – and the September Massacres (of 1500 prisoners) resulted.

- Many French army officers had left the country leaving the French army in trouble.- The First Coalition made early gains...threatening the Revolution, for example at Verdun.- However, thanks to the enthusiasm and passion of the volunteers, the presence of

conventional troops and the new policy of conscription and the inspirational leadership of General Carnot, the Revolutionary Armies won a victory at Valmy and managed to hold back the First Coalition. Lataer, at Jemappes, the Revolutionary forces won again, and were able to capture the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium).

- In 1793, the British and royalists laid siege to the port of Toulon. Napoleon was part of a successful defence of the port.

- BUT the war was expensive, it created fear, there were different opinions on what to do, many leading figures left France...thus they contributed to the instability of the Governments.

AIMS OF DIFFERENT GROUPS

- See above.- The differing opinions and internal fighting between Girondins/Jacobins/ Sans-Culottes etc

made it difficult for the Revolution to have any stability. - Robespierre’s reign of terror, Cult of Supreme Being etc created confusion, and opposition,

particularly from groups not associated with the Parisian mob. The use of the guillotine was horrific. Eventually, he went too far, and was executed himself – leaving another power vacuum.

ROBESPIERRE

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Robespierre himself was a man of contradictions. He was known as the ‘incorruptible’ and was a great speaker and was very well educated. Initially he was opposed to war and opposed to the death penalty. Later he lead the ‘reign of terror’, putting thousands of people to death. He later also became a strong proponent of the Wars. He fought for freedom, equality and liberty – but later introduced the Law of Suspects and put people on trial without evidence. He fought against the ‘absolutism’ of the monarchy but then proved intolerant to rivals (killing political rivals (even fellow Jacobins!)). He hated the power of the Church, then set up a rival..Was he a tyrant seeking to fulfil his ambitions? Did he save the Revolution with his extremism? Was he mad? Certainly, he initially lead the Jacobins effectively and was, in many ways, responsible for the King’s death.

WHY DID NAPOLEON RISE TO POWER? THE AIMS AND RULE OF THE DIRECTORY

- The National Convention drew up a new constitution in 1795 and the Directory was established.

- This was the end of the most bloody period of the Revolution and the end of the Jacobin extremism.

- The Directory had: Council of 500 who proposed laws, Council of Ancients who accepted or rejected laws, 5 Directors (from middle class).

- The Directory faced the same problems as previous governments (financial problems – empty treasury, continuing war with foreign monarchies, continued infighting between different Revolutionary factions.

- These divisions helped the Directory to survive, though. The other groups weren’t strong enough to co-operate and challenge their power.

- The Directory had the support of the Army.- The Directory was moderate.- They wanted to keep the more radical Jacobins out of power, yet they didn’t want the return

of Royalists into power. Thus they had the Two-Thirds Rule (two-thirds of the new deputies had to have served on the moderate National Convention).

- Their focus on keeping out the radicals on both sides, however, stopped them addressing the big problems facing France!

- The Directory continued to encourage War to keep the Army satisfied and to keep unemployment down...this inadvertently helped Napoleon start to rise to power.

THE REPUTATION OF THE DIRECTORY- The Reputation did OK in the early years and seemed a decent solution after the extreme

bloodiness of the Reign of Terror.- However, soon there was internal bickering and self-service.- They gained a reputation for corruption. The directors were middle-class people who made

money from their positions and didn’t want to lose their advantages. They wanted to keep their positions!

- The Jacobins tried to overthrow the Directory with the ‘Babeuf Plot’, which eventually failed. Babeuf was guillotined.

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- The Convention had declared that there would be elections every year. Elections were held in 1797 and 1798, but when non-moderates made gains, the Directors annulled the results, removed the new deputies and even removed two of the Directors.

- People opposed the Directory eventually because they relied on the army and had lost support of both sets of radicals.

- The French army suffered a series of setbacks from 1797-1799, and the Directory was blamed for these failures.

- By 1799, the Directors were plotting against each other and against other groups.

THE COUP OF 1799- Due to the problems of the Directory (See above), support grew for a return of monarchy

(among émigrés and the general population). On the other extreme, Jacobins demanded the return of more radical policies.

- There was danger of civil war.- With the help of the army, Napoleon seized power with the Director Sieyes (the coup of 18

Brumaire).- Napoleon and Sieyes began to limit the power of the Council of 500. This was a bit

unpopular because many people still supported the Directory and its democratic nature. - When this plan failed, Napoleon and his brother dispersed the members of the Council by

force.- Sieyes hoped to have full control, but the Consulate was established and Napoleon named

himself ‘First Consul’.

NAPOLEON’S RISE TO POWERAs well as the Coup of 1799 (see above), there were several other factors which allowed Napoleon to rise to power.

His upbringing- Napoleon was born in Corsica to a bourgeoisie family. - He showed a talent for mathematics, and a special interest in artillery.- He understood the practical needs of an army (supplies, training, map-reading)- He had ‘much science and equal intelligence, and perhaps even too much courage’ according

to a French General.

His role during the revolution- In 1789, he showed the FLEXIBILITY to be loyal to his new revolutionary masters, after other

royalist officers refused to swear allegiance.- He was politically close to the Jacobins during the Reign of Terror. Although he was

imprisoned after Robespierre was executed, he was released on account of his military skills.

His successful military career- He defended Toulon against the British and counter-revolutionaries as a junior officer.- He had a bold and successful campaign in Northern Italy resulting in the Treaty of Campo

Formio, which gave France power in Italy and money for the treasury.- Although the Egyptian campaign was unsuccessful, he used propaganda to return with high

popularity.

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Control over the army- He treated his men well and gave them loot after victory.- He promoted based on meritocracy rather than birth.- Thus he had the control and support of the army.

WHAT WERE NAPOLEON’S DOMESTIC AIMS FROM 1799 – 1804?Napoleon in theory shared power with two other Consuls in the Consulate. In reality, though, he had almost complete control. A new constitution gave him the right to appoint ministers and official who would be responsible only to him. Within 5 years he transformed politics in France.

NAPOLEON AS FIRST CONSUL- Napoleon adopted any ideas that would ensure order and efficiency.- In theory he guaranteed equality, but in reality certain groups had more power (employers,

men).- Napoleon proclaimed the rule of law, but used his powers to crush opposition.

Napoleonic Code- Napoleon issued a unified code of law to replace the complex system.- Previously, laws were based on ancient traditions, religious customs, and they differed in

different parts of the countries.- To replace it, Napoleon asked the Council of State to design one set of laws for all of France.

He attended many of the meetings and took a personal interest in the reforms.- The outcome was the Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code). The Code gave Napoleon

control because it couldn’t be challenged by ancient traditions or local rights.- It included some revolutionary reforms (equality, no feudalism, church land belonged to

those who had got it during the revolution).- These measures showed that Napoleon wanted to safeguard the Revolution.

Social Changes- Many men benefitted because the new laws applied to all people regardless of class.- Many women suffered, though. The rights they gained in 1789 were reversed. The

authority of the husband was restored. Married women had to obey their husbands. - Women could seek divorce, but on restricted terms. - This seemed unfair, but was similar to how women were treated across Europe.- Following the success of his foreign campaigns, Napoleon began to give aristocratic titles

(dukes, princes (even Kings)) to his loyal supporters. This helped him gain the support of this class of society.

Economic Changes- Napoleon attempted to fix France’s financial problems.- He used his own officials (prefects) to collect taxes and control the provinces.- He confirmed the La Chapelier law, which banned trade unions and made strikes illegal.- He founded the Bank of France to help strengthen France’s finances.- Debts remained high, though, because of war.

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Religious Changes- The Church had suffered greatly during the Revolution, particularly in the Reign of Terror

under Robespierre.- Napoleon recognised the importance of religion to French people. He saw it as a social bond

and useful support for his government.- In 1801, he made a concordat with Pope Pius VII, by which he recognised Roman

Catholicism. In return, he was allowed to nominate the men who would serve as bishops.- This gave Napoleon great power – he could control the bishops, the clergy and everyone

who went to Church!- Napoleon gave minority groups like Jews and Huguenots religious tolerance. - Although some radicals opposed deals with the Church, the majority of the population were

content.

Foreign Affairs- Napoleon continued to enjoy military success abroad.- The Treaty of Amiens gained peace with Britain (who recognised the French Republic) and

ended the war of the Second Coalition – allowed more stability for the French government.- In 1803, the USA purchased from France 530,000,000 acres of territory for US $15 million.

