Vietnam & the 1970’s. French Indochina The territory that would become known as The territory that would become known as Vietnam was a colony of France

Vietnam & the 1970s

French Indochina The territory that would become known as The territory that would become known as Vietnam was a colony of France prior to the outbreak of WWII This included the area of Laos, Cambodia, & Vietnam The Indochinese Communist Party was founded in 1930 & led by Ho Chi Minh The French condemned Minh to death & he fled to the Soviet Union In 1942 the Japanese took over French Indochina and ruled it until the end of the war in 1945 In 1942 the Japanese took over French Indochina and ruled it until the end of the war in 1945 Ho Chi Minh returned to Vietnam & organized the Vietminh whose goal was independence in Vietnam Ho Chi Minh was supported & supplied by the United States After Japanese surrender in WWII the French tried to reclaim the colony After Japanese surrender in WWII the French tried to reclaim the colony The Vietnamese had resisted the Japanese & after WWII they began to resist the French Ho Chi Minh

French Indochina Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnams Independence on 2 September 1945 in Hanoi and borrowed much from Thomas Jeffersons Declaration of Independence Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnams Independence on 2 September 1945 in Hanoi and borrowed much from Thomas Jeffersons Declaration of Independence The French refused to recognize this declaration President Truman ignored various communications from Ho Chi Minh from 1945 to 1949 who pleaded with the U.S. for support President Truman ignored various communications from Ho Chi Minh from 1945 to 1949 who pleaded with the U.S. for support The U.S. although officially opposed to colonialism refused to support the communist Minh against a Cold War ally the French In 1949 Ho Chi Minh finally accepted military aid from the Soviet Union and Communist China The U.S. decided to financially support the French war effort in Vietnam The U.S. decided to financially support the French war effort in Vietnam Over the next 9 years the U.S. would spend close to $1 billion supporting the French against Ho Chi Minh U.S. was afraid of a weakened France would not help to defend postwar Europe The United States didnt see Ho Chi Minh as a Nationalist leader only as a communist The United States didnt see Ho Chi Minh as a Nationalist leader only as a communist This would prove to be a critical mistake President Truman Ho Chi Minh

French Indochina When Eisenhower became President in 1953 he was involved in a stalemate in Korea and thus continued to pour money to the French to prevent a communist takeover of Vietnam When Eisenhower became President in 1953 he was involved in a stalemate in Korea and thus continued to pour money to the French to prevent a communist takeover of Vietnam This was all part of the Domino Theory that said that all of the countries that are on the brink of communism are like a row of dominos & if one falls the rest will go in succession This was all part of the Domino Theory that said that all of the countries that are on the brink of communism are like a row of dominos & if one falls the rest will go in succession In May of 1954 the Vietminh overran the French outpost at Dien Bien Phu In May of 1954 the Vietminh overran the French outpost at Dien Bien Phu

The Geneva Accords From May-July 1954 France, Great Britain, U.S.S.R., U.S., China, Laos, and Cambodia met in Geneva, Switzerland with the Vietminh and with S. Vietnams anticommunists to come to a peace settlement From May-July 1954 France, Great Britain, U.S.S.R., U.S., China, Laos, and Cambodia met in Geneva, Switzerland with the Vietminh and with S. Vietnams anticommunists to come to a peace settlement The Geneva Accords as they were known temporarily divided Vietnam along the 17 th parallel The Geneva Accords as they were known temporarily divided Vietnam along the 17 th parallel Ho Chi Minh ruled the north from Hanoi and the S. Vietnamese nationalists ruled the south from Saigon An election was to be held to unify the country in 1956 An election was to be held to unify the country in 1956

Vietnam after the French Despite brutal & repressive tactics Ho Chi Minh Despite brutal & repressive tactics Ho Chi Minh received much support in the North by breaking up large estates and redistributed them amongst the poor Also his fighting against the Japanese & French occupation made him a national hero as well Because of Ho Chi Minhs widespread support Ngo Dinh Diem the anti-communist leader of South Vietnam refused to hold the scheduled elections in the south Because of Ho Chi Minhs widespread support Ngo Dinh Diem the anti-communist leader of South Vietnam refused to hold the scheduled elections in the south The U.S. supported this cancellation b/c of the likelihood that Dinh Diem would lose to Ho Chi Minh Diems govt became more & more corrupt & he began to be even more oppressive to his people to keep control Diem who was a devout catholic put restrictions on his Buddhist citizens religious practices Diem who was a devout catholic put restrictions on his Buddhist citizens religious practices South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem

