US INVOLVEMENT IN

VIETNAM

1953-1975

KEY DATESEISENHOWER (1953–1960)

●Battle @ Dien Bien Phu = 1954●Geneva Agreements/Accords = 1954

JOHN F KENNEDY (1961-1963)●Battle Of Ap Bac = 1963● Assassination Of Diem & JFK = NOV 1963

JOHNSON (1963-1969)● Gulf Of Tonkins Incident & Solution = 1964● Tet Offensive = JAN 1968

NIXON (1970-1973)● Invasion Of Cambodia = 1970● The Spring Offensive = 1972● The Paris Peace Agreement = JAN 1973

CONTEXTTWO DOMINOS HAD FALLEN; CHINA & NK

●WW2, Japan controlled Vietnam, HCM of VM supported by USA overthrew Japanese rule.●HCM declared Vietnamese independence.●Soon after, Vietnam colonized by French.●VM fought French for Communist independence.●US supported French colonial regime militarily to contain communism.●Despite military support, French beaten at Dien Bien Phu in 05/1954 under General Giap.

GENEVA AGREEMENTS 1954DBP defeat furthered Geneva Agreements of ’54.

→17th temporary Parallel, splitting North Communist & South Capitalist Vietnam. ANOTHER DOMINO FALLS UNDER EISENHOWER; NV→ Elections to be held two years later (never held).→ Signed by all major countries (inc’ China & USSR)→ USA & South Vietnam did not sign, thus not bound.→ US violates Agreements by forming alliance with South Vietnam (Bao Die →Diem) via SEATO.

EISENHOWER

1953–1961

CAUSE FOR INVOLVEMENT?●Due to Eisenhower’s allegiance to the Domino Theory,

Dominos of China & North Korea fallen, Vietnam threatened to fall.

● Eisenhower keen not to seem “soft of communism” like Truman. As a Republican took military approach by

supporting the French.

ESCALATION OF INVOLVEMENT?●French defeat at Dien Bien Phu.

●Geneva Agreements declaring North Vietnam Communist, South needed to be saved hence SEATO alliance.

●Eisenhower acting early to stem communism election win.

SUPPORTING DIEM●Maintain capitalist stronghold,USA implemented anti communist & French Catholic Diem as Prime Minister/President in predominantly Buddhist nation.●Diem cancelled Agreement Election.●Eisenhower funded Diem’s government, $500 million/year used to train private army ARVN.●Diem’s regime was rife with corruption, nepotism, isolation & bigotry with refusals to implement land reforms as it echoed communism.●Led to creation of NLF to liberate SV from Diem.

JFK1961–1963

CAUSE FOR INVOLVEMENT?●Seemed “soft on communism” failure with Cuba & the draw-

coalition in Laos, no victory during Presidency felt the need to prove himself strong for upcoming elections.

● Like predecessors, committed to monolithic, Cold War Context, Domino Theory perspective, stop the spread of

communism!●Catholic Crusaders, inclined to help Christian brothers.

ESCALATION OF INVOLVEMENT?●The enemy, Vietcong was patriotic & determined to

overthrow the US & Diem regime & win with communism, very resilient. US needed to hold onto the South & prevent

another communist surge.

PRESIDENT KENNEDY●INAUGARATION SPEECH = FOREIGN AFFAIRS●2 YRS IN CUBA

(FAILURE)/LAOS (COALITION) COMMUNIST GUERILLAS.●Increased military advisors to 16,000 by ’63 & created Green Berets, specialists against communist guerrillas.●Continued with ARVN despite dysfunction highlighted with Battle of Ap Bac.

●Urged creation of Strategic Hamlets/Agrovilles, failure due to Diem’s nepotism;→Isolated Buddhists (Catholic Middleclass evacuation, JFK crusader)→Regime led to Buddhist suicide demo’s due to religious censorship.→Angered peasant majority & them made sympathetic to Vietcong.→Continued to refuse land reforms.

●Both US government & South Viet’ military recognised Diem core of South Vietnam’s problems.●Diem assassinated in November ’63, JFK 3 weeks later.●His involvement in Vietnam committed the US fully to Vietnam without choice.

JOHNSON1963–1969

CAUSE FOR INVOLVEMENT?●Obligated to continue with Vietnam due to “inherited” deeply

involved dilemma from JFK. ●Massive funding of South Vietnamese government supported by

many US advisors. ●Communist North Vietnamese threat was growing, challenging

US capitalist ideology as usual.

ESCALATION OF INVOLVEMENT?●Due to continued Communist aggression, US troops sent in & continued to be done HCM trail remained prominent & Vietcong

remained strong.●Continued involvement in order to wear down Vietcong & Minh

seen in Tet Offensive @ Khe Sanh

PRESIDENT JOHNSONVICE PRESIDENT OF JFK, PRESIDENCY BEGAN WITH NO MANDATE

●Reluctant with foreign affairs, was intending to architect Great Society & detested Vietnamese war as it never allowed him to do what he had planned.●Secretary of State = Ruske, Defence = McNamara, recommended air bombing as following JFK’s death, Vietnamese situation deteriorated considerably

●Escalation of US involvement with Gulf of Tonkins Incident & Resolution of 1964, permitted Johnson to take any measure in order to support US troops in Asia, engaging in limited war.●↘This won Johnson much needed mandate for 2nd term.

●1st President to send US troops into Asia during Cold War due to limitations placed by Kennedy’s deep involvement in Vietnam.●Operation Rolling Thunder , attacking North Vietnamese HCM Trail, never found.●Ruthless bombings of North Vietnam did not deter them, motivated them.