This helped improve France’s financial position.

Propaganda- Napoleon was a skilful self-promoter.- He used propaganda to emphasise his leadership qualities and to spread his message to the

French people and the world at large.- His military qualities cemented his popularity. - He claimed he was spreading French revolutionary ideals throughout Europe (For the

people’s benefit).- He claimed to be a liberator in Italy! - He encouraged the arts and sciences.- Thus, famous artists depicted him as a hero and scientists backed him as well (more

propaganda).- He issued a series of medals to celebrate his successes (more propaganda). They depicted

him as a war hero and a patron of the arts.- He censored the press to ensure he was portrayed as a hero. He established 6 newspapers

to spread his message throughout the French people!

The inauguration of Empire- In 1804, he abandoned the Consulate and crowned himself emperor (the ceremony was like

those of the monarchy).- The Pope was in attendance (showed he had the support of Catholicism), but Napoleon

crowned himself (showing his power). - The role of Emperor seemed to contradict Revolutionary ideals, but Napoleon claimed he

would help the country and reinforce the best features of the Revolution.

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- He organised plebiscites (votes) to give the impression of democracy, but in reality, they were rigged.

DID EVERYONE BENEFIT FROM NAPOLEON’S RULE?YES

- There was less corruption and inefficiency than the Directory.- Laws were clear.- People didn’t live in fear of sudden arrest.- The middle class could vote (if they had an income of 150 francs).- Financiers made profits.- Manufacturers who supplied the army benefitted.- People of skill/talent benefitted because Napoleon appointed based on talent rather than

social status.- Catholics and religious minorities could worship again.- Aristocrats benefited from new positions of power

NO- Women’s rights were reversed (See above)- The poor people couldn’t ‘afford’ to vote.- Taxes remained high to finance the army (but at least they were universally high).- Napoleon’s popularity depended on the perceived success of his foreign policy.

EXAM QUESTIONS – FRENCH REVOLUTION

1. Explain the aims of the revolutionaries in 1789 (10)2. How important was Louis XVI personally for the rise of the Jacobins and Robespierre? (20)3. Why were there economic problems in France from 1789 – 1795? (10)4. Did the Jacobins do more to defend or endanger the Revolution? (20)5. Why was Louis XVI executed in 1793? (10)6. How complete was Napoleon’s power over France by 1804? (20)7. Why did the Directory face problems in France from 1795 – 1799? (10)8. How far do you agree that war was the most important cause of the instability of French

governments from 1789 – 1795? (20)9. How far was Louis XVI responsible for the problems of the monarchy from 1789 to 1795?

(20)10. Was Robespierre more a success or a failure as a revolutionary leader? (20)11. ‘Napoleon’s domestic policies did more to increase his power than extend liberty in France’.

How far do you agree with this claim? (20)12. Why did the Estates General fail to solve France’s problems in 1789? (10)13. How far did Napoleon show himself to be the ‘son of the Revolution’ up to 1804? (20)14. Why were there dangers to the French Revolution from counter-revolutionaries from 1789 –

1795? (10)

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15. Analyse the ways by which Napoleon was able to increase his authority over France as First Consul from 1799 to 1804 (20)

16. Why did the Jacobins gain power in 1793? (10)17. Which social group benefited more by 1804 from the changes introduced by Napoleon: the

middle class or the peasantry? (20)

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, 1800 – 1850What was it?Best described as a profound series of changes in trade, technology, agriculture and mining. However, it affected most aspects of European life including politics, living conditions, urbanisation etc...When did it start?Historians disagree. Some believe 1780s in Britain, others believe much earlier. In France and Germany, most agree that it started after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815. Some countries and regions remain largely agrarian and non-industrialised.

What were the causes of the Industrial Revolution by 1800?AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION

Before- Pre 1700, agriculture hadn’t developed for centuries and centuries.- New methods of farming didn’t come into farms very rapidly- Peasants worked the land but had little incentive to improve methods.- Any increased productivity would only benefit wealthy landlords.- Feudalism (including feudal taxes and forced service) remained common in France (until the

Revolution) and Eastern Europe (Russia) but had gone from Britain in the 16 th century.- Inefficent strip system wasted land and time.

Changes- Changes gradually came into farming, particularly in Britain.- Jethro Tull Seed Drill reduced wastage of seeds.- Selective Breeding (Coke and Bakewell) improved the yields of animals.- ENCLOSURE (most important change) Acts were passed by parliament, ending the open-field

system.- New methods of crop rotation (Turnip Townsend) used the fallow land, increasing land yield.

Effects- Community spirit and teamwork lost- Land produced more and could feed a growing population. Health could improve in places

because of the variety of food produced.

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- Peasants lost rights to the Common Land and their strips (unemployment – became a source of workers for the new factories).

- Kickstarted urbanisation, as peasant farmers would move to cities looking for jobs (and the cities could be fed).

- Removed the reliance on imports (with Napoleonic Wars going on later).

ROADS AND CANALSBefore

- Previously, societies had relied on horses and river transport (particularly important in France e.g. The Seine and the Loire Rivers)

- The condition of roads was poor because local communities were responsible for their maintenance and there was no incentive to maintain roads.Changes

- In the 18th Century in Britain began to build turnpike trusts – privatised roads that people had to pay to use.

- Inventions like Tarmac (MacAdam) improved the surface of the roads.- Canal building programmes occurred in the 18th century, particularly in Britain. The first was

built by James Brindley under the instruction of the Duke of Bridgewater

Effects- Canal building required investment (opening up financial centres – capitalism) and resulted

in huge profit, encouraging further investment and growth.- Canal building needed lots of workers (provided jobs, reduced unemployment)- Canals linked industrial centres.- Canals encouraged the expansion of villages/towns along their routes.- Mass transport made the costs of carrying goods cheaper (encouraging production, allowing

the growth of an export market)- Canals particularly important for fragile goods (pottery)- Road building allowed goods to be moved by roads, and people to travel more easily

between villages/towns. - People could make profits on the Turnpike Trusts.

THE GROWTH OF CAPITALISMCapitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of assets and the accumulation of profit in a competitive market.

- The Industrial Revolution depended on capitalism because it required investment in the development and use of new machines and technology.

- Capitalism provided investment for: canal building, railway building, ship building, the development of machines, factory building, overseas trade, etc etc.

- Before the I.R., people kept capital within families – it wasn’t loaned out. - Many historians consider that it was the ‘profit motive’ that drove the Industrial Revolution.

People realised the huge returns to be had by producing more efficient machines.- Capitalists met with scientists (e.g. Boulton and Watt to develop the steam engine).- Initially, individuals were important for lending money. Later, banks and joint stock

companies (with limited liability) became important.

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- Countries, and regions within countries, were less developed when less capital was available.

- Many financiers were able to rise through the social ranks and some became nobles.- An important family was the Rothschilds, who invested huge amounts of money in industry.

POPULATION GROWTHThe Population of Europe increased significantly from the middle of the 18 th century. Mainly because death rates fell...

Causes- Expansion of roads and canals meant that food could be distributed more widely.- A.R. meant that more food (And better) was available. - Medical advances prolonged lives.- Increased prosperity resulted in larger families.

Effects- Greater demand for food and other products.- Bigger labour force in towns (unemployment in rural areas)- In 1851, for the first time in Britain, more than half of the population lived in towns and

cities.- Britain had far more cities (and bigger ones e.g. London, Manchester, Liverpool) than France

and Germany.

EARLY MECHANISATIONThere were several developments in machinery pre-1800. We have seen some of the Agricultural Developments (see above), and there were more in the textile and mining industries.

- Early spinning (Hargreaves’s Spinning Jenny) and weaving machines (Kay’s Flying Shuttle) allowed the cottage industry to become more productive. Kay’s Shuttle allowed one weaver to do the work of two. Crompton’s Mule (1775) combined the spinning and weaving processes.

- Early versions of the steam engine (Newcomen 1704) allowed water to be pumped from deeper in mines, allowing more coal to be extracted.

- Later versions of the steam engine (Watt 1764) allowed the engine to be applied in many more scenarios.

Effects- Small cottage industries sometimes became more productive- Unemployment was caused in some cases because fewer people were needed to work the

machines.- As factories took over (Richard Arkwright Father of the Factory System 1769), small centres

of production declined.

Dissatisfaction- Particularly after 1800, skilled craftsmen opposed mass production (they were losing their

jobs to machines).

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- In Britain a group called the Luddites destroyed machines in factories. They were named after a fictional leader (Ned Ludd). Their numbers were swelled by unemployed soldiers returning from the Napoleonic Wars after 1815.