Vietnam after the French In 1957 a South Vietnamese Communist opposition group known as the Vietcong began to assassinate thousands of South Vietnamese officials In 1957 a South Vietnamese Communist opposition group known as the Vietcong began to assassinate thousands of South Vietnamese officials In 1959 Ho Chi Minh & the North Vietnamese began to supply arms to the Vietcong through a network of paths along the border of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia that became known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail In 1959 Ho Chi Minh & the North Vietnamese began to supply arms to the Vietcong through a network of paths along the border of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia that became known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail President Eisenhower decided to continue to help the South Vietnamese govt financially as well as by sending U.S. military personnel to advise the S. Vietnamese military; saying were going to sink or swim with Ngo Dinh Diem President Eisenhower decided to continue to help the South Vietnamese govt financially as well as by sending U.S. military personnel to advise the S. Vietnamese military; saying were going to sink or swim with Ngo Dinh Diem Above: Ho Chi Minh Trail Below: Pres. Eisenhower w/ Diem

JFK & Vietnam During President Kennedys term in office During President Kennedys term in office the U.S. continued to help finance the South Vietnamese govt under Diem Pres. Kennedy didnt want to look soft Pres. Kennedy didnt want to look soft on communism by letting Vietnam fall but didnt want to get fully involved in a war he wasnt sure we could win So President Kennedy increased the So President Kennedy increased the number of military advisors in S. Vietnam to 16,000 by 1963 During this time however Diems popularity During this time however Diems popularity continued to plummet To guard against the Vietcong threat in S. Vietnam Diem began a strategic hamlet program This moved all villagers from an area from their farms into protected hamlets to avoid having these groups fall under the control of the Vietcong Above: President Kennedy addressing the nation about Vietnam Below: Ngo Dinh Diem

Diem & the Buddhists Buddhist in S. Vietnam began to protest their lack of influence and representation in S. Vietnamese govt under Diem Buddhist in S. Vietnam began to protest their lack of influence and representation in S. Vietnamese govt under Diem Diem a devout catholic became fed up with Buddhist demonstrations Diem a devout catholic became fed up with Buddhist demonstrations Diem imprisoned and killed hundreds of Buddhists clergymen & destroyed their pagodas (temples) Diem imprisoned and killed hundreds of Buddhists clergymen & destroyed their pagodas (temples) Several Buddhists monks & nuns burned themselves to death in public protest Several Buddhists monks & nuns burned themselves to death in public protest Kennedy implored Diem to stop the persecutions but Diem refused Kennedy realized that Diems regime had to go & supported through the CIA and Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge a military coup & assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem and his corrupt brother Ngo Dinh Nhu Kennedy realized that Diems regime had to go & supported through the CIA and Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge a military coup & assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem and his corrupt brother Ngo Dinh Nhu Buddhist Monk Thich Quang Duc

President Johnson & Vietnam Shortly before his death Pres. Kennedy had announced his intention to withdraw 1,000 U.S. advisors from S. Vietnam by 1963 and possibly all by 1965 saying that In the final analysis, its their war Shortly before his death Pres. Kennedy had announced his intention to withdraw 1,000 U.S. advisors from S. Vietnam by 1963 and possibly all by 1965 saying that In the final analysis, its their war Many people debate however if he would have actually withdrawn U.S. troops Kennedys comments were made when the war was still thought to be winnable by the S. Vietnamese & U.S. advisors would no longer be necessary South Vietnam was even more chaotic after Diems death South Vietnam was even more chaotic after Diems death South Vietnam would go through 5 different govts after Diem A power struggle began in S. Vietnam between their Generals for control All future govts in S. Vietnam looked like puppet U.S. govts because of our complicity in the assassination of Diem All future govts in S. Vietnam looked like puppet U.S. govts because of our complicity in the assassination of Diem President Johnson was determined not to allow a communist takeover of S. Vietnam President Johnson was determined not to allow a communist takeover of S. Vietnam Johnson was afraid that if the U.S. allowed S. Vietnam to fall like China had then the U.S. would be seen as appeasers & the U.S.S.R. would continue to support communist takeovers of every country President Lyndon Johnson