MILITARY TACTICS 1965+US MILITARY TACTICS

●1965 - 184,300 US troops in Vietnam, to protect US bases & troops due to Vietcong attacks.●General Westmoreland in charge of military.●Tactics of Search & Destroy w/ Agent Orange/Defoliants, deeply damaged locals lives. ●Helicopter war, attack areas with communist activity & then fly away.●Detection & obstacle devices blockade NV @ 17th Parallel, McNamara Line & around bases.●Operation Arc Light, hunting HCM trail, dropped bombs which would obliterate area ,devastating effect.●Phoenix Programme, interrogating/ kidnapping /torturing/killing Vietcong suspects. Violation of HR.●US made not much headway, little evidence of winning extra territory. But Westmoreland reported positively.

VIET MILITARY TACTICS● 1965 – 3 NVA regiments in South Vietnam,●Tactics similar to the Vietminh VS France, small scale guerrilla groups under Giap.●Equipment & supplies provided by USSR/China.●Quickly adapted to US tactics, in case of firepower, would disengage into forest.●Very discreet & elusive with movements with the HCM trail. ●Constructed booby traps to maim US troops.●Vietcong members were often the average peasants by day.●Vietcong would assassinate officials of local gov’ admin’.●Had large majority control over the South Vietnamese countryside.●Carried out terrorist attacks of Saigon, EVERYWHERE was under communist attack.

TET OFFENSIVE 1968“TET” BEING THE MAJOR VIETNAMESE NEW YEAR CELEBRATION.

●January - General Giap sends 4 NVA regiments as diversion to Khe Sanh → US sends in 30,000 troops.●US/South Vietnamese bases destroyed including helicopters, supplies & buildings.●Sudden attack deeply America, seemed like another DBP.●Operation Niagara, massive conventional 24 hour bombing, 24,000 air attacks.●Offensives launched in many South Vietnamese cities, aiming to spark of national uprising. Vietcong attacked Saigon & embassies inc’ US.●Entire offensive televised, sparked shock & disgust @ US home front, brutality towards Communists (Vietcong shooting footage). ●Evident credibility gap. Johnson & Westmoreland’s false optimistic assurance.●Home front feared a stalemate situation, anti-war parties & movements grew (university students/Draft dodging) & opposed Johnson in upcoming presidential elections & did not stand.●President Nixon pressured for negotiation & ultimately end the war.

NIXON1969–1975

CAUSE FOR INVOLVEMENT?●Continued involvement due to Johnson’s committing troops to

Vietnam.Home Front pressures to end the war as US wasn’t making proper

headway in Vietnam, dismissal of Domino Theory.

ESCALATION OF INVOLVEMENT?●Yes, invading Cambodia & stirring up a huge civil war in efforts to

silence the NVA. ●Operation Linebacker 1 & 2, severe aerial bombings to pressure

negotiations.

END OF INVOLVEMENT?● 1973, with The Paris Peace Agreements in January, US & others

finally withdrew from Vietnam.

VIETNAMISATIONPROMISED HE’D END THE WAR WITH PEACE WITH HONOUR

●Twin track policy; continuing negotiations & withdrawing troops from Vietnam.●Hand back the war to the Vietnamese people, ARVN to fight instead of the US.●Kissinger, National Security Advisor, dealt with negotiation offers.Invasion of Cambodia, April 1970● US planned to take out NVA headquarters, by extending war to Cambodia.●Controversy, didn’t inform Congress of invading Cambodia & Laos.●Caused civil war in Cambodia, Communist regime rose , killing 1/3 population.Spring Offensive, 1972●4 NVA division invasion on North of South Vietnam, US broke off negotiations.●USA retaliated with intensive bombing on Hanoi & NVA, Operation Linebacker 1●Heavily impacted North Vietnamese economy.●Only 2 major towns were under NVA control in the South.●Vietnamisation was a success.

PARIS PEACE AGREEMENT 1973PEACE NEGOTIATIONS LASTED FROM 1968 TO 1973

●Nixon & Kissinger together dismissed the Domino Theory for Realism, not all communism is Soviet communism, the Monolithic belief dissolves.●US tactic to isolate NV from allies of USSR & China, detente policy. ●Nixon ended the animosity & supported China’s admission into the UN.●Improved relationships with biggest communists states, gain peace in Vietnam.●Increased pressures on NV with Operation Linebacker 2 for agreement.January – Agreement reached of;-Releasing & returning all prisoners of war.-US & Allied forces withdrew from Vietnam, NVA remained in the South-Cease-fire between South Vietnamese government & Vietcong.↘ Led to a split region Communist & Non-Communist governing in the South.

ACCORDING TO NIXON HE BROUGHT USA PEACE WITH HONOUR.The Peace Agreement was virtually the same as the one proposed in

1968, before Cambodian invasion & severe aerial bombing.

WHY DID THE US FAIL TO WIN THE VIETNAM WAR?

US INVOLVEMENT IN VIETNAM ENDED IN 1973, NIXON STEPPED DOWN AFTER WATERGATE WIRETAPPING POLITICIANS SCANDAL.

1.)Got involved too late, South Vietnam government already deteriorated. The US worsened situation, failed to ensure land reforms & win hearts & minds of the needed majority due to supporting the corrupt Diem regime.

2.)ARVN poor in quality & lacked rapport. Urban officers & peasant soldiers.

3.) Search & Destroy ineffective, better to use Counter-Insurgency tactics to address core Communist problem. Failures led to My Lai Massacre. They stalled & didn’t rollback Communism up into North Vietnam like with Korea.

4.) Warfare wasn’t adjusted to rural & tropical Vietnamese forests. Troops drafted & lacked morale & prone to narcotic abuse & racial tensions.

5.) Collapse of Home Front support due to confidence of winning, choosing to televise the war. Expenses continued to rise & hurt the American tax payers.