- Members of nobility were sometimes suspicious of change as well. In Germany, the Junkers saw no advantage in economic reforms, because their wealth depended on traditional farming systems.

What factors encouraged and discouraged Industrialisation between 1800 and 1850?Developments in steam power: railways and machines.

Steam Power- The use of steam power was one of the most important features of industrialisation. - James Watt developed better steam engines- Steam Power allowed water to be extracted efficiently from mines – thus allowing miners to

dig deeper and extract more coal (consequence = cheaper coal, cheaper production).- From mid 19th century, steam ploughs and threshing machines were introduced on farms.- Steam power was applied in factories which resulted in a huge increase in productivity and

jobs that could be done by machine and not by hand.- Steam power enabled railways to be built.- In 1822, the first iron steamship sailed across the Channel.- Steam engines soon spread to Continental Europe allowing countries like Belgium to

industrialise.

Railways- In 1804, Richard Trevithick used steam to power railway locomotives at his ironworks in

Wales. - George Stephenson built powerful steam locomotives in North-east England. - Railways were able to carry raw materials and finished products cheaper, faster and more

efficiently than roads and canals.- The price of coal dropped by more than 50% because of the railways (allowing further

industrialisation).- Railways needed a lot of investment and so went hand-in-hand with capitalism. Great

profits were to be had (although there was a financial crash in the 1840s).- Railways created lots of jobs.- Railways increased the demand for iron and coal (thus benefitted other industries, like

timber as well).- Towns grew up near railways (e.g. Crewe, Le Mans). Other cities developed thanks to

railways (London, Liverpool).- Some railways carried passengers (increased mobility, opened up tourist centres – minor

effect).

Railways on the continent- There were fewer private investors in France and Germany willing to risk their money, so the

development of railways was slower and relied on government backing. - Initially, France and Germany made river transport and canal building their primary focus.- Early railways were opposed by landowners who made a living from horses and carts!

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- In France, rail expansion only came after Napoleon III became Emperor in 1852. He recognised the advantages and authorised the state bank to help finance the companies.

- Railways appeared in Germany in the late 1830s. By the middle of the century, Eastern and Western parts of Germany were connected and helped contribute to political unification.

- In France and Germany, populations were more thinly spread than in Britain. Hence many people remained untouched by railways (Compared to Britain).

URBANISATIONUrbanisation refers to a greater proportion of the population living in towns and cities. In Britain it happened for a number of reasons (agricultural revolution, unemployment in rural areas, etc)

- Towns provided a larger market for commodities- Towns allowed for a bigger employment pool for factories- Towns eased the problem of unemployment in rural areas.- A large unskilled labour force was available.- Efficient factories developed in towns. - Towns became centres of communication and encouraged building of railways- Capital investment was centred in towns.- The growing middle class were located in towns (lawyers, doctors)- Britain first showed the link between urbanisation and Industrialisation (rapid growth of

towns like London (population 1 million in 1851 – more than half of the population for the first time) and Manchester. Urbanisation was less apparent in France and Germany (even Hamburg only had 100,000 at that time).

- However, not all of Britain was urbanised. The SW of England and parts of Wales and Scotland were not touched by urbanisation.

TARIFFS AND TRADEPatterns of trade were changed by the Industrial Revolution.

INTERNALLY - In pre-industrial times, people relied on local trade in their provinces...farmers could sell

their produce at local markets. Most lived isolated and had to travel long, slow distances to reach the larger markets.

- Better roads, railways and canals allowed good to be carried in larger quantities and faster, to far off places.

- Railways opened up new markets for farmers. Cereals, meat and veg could be carried in large quantities to distant towns. Food shortages became less frequent and prices fell.

- Railways put some trade centres at an advantage.- Britain had no internal charges on trade from the middle of the 18 th century, giving them an

advantage over foreign competition. - In France, Napoleon abolished internal tariffs when he became consul (1799).- In Germany, the abolition of internal tariffs happened in 1834 (the Zollverein). Tariffs had

previously held Germany back because the states had to pay for moving food and commodities between themselves.

- With Zollverein, there was a single German economic market, which allowed much more rapid industrialisation.

- I.R. allowed merchants, tradesmen to make much money.

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EXTERNALLY - Britain had a vast Empire by the 19th century. They could trade with the Far East (spices),

India (tea), West Indies (Cotton) etc. Many merchants became rich. Trading companies (the East India Company) became wealthy. The British Navy (very strong) protected trading and ruled the seas, giving them an advantage particularly over the German states, who had very few overseas colonies and little access to sea ports.

- Important ports in Britain were Liverpool, Bristol and London.- Important ports in France were Nantes and Bordeaux. All these ports grew.- Germany had little access to the sea, and relied on trade with continental Europe.- Some regions (Lancashire) depended on overseas markets for their wealth (cotton trade).- Britain’s cotton trade depended on industrialisation because of the new machines and larger

and faster ships.

CONSERVATIVE INTERESTS- Conservative interests in Britain and other countries were opposed to change and thus

threatened by Industrial Change. - Wealthier landowners saw industrialisation as irrelevant.- Others resented innovations which threatened their livelihood (e.g. railways threatened

those who had invested in canals, or who deployed horses and carts)- Landowners who lived traditionally off their land would oppose urbanisation and growth of

cities. - Luddites and similar groups in France and Germany were needed less and attacked some of

the new factories.- The I.R. was seen as a threat to communities.- Industrialisation also brought freedom from traditional interests that limited competition. - They opposed the up and coming middle class who were a threat to their political power.- Landowners who made no profit from railways objected to lines crossing their lands.

How did the Industrial Revolution affect different classes up to 1850?Urban effects

- By the end of the 19th century, the wealthy lived in large houses with gas lighting, but the urban poor were crowded into working-class districts with only candles and several families per home.

- In France, tall blocks of flats were more common- There were poor living conditions in the cities.- Cities were dirty and polluted by smoke and waste from factories.- Water supplies were contaminated and outbreaks of typhoid and cholera were frequent.- Governments tended to represent the middle-class and upper classes who did not want to

pay for social improvements.- There was little regulation initially in this period.- HOWEVER, conditions did improve after 1842 (establishment of General Board of Health in

Britain).- The rich ate lavishly, often food from abroad.- The working classes rarely ate meat and had a lack of vitamins

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Women- Women were less affected by the Industrial revolution.- Working class women worked in factories rather than in the houses.- Upper class women didn’t work, but more of them went on to University than before the

Industrial Revolution.

Working Conditions- Factories were known for poor working conditions.- Children were used in mines as they were small.- Child labour was frequently used (cheap, replaceable, easily bullied)- HOWEVER, in Britain ‘Factory Acts’ were passed from 1833. - Factory Acts limited the number of hours women and children worked and inspectors were

employed to enforce them.- BUT, Factory Acts weren’t too successful (only 6 inspectors initially, some poor families

‘needed’ to work long hours, others resented government interference into family life).- Social traditions meant that it was less common to employ women and children in coal

mines and factories in Germany than in Britain.- Protection of children began in Prussia in 1839.- In France, protection of women and children only began after 1873.

Social Effects of Railways- By 1850, most places in Britain were within reach of railways.- News and newspapers spread rapidly.- A national postal service began in 1840.- Diet improved as fresh food could move quickly.- Travel grew more affordably.

Religious Changes- Church traditions and beliefs seemed old-fashioned compared to capitalism and new Marxist

ideas.- Religious beliefs were challenged by scientific discoveries.- There were fewer churches in the new cities.- Church attendance dropped.- Some religious thinkers criticised industrialisation because it increased the gap between rich

and poor

The Arts- The I.R. influenced the arts, especially in fiction. - Charles Dickens set many works in industrial England.- French writer Zola wrote critically about conditions of the working class in France.

What were the political effects of the Industrial Revolution up to 1850?

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Before the I.R., power was held almost exclusively by kings and landowners. In Britain, there was a parliamentary monarchy with some controls on absolutism. In France and Germany, however, there was absolute authority (See French Rev!). Some historians argue that democracy grew out of industrialisation. The new middle-class demanded power, and the working-class demanded rights and improved living and working conditions.

BRITAIN1832 Reform ActChanges were slow before 1832.

- The Act abolished rotten boroughs (seats in parliament for constituencies with few or no voters).

- Parliamentary seats were created in new industrial towns.- There was more widespread representation of the new areas.- BUT several small constituencies controlled by the wealthy survived.- The right to vote was granted to property owners which included the middle-class.- 20% of men could now vote.- It started the process that ended in universal voting rights.