The Tonkin Gulf Resolution On August 2, 1964 a North Vietnamese patrol boat fired a torpedo at the U.S.S. Maddox a destroyer which was patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin On August 2, 1964 a North Vietnamese patrol boat fired a torpedo at the U.S.S. Maddox a destroyer which was patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin The torpedo missed Two days later the Maddox & another destroyer on a day with poor visibility reported enemy torpedos again & returned fire Two days later the Maddox & another destroyer on a day with poor visibility reported enemy torpedos again & returned fire The attacks on U.S. ships prompted Pres. Johnson to launch bombing strikes on North Vietnam in retaliation The attacks on U.S. ships prompted Pres. Johnson to launch bombing strikes on North Vietnam in retaliation Pres. Johnson then asked Congress for powers to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States & to prevent any further aggression Pres. Johnson then asked Congress for powers to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States & to prevent any further aggression The measure passed with only two votes against it on August 7 th Now without a formal declaration of war Pres. Johnson had broad powers to use military force in Vietnam Similar to the resolution that Pres. George W. Bush received from Congress to use against Saddam Hussein and Iraq

The Tonkin Gulf Resolution Unbeknownst to Congress the Unbeknownst to Congress the U.S. had been leading secret raids against N. Vietnam President Johnson had prepared President Johnson had prepared the resolution months before the incident & had been waiting for the right opportunity In Feb. of 1965 after a Vietcong attack killed 8 Americans President Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder In Feb. of 1965 after a Vietcong attack killed 8 Americans President Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder A sustained bombing attack of North Vietnam

Operation Rolling Thunder In March of 1965 the first U.S. combat troops began arriving in South Vietnam & by June more than 50,000 U.S. soldiers were fighting against the Vietcong In March of 1965 the first U.S. combat troops began arriving in South Vietnam & by June more than 50,000 U.S. soldiers were fighting against the Vietcong This has become known as the Americanization of the Vietnam War Above: U.S. B-52 bombers bombing North Vietnam Below: U.S. marines arriving in Vietnam

Increased Involvement In the early stages the American people supported U.S. involvement in Vietnam In the early stages the American people supported U.S. involvement in Vietnam But didnt want a full scale engagement In the 1964 election President Johnson won b/c his opponent Barry Goldwater was very anti-communist & might push the U.S. into war with the Soviet Union In the 1964 election President Johnson won b/c his opponent Barry Goldwater was very anti-communist & might push the U.S. into war with the Soviet Union In campaign speeches Pres. Johnson said that he was not about to send American boys 9 or 10,000 miles away from home to do what Asian boys ought to be doing for themselves In March of 1965 after consulting with Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara and Sec. of State Dean Rusk Pres. Johnson began to send tens of thousands of U.S. soldiers to fight in Vietnam In March of 1965 after consulting with Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara and Sec. of State Dean Rusk Pres. Johnson began to send tens of thousands of U.S. soldiers to fight in Vietnam Polls taken in 1965 showed that 61% of Americans supported Pres. Johnsons policies in Vietnam while only 24% opposed those policies People were afraid that if the U.S. stood back & allowed Vietnam to fall that the Soviets would become more aggressive all over the world & we would be fighting another Vietnam somewhere else in a year People were afraid that if the U.S. stood back & allowed Vietnam to fall that the Soviets would become more aggressive all over the world & we would be fighting another Vietnam somewhere else in a year If we could just stop them in Vietnam we could prevent them from becoming aggressive elsewhere Some people however did warn of impending problems Some people however did warn of impending problems Undersecretary of State George Ball warned that once on the tigers back, we cannot be sure of picking the place to dismount