ChartismIn Britain, lower classes gained little from the 1832 Reform Act and the Factory Acts weren’t doing great (See above).

- Groups campaigned for more rights for the poor, forming a movement called Chartism.- Chartists demanded (as set out in the People’s Charter): universal voting, voting by secret

ballot, constituencies of equal size).- They also aimed for improved living conditions, free trade, freedom of religion, national

education etc.- Chartism gained a lot of support (a petition for reforms had 3 million signatures) under

leaders like Feargus O’Connor.- Chartism however declined quickly. The leaders disagreed and the authorities arrested and

imprisoned many for encouraging violence. - Although chartism was defeated, it showed the ruling classes that the workers had to be

considered seriously. Eventually, chartism ideas (like universal voting) became law.- The lower classes would gain some power through the growth of trade unions for example.

Future ActsIn 1867, the Second Reform Act was passed.

- Better off workers could now vote- 2.5 million could now vote

In 1872, the Secret Ballot Act was passed.In 1884, the Third Reform Act was passed, increasing the number of working men that could vote to 5 million.

FRANCE

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- The French Revolution was largely unrelated to industrialisation. Although the F.R. benefited the middle classes, it didn’t affect the working classes too much.

- There were three further Revolutions in France (1830 Revolution removed Charles X from power, 1848 Revolution removed King Louis Philippe, 1870 Revolution against Napoleon III)

- Economic conditions provoked the 1830 Revolution (poor harvests, no jobs).- The Middle Classes had grievances about lack of voting rights or free trade (see above).- In 1848 , Louis Philippe faced opposition from industrial lower classes. The government

allowed some reforms but didn’t give the vote to the lower middle classes or working classes.

- Between 1848 and 1852, all men over 21 could vote and working conditions improved, but it didn’t last long!

- Trade Unions were banned in France under the Le Chapelier Law (see Napoleon above)- Repression by employers and government continued after the 1848 Revolution. Troops

broke up workers organisations.

GERMANY- Before unification, some German states had their own constitutions, which favoured the

middle classes more than the working classes.- After the 1848 Revolutions, some changes were made in politics in Prussia (the lower house

of Parliament was elected by Universal vote)- BUT, Prussia remained authoritarian.- The Frankfurt parliament established during the revolution gave seemed to be democratic,

but was dominated by middle-class.- Although the working-classes made few actual gains, the ruling classes were more aware of

their needs.- When Bismarck united Germany, a welfare state was created and working-class men got the

vote.- Trade Unions didn’t develop until after 1850.

In SUMMARY, the effects on different classesUPPER CLASS

- Didn’t make many gains from the I.R.- The emerging middle class ate into their political power.- However, land remained valuable and noblemen grew rich as industrial developments grew

on their estates.

MIDDLE CLASS- Made some gains from the I.R.- Many became wealthier (financiers, industrial inventors, investors, merchants)- Growing political power (1832 vote in Britain and became MPs, yet didn’t gain political

superiority until 1850). They could also influence government policy in France and some German states.

LOWER CLASSES

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- Those who lived on the land lost out. Enclosure had ended the common land and open-field system.

- Many migrated to towns to work in factories under poor conditions (but did improve – see above). The conditions in cottage industry weren’t great.

- Didn’t gain political power, but did express their rights (see Chartism, 1848 Revolutions, 1832 Reform Act)

- Factory owners began to increase education – most children were given a basic education by 1850.

- Magazines, novels, theatres, music halls started to appear providing entertainment.- Erosion of community spirit.- Whilst some skilled workers suffered (Luddites), there were jobs for unskilled workers in the

factories.

IN SUMMARY, WHY BRITAIN?- Britain had plentiful supplies of iron and coal. So did France and Germany, but Britain had

better transport and the machinery necessary to deal with it.- Britain, as an island, had lots of convenient ports and a strong navy to help overseas trade

(opening up new markets). France had a large coastline, but few convenient ports.- Britain had no internal taxes. France did, as did Germany until 1834.- The conditions in Lancashire were ideal for the cotton industry (wet, hilly)- Investment was more available in Britain, perhaps thanks to more advanced capital

institutions and the parliamentary monarchy.- The British economy was more stable than continental countries.- Britain was less affected by political crises (inspite of Chartism). France had the French Rev,

1830 Rev, 1848 Rev. Germany wasn’t even united till much later and suffered in 1848 Revs.- Intellectual Climate. Perhaps more advanced in Britain – great scientists and industrialists

meet in coffee houses. Ideas patented and brought to market. In France, innovation stifled by the Academie de Sciences.

EXAM QUESTIONS1. Why was urbanisation linked to the Industrial Revolution in any two questions? (10)2. What was more important to the I.R. in any two countries – railways or capitalism?

(20)3. Why did changes in transport encourage the Industrial Revolution? (10)4. Assess the effects of the I.R. on political systems by 1850. Refer to any two countries

in your answer (20)5. Why did mechanisation affect the lower classes? (10)6. How far did industrialisation result in changing patterns of trade in this period? (20)7. Why were railways important to the I.R.? (10)8. How far was the I.R. accompanied by the growth of urbanisation? (20)9. Why did conservative interests try to hinder the development of the Industrial

revolution? (10)10. How far did the I.R. benefit the lower classes by 1850? Refer to two countries (20)11. Why did the I.R. change patterns of trade? (10)

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12. Evaluate the reasons why industrialisation was later to develop in continental Europe than in Britain. (20)

13. Why did changes in roads and canals encourage the I.R. in Britain? (10)14. Assess the claim that the middle classes benefited most from the I.R. by 1850. Refer to

any two countries (20)15. How far did the social changes of the I.R. benefit the working classes during the 19th

century? (10)16. Why did cities and large towns grow in size during the I.R.? (10)17. ‘The development of steam power was the most important cause of the I.R.’ How far

do you agree? (20)

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THE ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WARIn 1900, Europe was dominated by six major powers.

Austria-Hungary- A declining power governed by a monarchy. - Had been defeated by Prussia in 1866, but had a moderate peace settlement.- Regarded Germany as its best ally.- Faced Russia as a rival in the Balkans.

Britain- Governed by a parliamentary monarchy.- Interested in its extensive overseas empire- Long-standing distrust of France- Regarded Russia as a threat to its colonial interests.

France- Governed by a republic.- Had lost the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.- Many political parties wanted revenge against Germany.- Had signed a treaty of friendship with Russia- Distrusted Britain and Austria-Hungary

Germany- Lead by Kaiser Wilhelm.- Aimed to become a leading world power.- Feared being encircled by Russia in the east and France in the west.- Had recently become a nationalised state

Russia- Run by Nicholas II, an abslute monarch.- Maintained friendly relations with Germany until Wilhelm refused to renew a treaty with

Russia.- Faced Austria-Hungary as a rival in the Balkans.

Turkey- The Ottoman Empire was governed by an absolute monarchy. - It was in decline by 1900, losing control over many regions including the Balkans.- Britain and France wanted to help Turkey to avoid Austria-Hungary and Russia gaining more

power.

Why did the alliance system develop?

PREVIOUS ALLIANCES

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Germany emerged as a leading power after unification. As Prussia, they had defeated France in the 1871 war, gaining Alsace-Lorraine and its rich resources. Germany (under Bismarck) knew that France wanted revenge so tried to ensure German security with a series of alliances.The Three Emperors’ LeagueIn 1873, Bismarck negotiated an agreement between Tsar Alexander II of Russia, Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany and Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary. It was unsuccessful because of disputes between Austria-Hungary and Russia (about the Balkans).

The Dual Alliance 1879Bismarck formed an agreement with Austria-Hungary. They agreed to come to each other’s aid if attacked by Russia. Bismarck kept this alliance a secret.

The Triple Alliance 1882Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy agreed to offer each other support if attacked by any other great power.

WHY DID THEY JOIN THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE?Germany

- Feared for its security knowing that France would want revenge for the defeat in 1871.- Feared being encircled by France to the west and Russia to the east.- The Three Emperors’ League had failed, so an alliance with A.H. and Russia seemed unlikely.- Realised that if Italy joined as well, they could isolate France.

Austria-Hungary- Had ambitions in the Balkans but faced rivalry with Russia – needed the support of other

powers.- Was an Empire in decline.

Italy- Wanted to preserve its own national security (recently unified state)- Angry at France for seizing Tunisia in 1881.- Probably would not play an important role if war broke out.

Reinsurance TreatyGermany still feared being encircled by France and Russia, and so signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887. Both countries agreed to remain neutral unless Germany attacked France or Russia went to war with Austria. However, when Wilhelm became Kaiser, he was anti-Russian and the Reinsurance Treaty collapsed.

Germany’s treaties were defensive and formed in secret. The other powers became suspicious.

The Franco-Russian Alliance 1894- Russia was threatened by the collapse of the Reinsurance Treaty (see above)- France had started to provide Russia with cheap loans to strengthen her military.- They agreed the Franco-Russian Alliance.

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- It was a defensive treaty stating that if either was attacked, the other would come to its aid.

The Entente Cordiale 1904- Britain had been following a policy of ‘splendid isolation’. It focused on its far off empire

rather than events in Europe. - Britain had made a treaty with Japan in 1902 to protect its interests in the Far East against

Russian ambitions.- Most British politicians supported friendship in Europe with Germany (it was a monarchy,

the Kaiser was Queen Victoria’s grandson, it had a thriving economy with trade opportunities, German writers and scientists were highly regarded).

- In contrast, an alliance with France seemed less likely (it was a republic, they were traditional rivals...Napoleonic Wars..., France seemed weak politically and militarily after defeat against Prussia)

- An alliance with Russia also seemed unlikely (it was underdeveloped, militarily weak, was a rival in the Far East).

- BUT Britain signed the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904- The Entente Cordiale settled disputes between France and Britain in North Africa, and ended

British isolationism.

Anglo-Russian Entente 1907- Russia regarded the Triple Alliance as a major threat to its security.- Britain no longer regarded Russia as a threat (After Russia lost the Russo-Japanese War

1904).- They signed the Entente as a ‘marriage of convenience’.- It did not say they would support each other in case of war.

TRIPLE ENTENTE – WHY DID THEY JOIN?Britain

- Feared Germany’s expanding naval development (most important reason because of British colonial interests) and army.

- Ready to end European isolationism.- Ready to end colonial disputes with France- Concerned by the reaction of European powers to its involvement in the Boer Wars.- Had seen that Russia wasn’t a threat in the Far East.

France- Fearful of Germany’s military strength (had lost the Franco-Prussian War)- Fearful of being isolated by Germany and Italy.- Wanted a defensive agreement against Germany (so signed the F-R Alliance first)

Russia- A potentially large army, but militarily weak as demonstrated by its defeat in Japan.- Germany hadn’t renewed the Reinsurance Treaty.- Was a rival to Austria-Hungary in the Balkans – wanted backup.

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- Fearful of German-Austria Hungary alliance.

Consequences of the alliances for international stabilityThe Alliances were confusing in nature. The Triple Entente was a series of loose agreements. They didn’t firmly commit to defending each other in case of war. They shared few interests other than self-defence. Britain still had ties with Germany and no one was sure which side they would take in the event of war (until Germany violated Belgium). Likewise the Triple Alliance wasn’t a union of equals. Germany was the strongest, but didn’t care about the Balkans. Italy was more concerned about North Africa.

Successes?- The Alliances worked well in the short term.- There was a belief that countries would be more secure if they had friendly partners to

consult in the case of foreign aggression.- This worked during the first decade of the 20th century to avert a series of crises in North

Africa (e.g. Moroccan Crisis) and the Balkans.

BUT- By 1914, countries were willing to go to war to achieve their objectives.- Rather than guaranteeing peace, these treaties sped up war! Britain, for example, could not

ignore Germany’s attack on Belgium and then France. - They dragged all of the major powers quickly into conflict.

What was the importance of militarism and the naval race?Between 1900 and 1914, there was a massive increase in the amount of money spent on armies and navies.Armaments

- Germany’s army was traditionally strong and had won wars in unification and against the French in 1871.

- From 1913, the size of Germany’s army was increased.- In 1913, France extended the period of compulsory military service from two to three years.- Germany was concerned that France would use conscripts from its colonies to bolster its

army.- Russia’s military weakness was highlighted by defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. - Russia needed to modernise and extend its army and navy.- Russia had huge man power, but poor quality officers who resisted changes.- Austria-Hungary had a traditional army but was in decline. It might defeat Serbia, but

needed the help of Germany to face Russia.- Britain relied on a large navy and its army was comparatively small. It did not have

conscription or compulsory military service

The Naval Race

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The Naval Race between Britain and Germany began in 1906 when Britain launched its first Dreadnought. Germany responded by embarking on a naval development programme which alarmed the British.

- Germany said it was necessary to protect their overseas trade and empire.- Germany claimed Britain wanted to prevent it from enjoying freedom of the high seas. - Britain claimed that Germany’s colonies didn’t warrant military expansion.- Britain said that Germany’s navy posed a threat to peace in Europe. - Britain needed a strong navy to protect itself (as an island) and to protect its important trade

routes throughout the Empire.- Britain built a new naval base in East Scotland to counter the danger from Germany.- An agreement to limit the size of their navies failed to be reached.- Public opinion in both countries supported naval expansion.

By 1914, Britain had a larger navy (29 Dreadnoughts V 17 for Germany), but it had a larger area to cover (English Channel, North Sea, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific Oceans). The German Fleet was able to concentrate on preventing a blockade of domestic ports.

- If War broke out, the main job of the British navy was to prevent an invasion. - The German government didn’t know how they would use its navy in case of War.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE NAVAL RACE- Public opinion reaches a war footing.- Both countries feel threatened (War more likely?)- Increased tensions in Europe

Colonial RivalriesThe Great Powers sought to expand their influence and establish colonies overseas.

The ‘scramble for Africa’- Around 1870, Britain, Germany, France, Belgium and Italy looked to Africa for more land and

resources.- By 1914, the only independent states were Ethiopia and Liberia!- Competition also increased in Asia between European countries including Russia.

Why expand?BRITAIN

- Already had a massive empire. Wanted to gain more colonies in Africa and the Far East. The British Empire was larger in size and population than any other.

FRANCE- Couldn’t regain its losses in Europe, but expansion in Africa would confirm that France was

still a great power. It gained Algeria and Senegal.

GERMANY

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- Embarked on a policy of Weltpolitik (World Policy). Germany thought it deserved a ‘place in the sun’.

- Raw materials from colonies would help German industry.- Took regions like Tanzania, Rwanda and German Cameroon.

ITALY- Unified in 1870 and had ambitions to claim a place alongside the Great Powers.- Focussed on Africa, but failed to annex Abyssinia.

RUSSIA- Aimed to expand at the expense of Turkey toward Persia and Afghanistan, and in the Far

East.

These conflicting aims and ambitions increased tensions between European powers. E.G. Both Britain and France claimed rights in Egypt and Sudan and almost came to War in 1898. In South Africa, Britain came into conflict with Germany, who sided against Britain in the Boer War.

In Morocco, both Britain and France had trading interests. France wanted Morocco, but Germany supported an independent Morocco. Germany tried to divide Britain and France but the plan failed. In the end, France was recognised as the controlling power. Later, in 1911 a German gunboat was sent to Morocco to undermine the French. War almost broke out, but the Kaiser backed down suffering a embarrassing diplomatic defeat.

INSTABILITY IN THE BALKANSThe Turkish (Ottoman) Empire had controlled a vast Empire, but had declined by the 19 th century. At the end of the 19th century, new Balkan states had emerged (e.g. Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro). The new states were ambitious and didn’t want to be taken over by other Balkan states.

Balkan Nationalism- The fall of the Ottoman Empire had left a power vacuum.- Because of Turkey’s weak control, there was an increase in Balkan nationalism.- It was an area with few natural boundaries.- It was a region of different racial groups, cultures and religions.- They wanted freedom from Turkey’s control, but they also fought amongst themselves.

Austria-Hungary and Russia believed the situation in the Balkans was dangerous, but they saw an opportunity to fill a power vacuum left by Turkey.

WHY DID THEY WANT POWER THERE?Austria-Hungary

- The area bordered the Austria-Hungarian Empire- Austria was a power in decline. They had lost influence in central Europe to Germany, but

could still remain a major power if they controlled the Balkans.- The region posed a threat to Austria because the growth of separatism and nationalism

might spread to the Austro-Hungarian Empire which itself had many different racial groups.

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- Austria, for example, had large slav populations in Slovenia and Croatia.- The growth of Slav nationalism was encouraged by Russia and was a particular worry. - Austria saw the assassination of Franz Ferdinand (see below) as evidence of Russian support

for Serbian terrorism.