William Westmoreland The General in Charge of Vietnam was Gen. William Westmoreland The General in Charge of Vietnam was Gen. William Westmoreland By the end of 1965 the U.S. had sent 180,000 Americans to Vietnam By the end of 1965 the U.S. had sent 180,000 Americans to Vietnam Gen. Westmoreland continued to request more troops Gen. Westmoreland continued to request more troops The U.S. was supposed to help & support the (ARVN) Army of the Republic of Vietnam Westmoreland questioned the fighting ability of ARVN & felt the U.S. would need more forces to prevent a communist takeover Johnson believed that maybe a strong showing of support by sending large numbers of combat troops would deter further Soviet support of the Vietcong Johnson believed that maybe a strong showing of support by sending large numbers of combat troops would deter further Soviet support of the Vietcong By 1967 the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam had grown to 500,000 By 1967 the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam had grown to 500,000

Misguided Assumptions Entering the Vietnam war the U.S. felt that its superiority in technology would lead to a quick victory in Vietnam Entering the Vietnam war the U.S. felt that its superiority in technology would lead to a quick victory in Vietnam The jungle terrain, determination of the enemy, and their guerrilla tactics however turned the war into a stalemate Much like the Americans in the Am. Revolution the Vietcong resorted to hit & run tactics Much like the Americans in the Am. Revolution the Vietcong resorted to hit & run tactics Ambushing their opponent & slipping away Using their knowledge of the jungle to harass & lay booby traps for U.S. forces Also they were indistinguishable from the civilian population & were able to move in and out of villages they were able to attack the U.S. forces in the cities & out in the countryside as well as spy on U.S. forces Also they were indistinguishable from the civilian population & were able to move in and out of villages they were able to attack the U.S. forces in the cities & out in the countryside as well as spy on U.S. forces It became nearly impossible for U.S. forces to tell between friend or foe It became nearly impossible for U.S. forces to tell between friend or foe

The Air War The bombing of North Vietnam had little effect The bombing of North Vietnam had little effect The Vietnamese adapted The Vietnamese adapted Concrete and steel bridges were replaced with pontoon bridges made of bamboo pontoon bridges made of bamboo that was sunk during the day to that was sunk during the day to avoid detection avoid detection 50,000 Vietnamese worked full- time to fill bomb craters in roads time to fill bomb craters in roads Trucks traveled at night w/o headlights The Government built 30,000 miles of tunnels tunnels

Tunnels To avoid U.S. firepower the Vietcong built an extremely elaborate tunnel system that connected villages all over the countryside To avoid U.S. firepower the Vietcong built an extremely elaborate tunnel system that connected villages all over the countryside This enabled the Vietcong to withstand aerial attacks & escape from surprise attacks quickly U.S. troops laid landmines throughout the jungle because they didnt know the exact location of the Vietcong U.S. troops laid landmines throughout the jungle because they didnt know the exact location of the Vietcong The Vietcong would then disassemble these landmines & use them to booby trap & set their own landmines in the jungle The Vietcong would then disassemble these landmines & use them to booby trap & set their own landmines in the jungle These mines caused major havoc & grief for the many U.S. patrols that had to go out & navigate the jungle Not knowing where to step & always afraid of being blown up by a trap Above: Vietnam tunnel rats probing a Vietcong tunnel Below: Vietnam patrol walking into the jungle

Tunnels

War of Attrition General Westmoreland decided upon General Westmoreland decided upon a war of attrition a war of attrition One in which they would gradually wear down the Vietcong by inflicting heavy losses The U.S. began to focus on body counts to determine success Problem was that often times these body counts were inflated & even the accurate ones didnt relate to actual success The Vietcong had been fighting for 30 years & morale was not hurt by taking heavy losses The U.S. didnt understand the type of war that was being fought The U.S. didnt understand the type of war that was being fought The U.S. thought in purely military terms & felt that as the body counts rose the Vietcong would give up The Vietcong were fighting for their very existence & were prepared to pay any price They were driving out a foreign occupier it didnt matter to them if that occupier was Japan, France or the U.S. Ironically the mistakes that the U.S. made in terms of their perception of the war were very similar to the mistakes that the British had made during the American Revolution U.S. Marine standing in front of a destroyed Vietcong headquarters

Winning their Hearts and Minds The U.S. tried to win the support of the S. Vietnamese people to limit the effectiveness of the Vietcong The U.S. tried to win the support of the S. Vietnamese people to limit the effectiveness of the Vietcong This proved to be much more difficult than expected Most Vietnamese didnt care what govt their country had & just wanted their lives returned to normal & tended to side with the Vietcong who were fellow Vietnamese people