Russia- Russia had lost the Crimean War in the 19th century and the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.- It had not been able to extend its influence in the Mediterranean.- The Russian navy had ports on the black sea and wanted access to and control of the

Bosphorus which provided shipping access to the Mediterranean.- Russia had cultural and religious links with the Slavs, especially the Serbs.- Russia wanted Serbia as a buffer against Austro-Hungarian aggression.- Russia was upset by Austria’s use of the Assassination as an excuse to destroy Serbia.

The other powers had no direct interests in the Balkans, but they were allies so could not avoid becoming involved if war developed there. Britain continued to encourage negotiation when problems appeared.

- In 1908-1909, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia which was mostly populated by Serbs.- Serbs and Russians were greatly angered.- Germany backed Austria and the two countries threatened to invade Serbia.- Serbia and Russia backed down BUT the consequence was that Germany and AH believed

Russia would not go to War in a future, whilst Russia decided never to back down again.- In 1912, Balkan nations rose against Turkey. Serbia made gains and believed that Austria

was a power in decline.

Why did War break out in 1914?The assassination of Franz Ferdinand

- Gavriol Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 in Sarajevo.- He was a member of the Serbian Black Hand Terrorist Group.- Franz Ferdinand had visited the Bosnian capital on an important National Holiday, causing

offence to them.- The assassination gave Austria-Hungary an opportunity to crush Serbia’s power and end the

threat of nationalism posed in the region.- A.H. issued a series of demands with a 48 hour deadline for agreement. - Serbia accepted most demands but denied responsibility for the murder.- Russia intervened on Serbia’s behalf and mobilised its army to put pressure on AH.- Germany urged AH not to back down. German forces mobilised in response to Russia.- France wasn’t concerned with the Balkans, but it was an enemy of Germany and ally of

Russia, so mobilised shortly after.

Britain and Germany- Despite being an ‘ally’ with France and Russia, Britain had decent relations with Germany.- They had close trade links.- Britain wasn’t interested in the Balkans and urged negotiations.- Germany was more concerned with keeping France weak than Britain.

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- The naval race had soured relations, but war was still not definite.

The invasion of Belgium- Germany didn’t want to fight a war on two fronts (Russia and France). - In 1905, they had developed the Shlieffen Plan. This was a plan to quickly overwhelm the

French by driving through Belgium (a militarily country), giving them chance to then send soldiers against the slow to mobilise Russian army.

- The Shlieffen Plan seemed to be logical. It assumed that Russia would take 6 weeks to mobilise, France could be defeated in 6 weeks, Belgium wouldn’t resist and Britain wouldn’t go to war over Belgium.

- Germany swept through Belgium and into France in 1914. However, French resistance was heavier than expected and Britain did get involved to protect ‘little Belgium’. The result was 4 years of trench warfare (not 6 weeks!).

Declarations of war1. Austria declared war on Serbia2. Russia mobilised its army on the borders of Austria and Germany3. Germany declared war on Russia, France and Belgium4. Britain declared war on Germany

Within 6 weeks of the assassination in Sarajevo, the conflict had spread across Europe.

SO WHY DID THEY ALL DECLARE WAR?Austria-Hungary

- Determined to crush Serbia, punishing it for its nationalism and anti-Austrian campaign. - It thought Serbia would back down.- It didn’t think Russia would intervene.- It believed that, even if Serbia fought, it would win a quick war with Germany’s support.- Feared it would lose its position as a Great Power if Serbia went unpunished

Germany- Only had one reliable ally (AH). - Had to support AH in Serbia- Knew it would be surrounded, afraid of being encircled by France and Russsia.

Russia- Friendship with Serbia. Wanted to champion the slavs.- Knew if it went to war, France would be involved and they could surround Germany- Had made too many concessions in the past. Had to take a stand against AH and Germany.

Serbia- Had made gains in the previous Balkan crises.- The majority of the country were natnioalist.- Convinced AH was in decline.

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France- Keen to keep Russia as an ally so had to stand by them against AH.- Fearful of Germany. Had to resist their ambitions.- Wanted to recover Alsace-Lorraine.

Britain- Believed it was threatened by the invasion of Belgium.- Wanted to protect Belgium independence. Had signed the Treaty of London in 1839,

guaranteeing Belgium independence. - Threatened by the growth of the German navy.

EXAM QUESTIONS1. Why did Germany invade Belgium in 1914? (10)2. Assess the consequences of the Alliance System for international stability from 1900 to

1914 (20)3. Why did Russia go to war with Germany and Austria in 1914? (10)4. Both of the major alliances before WW1 were essentially defensive. Assess this

judgement (20)5. Why did Austria feel threatened by developments in the Balkans? (10)6. How far do you agree that Germany’s reasons for going to war in 1914 were more

defensive than aggressive? (20)7. Why was there a Naval Race between Britain and Germany before World War 1? (10)8. ‘The assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the most important cause of

World War 1’. How far do you agree with this claim? (20)9. Why was there instability in the Balkans from 1900 to 1914? (10)10. ‘France was most responsible for the outbreak of War in 1914’. How far do you agree with

this judgement? (20)11. Why did Britain go to war with Germany in 1914? (10)12. Assess the reasons why tensions in the Balkans were a concern to major European

countries from 1900 to 1914? (20)13. Was Austria-Hungary or Russia more responsible for the failure to reach a peaceful

resolution over the Balkan crisis of 1914? (20)14. Did the alliance system do more to safeguard or to threaten peace before 1914? (20)15. ‘France pursued warlike policies from 1900 to 1914’. How far do you agree with this

statement? (20)16. Why was the Triple Entente formed? (10)17. Which of Austria and Russia was more responsible for tensions in the Balkans from 1900

to1914? (20)

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THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 1905 – 1917 What were the causes and immediate outcomes of the 1905 Revolution?BackgroundRussia was the largest state in Europe with the largest population. From 1894, it was ruled by the absolute monarch Nicholas II. He was poorly educated and (apart from Witte and Stolypin) chose incompetent ministers. Russia had a lot of racial groups. Only 45% were ethnic Russians. Nicholas alienated many by continuing the policy of Russification – enforcing Russian language and the Orthodox religion across the land.Social HierarchyMost Russians were peasants. The serfs had been emancipated (freed from their landlords) in 1861, but it brought few changes. Peasants were loyal to the tsar, but hated officials. There was a small middle class. Famines were frequent and the government couldn’t move food to where it was needed. Economic Structure

- Agricultural methods were underdeveloped- Profit from grain exports didn’t benefit peasantry- Russia had less rail track than the leading industrial countries.- The tax collection system was inefficient. - Nicholas wasn’t interested in modernisation or reform.

The position and policies of Nicholas II- Nicholas followed the hardline policies of his father, Alexander III.- They opposed reforms and didn’t want the reforms of the West.- The Tsar appointed and dismissed ministers and there was no parliament (like Britain) to

limit his authority.- The army put down unrest.- The Orthodox Church supported the tsar.- Nicholas was a kind man. His son was ill (haemophilia), leaving doubts about the succession

and causing instability. BUT- He was isolated at court and preferred to go hunting than to meetings.- He was easily swayed by advice.- His ministers didn’t co-operate or offer good advice. - Russia had a senate that was supposed to oversee administration, but the system was

confused and the ministers were often incompetent men appointed by the Tsar.- Russia was split into 97 administrative regions. It was too many and the country was run

inefficiently. - The Zemtsva were councils set up by Alexander II to give peasants some responsibility, but

Nicholas tried to weaken them.

Witte’s Reforms- Sergei Witte was a forward thinking Russian statesman.- He supported reform. He increased taxes and raised money abroad.- The Trans-Siberian Railway was developed and their coal industry grew.- Russian industry and railways grew

HOWEVER

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- His policies caused problems.- Paying back foreign loans was expensive.- National debt increased- Taxes were increased, which affected the peasants.- Working conditions were terrible. People worked up to 15 hours a day. Pay was poor.

Conditions were terrible, there was no sick-leave etc.- Standard of living decreased. 3 million Russian peasants lived in terrible, cramped

conditions in the cities. They were a target for Revolutionary thinkers.- He had little support from Nicholas II and was hated by other members of the court.

War with Japan- Both Russia and Japan saw an opportunity to expand their influence at the expense of Japan. - Russia wanted Port Arthur as an ice-free harbour.- But in 1904, Japan attacked Port Arthur.- In the Battle of Tsushima, Japan destroyed 2/3 of the Russian naval fleet.- The large Russian army failed to prevent the capture of Mukden in Manchuria. - Russia had to agree to a humiliating peace in the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905.- Japan began to be regarded as a modern and efficient state.- Russia’s weaknesses were revealed. It then turned its interests to the Balkans.- It damaged the reputation of Nicholas and his government.- It helped cause the 1905 Revolution.

Other Causes of the 1905 Revolution- The poor economic condition of the peasantry – high taxes from Witte’s reforms.- The autocracy of Nicholas had distanced him from the population.- High unemployment thanks to an economic recession.- Growing nationalism caused unrest among racial groups such as Finns, Balts, Armenians,

Georgians, who resented the policy of Russification.- Other groups wanted democracy. Others wanted socialism.- Mass repression from the government.

Bloody Sunday- On 22 January, 1905, Father Gapon led a non-violent march in Moscow to ask for land

reforms and an elected assembly.- Most of the crowd were unhappy steel workers (150,000)- Many of the crowd held pictures of the Tsar to show respect.- They were attacked by Cossack soldiers (not on the order of Nicholas, who was 25 miles

away.)- The Russian people blamed the Tsar for the extreme reaction of the soldiers.- Nicholas’s unpopularity increased (the ‘People’s Executioner’). Strikes began in Moscow and

spread to other cities.- Industrial workers organised trade unions.- Sailors on the battleship Potemkin mutinied.

HOWEVER- The Revolutionaries were disorganised with no central co-ordination

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- AND, the army remained loyal to him.- Nicholas began to make reluctant concessions to control the masses.

The October ManifestoIn the October Manifesto, Nicholas made concessions to the masses. He promised free speech and an elected assembly (parliament) called the Duma, whose agreement would be needed before any laws could be passed. Many rebels felt their voices had been heard. BUT many rebels felt it didn’t go far enough. There was some armed resistance, but the Tsar’s soldiers suppressed it.

HOWEVERNicholas was insincere.

- He was unwilling to enforce the reforms that he had promised.- He issued the Fundamental Laws, which asserted his full power.- He used the army to kill and arrest critics of his regime (15,000 people were killed and

70,000 arrested within 1 year). - The DUMA was an elected body, but not a democracy. It represented a minority of the

population.- Voting was restricted to landowners.- Nicholas ignored the DUMA and dissolved the first one after two months. - The second DUMA lasted longer (5 years) but achieved little.- The opposition to Nicholas could not organise.

Nicholas could have carried out reforms in 1906 to make Russia modern and stable. BUT, he was unwilling to surrender his power and the reforms weren’t real! The causes of the 1905 Revolution remained unsolved. He missed a chance to solve the problems of Russia.

What were the strengths and weaknesses of Romanov rule from 1906 to 1914?Support for the Tsar

- Nicholas retained considerable support after 1905.- Very few wanted a republic.- Most accepted the October Manifesto, showing they wanted peaceful settlement.- The Romanovs had ruled Russia since 1613, nobody could imagine an alternative.- The nobles supported the Tsar and were an important political group.- The middle class were very small and didn’t have the potential to cause problems.- Although the peasants were dissatisfied, they didn’t blame Nicholas personally. - The changes demanded were social and economic, not political.

Stolypin’s Reforms- In 1906, the Tsar appointed Stolypin as minister of the interior and later as Prime Minister.- Stolypin wanted to improve agriculture and the peasants’ situation.- However, he was ruthless against peasant uprisings. ‘Stolypin’s Necktie’ (death by hanging)

was used widely to punish rebels after the 1905 Revolution.Social Reforms- He pushed for better treatment of Jews and other minorities.

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- He pushed for the extension of education.- 1000 newspapers ceased to publish 1906-1912Agricultural Reforms- Stolypin encouraged the growth of a wealthy peasant class (kulaks). These kulaks would

then stem the tide of revolution in the countryside. - He wanted peasants to be free of the mirs (peasant commune villages) and put their strips of

land together to work more efficiently. Consolidated strips could then become private property of the peasants.

- A Peasant Land Bank lent peasants money to buy their own land.- Many peasants took government grants to move to Siberia and central Asia.Industrial Reforms- Six hundred trade unions closed between 1906-1912- Railway building proceeded- Rearmament programme fuelled industrial activity.- Substantial growth in coal, iron and steel industries.RESULTS- Industrial growth created employment.- Industrial workforce relatively subdued 1908-1914.- BUT more people moved to urban areas (the urban population doubled) and the living

conditions worsened. There was little medical care and a low standard of education.- There were no trade unions and police cracked down on protests.- Russia benefitted economically from industrialisation, but suffered socially.- Stolypin was opposed as a ‘dangerous innovator’ by many groups. - The combination of reformer and ruthlessness was unwelcome. - Stolypin said the reforms would need ’20 years to work’, but he was assassinated in 1911.- They pacified the rural areas between 1906 and 1916. - By 1916, 2 million householders were independent farmers- BUT by 1914, only 10% of land had been consolidated and the strip system still prevailed.- 60% of peasant families were still in the commune (Mir).- ‘Land hunger’ remained because Stolypin hadn’t taken into account the growoing

population.

By 1911, the Tsar had lost faith in Stolypin and he was murdered in mysterious circumstances.

Opposition to the Tsar- Because of the conditions, strikes became more common between 1909 and 1914.- Violent suppression was used, but this encouraged further protests. One example is the

Lena gold mine strike in 1912, when 270 miners were killed.- Shop workers, railway employees, sailors and university students all expressed

dissatisfaction.- Peasants who had bought land from the Land Bank could not keep up their repayments.- Peasants felt their conditions were worse than before the reforms.- Radical philosophies such as Marxism began to gain popularity.- Other radical groups voiced opposition. The Land and Liberty movement wanted a rural

revolution to win power for the peasants.

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- The police and army could control radicals but not eliminate them.- Exiles like Lenin could gain support abroad.- Radicals in the country evaded censorship and published illegal newspapers criticising the

Tsar.- HOWEVER, before WWI, there was no serious challenge to the power of the tsar because

Nicholas could rely on the loyalty of the police and the army. Also, most people still respected the tradition of the monarchy.

What were the causes of the February Revolution in 1917?Effects of World War 1

- Russian military had improved since the defeat by Japan. They had three times as many soldiers as Germany, and many more large guns. BUT it would take longer than Germany to mobilise its army, and their transport and communication problems remained. Russia still relied on cavalry, which was ineffective against machine guns. They didn’t understand modern warfare.

- Initially, there was great enthusiasm for War, however. Russians agreed with standing up for the Serbs, and they viewed AH as a traditional enemy. Moreover, they wanted to regain pride after previous defeats.

- The Russians won some early victories over AH and one against Turkey. - BUT they would not be able to beat Germany in an offensive war.- In the Battle of Tannenberg, the German army was superior in weapons, tactics and speed.

250,000 Russian soldiers were captured or killed.- The cost of war in lives and resources mounted up for Russia. Ordinary soldiers were short

of clothes, food, weapons and ammunition.- Guns and shells were unable to reach the front lines due to inefficient transport systems.- Weak army generals just threw masses of soldiers against gunfire and didn’t change their

tactics.- In 1915, Nicholas II took personal charge of the armies. This was ‘heroic’, but a mistake. He

had no military skill or training and didn’t inspire anybody. It also left a power vacuum in Moscow.

Effects- The Tsarina, Alexandra, was left in charge, but was a poor leader.- Her German heritage was suspicious and she was accused of being a German spy.- Her reliance on Rasputin (see below) increased her unpopularity.- Although Russia had industries, good harvests and railways, things were poorly organised. In

wartime, food could not reach where it was needed. Some regions had lots, whereas in others there was nothing.

- The number of farm animals increased, but so did the number of deaths by starvation!- Inflation occurred, raising prices, and affecting the lower classes more.- Strikes spread in Moscow and St Petersburg.- The DUMA criticised economic policies.- Unrest grew in the face of military failure.

Rasputin- Rasputin was a big factor in the decline of the Tsar’s reputation.

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- Rasputin treated the Tsar’s son and was a favourite of the Tsarina.- He had no education, though, and was hated at court.- Many grew concerned at the influence he had on the Tsar and Tsarina.- After Nicholas had gone to war (see above), Rasputin’s influence continued to increase. This

brought him to the attention of the wider public, where he proved very unpopular.- He was murdered in 1916 by a group of conservative courtiers who wanted to save the tsar’s

reputation.

Abdication of Nicholas IIIn 1917, there was a series of army mutinies. Conditions at the front were terrible and stories spread of hardships at home. Soldiers returned to their homes to help their families.