Friend or Foe? As is often the case with a civil war it became increasingly difficult for U.S. forces to tell the difference between friend & foe As is often the case with a civil war it became increasingly difficult for U.S. forces to tell the difference between friend & foe Soldiers that were subject to ambushes from Vietcong that had blended into the civilian population caused many U.S. soldiers to become increasingly distrustful of all Vietnamese This distrust occasionally developed into outward hostility The U.S. military also used many questionable tactics to root out the Vietcong The U.S. military also used many questionable tactics to root out the Vietcong Napalm, a jelly like gasoline based bomb that set fire to jungle areas was often used Agent Orange a leaf-killing toxic chemical was used to defoliate the jungles that the Vietcong were hiding in Saturation of these weapons often wounded civilians and left villages in ruins Above: Napalm strike on a suspected Vietcong controlled village S of Saigon Below: Children fleeing accidental napalm strike

Agent Orange Children deformed from contact with Agent Orange

Search and Destroy Missions In an effort to uproot the Vietcong the U.S. often sent out Search & Destroy missions to uproot civilians who were suspected of assisting the Vietcong In an effort to uproot the Vietcong the U.S. often sent out Search & Destroy missions to uproot civilians who were suspected of assisting the Vietcong Uprooting civilians, killing their livestock, & burning their villages Many villagers fled into the cities creating mass groups of poor refugees Many villagers fled into the cities creating mass groups of poor refugees 3 million by 1967 Left: U.S. Soldiers on patrol in Vietnam Below: Search and Destroy Mission in a Vietnamese village

Soldiers Burden The first soldiers entering Vietnam believed in the cause of halting the spread of communism & doing their duty like their fathers had in WWII The first soldiers entering Vietnam believed in the cause of halting the spread of communism & doing their duty like their fathers had in WWII Frustration with Vietcong guerilla warfare tactics, frustration with lack of civilian support, frustrations with the brutal jungle conditions, and frustrations with a complete lack of progress despite increasing body counts led low morale of soldiers in Vietnam Frustration with Vietcong guerilla warfare tactics, frustration with lack of civilian support, frustrations with the brutal jungle conditions, and frustrations with a complete lack of progress despite increasing body counts led low morale of soldiers in Vietnam Morale was best in the early stages of war when victory was believed to be soon & the soldiers were made up of primarily enlisted men rather than the overwhelming draft majority of later years Many soldiers turned to alcohol, marijuana & other drugs to cope with their frustrations Many soldiers turned to alcohol, marijuana & other drugs to cope with their frustrations Some soldiers took out their frustrations on the civilian populations, others on their superior officers

Great Society loses to Vietnam As the U.S. involvement in Vietnam increased the nations economy began to suffer. As the U.S. involvement in Vietnam increased the nations economy began to suffer. Inflation rate increased from 2% to 5.5% by 1969 Pres. Johnson introduced a tax increase but had to cut $6 billion from his Great Society programs By 1967 the United States By 1967 the United States had dropped more bombs than in all theaters of WWII had close to a million troops on the ground was spending $2 billion dollars a month on the war Vietnam was the first war in which television had a major impact Vietnam was the first war in which television had a major impact Combat footage appeared in millions of homes nightly Combat footage appeared in millions of homes nightly Became known as the living-room war Became known as the living-room war

Conflicting Reports While the American public was flooded with pictures from battle & optimistic body count statistics While the American public was flooded with pictures from battle & optimistic body count statistics General Westmoreland continually reported that a Vietcong surrender was near General Westmoreland continually reported that a Vietcong surrender was near Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara was quoted as saying that he could see the light at the end of the tunnel Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara was quoted as saying that he could see the light at the end of the tunnel The length of the war & the number of Americans returning in body bags told the American public a different story The length of the war & the number of Americans returning in body bags told the American public a different story 16,000 deaths between 1961-67 Americans couldnt figure out why if we were so powerful why was it taking so long to win Media began talking about a Credibility Gap between what was reported by the Johnson administration & what was really happening Media began talking about a Credibility Gap between what was reported by the Johnson administration & what was really happening Above: General Westmoreland Below: American bodies arriving back in the U.S.