- Soldiers protested in cities.- Sergei Khabalov, the governor of St Petersberg, ordered soldiers to fire on the protestors,

but they refused and turned against the officers.- Even the Cossacks (once the most loyal supporters of the Tsar) turned against Nicholas II.- Without army support, Nicholas abdicated in February 1917. He blamed ‘treason, cowardice

and deceit’.- Members of the DUMA wanted a government headed by Prince Lvov, a middle-class liberal.

Lvov was determined to continue the war, but had no ideas for reform.- Power then passed to a Provisional Government, led by the liberal Kerensky.

WHY DID THE BOLSHEVIKS GAIN POWER IN OCTOBER 1917?Eventually, a group of Communists called the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia after the fall of the Romanovs. Their victory came after further revolution and years of civil war.

LeninOne important factor in the success of the Bolsheviks was the role played by Lenin.

- Lenin was born to a lower middle class family and trained as a lawyer.- He became a revolutionary after his brother was executed for trying to assassinate

Alexander III.- Lenin was exiled in Siberia and then abroad for most of 1900 to 1917.- He had many skills – he was idealistic and practical, willing to compromise.- He was a skilled orator, a talented writer and profound political thinker.- He was a great organiser and was able to install discipline within his revolutionary party.- He recognised the importance of the industrial working class in the success of any

revolution.- Within Lenin’s communist followers, there were two groups – Bolsheviks led by Lenin, and

Mensheviks, led by Trotsky.LENIN AND THE 1905 Revolution

- During the 1905 Revolution, Trotsky and the Mensheviks tried to promote strikes and other actions.

- Workers’ committees (soviets) were set up in factories.- Lenin was in exile, though, and returned to Russia 11 months after Bloody Sunday. He

couldn’t play an effective role in the Revolution.

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Crises of the Provisional Government- Revolutionaries agreed on the abdication of Nicholas II, but on nothing else. The P.G. was

composed of members of different groups, including Liberals, Cadets and socialists.- The P.G. made initially popular reforms such as a political amnesty and freedom of the press.- BUT the Provisional Government kept Russia in the First World War. They hoped that war

might unite the country. The war continued to go badly for Russia, though. The army was in a bad condition and demands to make peace increased.

- The Provisional Government had to balance the conflicting demands of reforming and radical factions.

- The formation of soviets (councils of workers) increased in the cities, villages and army. The Petrograd Soviet was particularly powerful. It had support in the army and controlled strategic railways. They weren’t organised, but posed an increasing threat to the Provisional Government. They opposed the war.

- The problem of food distribution was not solved and peasants demanded that land was re distributed.

- Lenin returned from exile (put on a train by the Germans). He realised the potential of the Soviets, and took control of them. Lenin, in his ‘April Theses’, called for ‘Peace, Land and Bread’.

- The Provisional Government had promised elections, but they weren’t held, because they knew that Lenin’s Bolsheviks would gain control.

- In the July Days, workers and soldiers staged demonstrations against the Provisional Government. The Provisional Government tried to put down the Bolsheviks, and Lenin was condemned as a German spy. Lenin fled to Finland. This was a brief success for the P.G.

- KORNILOV AFFAIR. Kornilov, the commander of the army, marched against the Bolsheviks in Petrograd (St Petersberg) and tried to seize power for himself. Kerensky didn’t approve of the plan, but seemed powerless to stop him. The Bolsheviks stepped in and saved Petrograd from Kornilov, gaining much credit. Lenin returned to Russia.

The October RevolutionShort-term causes:

- The Provisional Government had no control over events. It was discredited after the Kornilov affair.

- A Military Revolutionary Council was established in Moscow which acted as a rival government. It was controlled by Trotsky on behalf of the Bolsheviks.

- The Russian army was suffering huge losses, making the Prov Gov even more unpopular- Kerensky could not deliver reforms such as redistribution of the land or a new constitution.

As the German army advanced, the major cities seemed under threat. Lenin convinced his supporters that it was time for a revolution. They gained control of Petrograd and seized the Winter Palace thanks to the Red Guards of Trotsky. The October Revolution was over within a few hours. Only 6 people were killed.

EXAM QUESTIONS1. How far did the reforms of Witte and Stolypin strengthen the tsarist regime? (20)

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2. Why was the First World War an important cause of the downfall of Nicholas II in February 1917? (10)

3. Why did Lenin’s Bolsheviks replace Kerensky’s Provisional Government in October 1917? (10)

4. How far do you agree that Nicholas II missed the opportunity to make his government more secure after the 1905 Revolution? (20)

5. ‘The Russian people supported Nicholas II between 1906 and 1914’. How far do you agree with this statement? (20)

6. Why did the provisional government face problems in ruling Russia? (10)7. Why did Stolypin face problems in carrying out his reforms? (10)8. How serious a threat to Nicholas II was the 1905 Revolution? (20)9. Why was there widespread disorder in Russia in 1905? (10)10. How important was Lenin in the Bolsheviks’ seizure of power in October 1917? (20)11. Why did the Bolsheviks emerge as a strong radical group by April 1917? (10) 12. ‘By 1914, Nicholas II’s government had recovered from the effects of the 1905 Revolution’.

Assess this claim. (20)13. Why did Tsar Nicholas II continue to face problems from 1906 to 1914? (10)14. ‘The Bolsheviks seizure of power came as a surprise’. How far do you agree with this

claim? (20) 15. Why was World War 1 an important reason for two revolutions in Russia in 1917? (10)16. ‘Nicholas II was popular with most Russians during the period up to 1914’. How far do you

agree with this claim? (20)

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MARK SCHEMEFor 10 mark questions

Level 4: Evaluates factors [9–10]Answers are well focused and identify and explain a range of factors. Answers are supported by precise evidence and demonstrate clear understanding of the connections between causes. Answers consider the relative significance of factors and reach a supported conclusion.

Level 3: Explains factors [6–8]Answers demonstrate good understanding of the demands of the question providing relevantexplanations, supported by relevant and detailed information. Answers are clearly expressed. Candidates may attempt to reach a judgement about the significance of factors but this may not be effectively supported.

Level 2: Describes factors [3–5]Answers show some knowledge and understanding of the demands of the question. Answers are either entirely descriptive in approach with few explicit links to the question or they provide some explanation which is supported by information which is limited in range and depth.

Level 1: Describes the topic/issue [1–2]Answers contain some relevant material but are descriptive in nature, making little reference to causation. Answers may be assertive or generalised. The response is limited in development.

Level 0: Answers contain no relevant content [0]

KEY POINTS

Identify a range of factors. Answer the question DIRECTLY. Keep referring to the question. Judge which is the most important factor – and give it a reason. Distinguish between short term and long term factors. Back up with accurate evidence (dates, events) Don’t be TOO NARRATIVE...keep focussing on the question.

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MARK SCHEMEFor 20 mark questions

Level 5: Responses which develop a sustained judgement [18–20]Answers are well focused and closely argued. Arguments are supported by precisely selected evidence. They will lead to a relevant conclusion / judgement which is developed and supported. They will be fluent and well organised.

Level 4: Responses which develop a balanced argument [15–17]Answers will show explicit understanding of the demands of the question. They will develop a balanced argument supported by a good range of appropriately selected evidence. They will begin to form a judgement in response to the question. At this level the judgement may be partial or not fully supported.

Level 3: Responses which begin to develop assessment [10–14]Answers will show a developed understanding of the demands of the question. They will provide some assessment, supported by relevant and appropriately selected evidence. However, these answers are likely to lack depth and / or balance. Answers will be generally coherent and well organised.

Level 2: Responses which show some understanding of the question [6–9]Answers will show some understanding of the focus of the question. They will be either entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or they may contain some explicit comment with relevant but limited support.

Level 1: Descriptive or partial responses [1–5]Answers may contain descriptive material which is only loosely linked to the focus of the question. They may only address part of the question. Alternatively, there may be some explicit comment on the question which lacks detailed factual support. Answers are likely to be generalised and assertive. Answers may be fragmentary and disjointed.

Level 0: Answers contain no relevant content [0]

KEY POINTS

Argue both sides of the story, but don’t contradict yourself. Make a short plan/diagram, ensuring you have counter

arguments. Make a sustained judgement throughout (whilst arguing both

sides). Stay relevant – keep relating your answer to the question. Don’t be TOO NARRATIVE. Use accurate, appropriate evidence. Give a conclusion – identify the most significant aspects of your

answer. Keep ideas separate, sentences short and paragraphs relevant.

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