The DRAFT Because of fear of weakening its military readiness in case of another communist threat somewhere else in the world the Johnson administration decided not to call up the National Guards or Army Reserve Because of fear of weakening its military readiness in case of another communist threat somewhere else in the world the Johnson administration decided not to call up the National Guards or Army Reserve Instead they relied heavily on the draft to supply soldiers for Vietnam Consequently most of the soldiers fighting in Vietnam were young (18- 26 years old) As the war in Vietnam drug on more & more people began to oppose the war As the war in Vietnam drug on more & more people began to oppose the war The majority of people that opposed the war were not the middle aged men whom had fought in WWII or Korea but rather the young draft aged youth of America This led many objectors to try to find ways out of military service This led many objectors to try to find ways out of military service Some men tried to get medical deferments from friendly doctors Some men joined the National Guard or Coast Guard to avoid service in Vietnam

Minority Service The most common way for men of draft age to avoid military service was to get a college deferment The most common way for men of draft age to avoid military service was to get a college deferment Young men could enroll in a university & put off his military service The majority of people who could afford to go to college to avoid military service during the 1960s were wealthy white males The majority of people who could afford to go to college to avoid military service during the 1960s were wealthy white males The majority of draftees were lower-class whites or minorities Thus 80% of American soldiers came from lower economic levels

Malcolm X on Vietnam Malcolm X was one of the first Civil Rights leaders Malcolm X was one of the first Civil Rights leaders to speak out against African-American participation in Vietnam As early as December 31, 1964 Malcolm X addressed African- American teenagers in McComb, Mississippi speaking out against African-Americans fighting in Vietnam Malcolm X discussed the hypocrisy that existed in America at that time Malcolm X discussed the hypocrisy that existed in America at that time If it is wrong to be violent defending Black women and Black childrenthen it is wrong for America to draft us and make us violent abroad in defense of her. And if it is alright for America to draft us, and teach us how to be violent in defense of her, then it is right for you and me to do whatever is necessary to defend our own people right here in this country.

Minority Service Not only were there disproportionate numbers of minorities drafted there were also an unequal number of African Americans ground combat troops Not only were there disproportionate numbers of minorities drafted there were also an unequal number of African Americans ground combat troops A-As accounted for 22% of U.S. combat deaths in the first two years of the war while they made up only 11% of the population This inequity led the Defense Department to institute a draft lottery in 1969 to try & even out the numbers This inequity led the Defense Department to institute a draft lottery in 1969 to try & even out the numbers

Minority Service In the early years of the Vietnam war Martin Luther King Jr. kept silent about the war to avoid losing focus on the civil rights movement In the early years of the Vietnam war Martin Luther King Jr. kept silent about the war to avoid losing focus on the civil rights movement By 1967 though King spoke out about the cruel irony of American blacks dying for a country that still treated them as second class citizens By 1967 though King spoke out about the cruel irony of American blacks dying for a country that still treated them as second class citizens We are taking the young black men who had been crippled by our society and sending them eight thousand miles away to guarantee the liberties in Southeast Asia which they have not found in Southwest Georgia and East Harlem Racial hostility led to violence in many platoons and also led to low military morale in Vietnam Racial hostility led to violence in many platoons and also led to low military morale in Vietnam

Women & the USO Though women were not allowed to serve combat duty in the 1960s 10,000 women did serve in Vietnam, mostly as military nurses Though women were not allowed to serve combat duty in the 1960s 10,000 women did serve in Vietnam, mostly as military nurses Thousands volunteered in the American Red Cross and the United Services Organization which delivered hospitality and entertainment to troops abroad Thousands volunteered in the American Red Cross and the United Services Organization which delivered hospitality and entertainment to troops abroad The leader of this USO troop was Bob Hope a comedian that traveled with this variety show to entertain troops all over the world Raquel Welch performing for the troops in a USO show in Vietnam

Hawks vs. Doves Those who strongly opposed the war were known as DOVES Those who strongly opposed the war were known as DOVES Those who strongly felt that the U.S. should unleash its great military force to win the war were known as HAWKS Those who strongly felt that the U.S. should unleash its great military force to win the war were known as HAWKS Despite the very vocal minority the majority of Americans whether opposed to the war or not believed that the actions of protesters were disloyal to the U.S. Despite the very vocal minority the majority of Americans whether opposed to the war or not believed that the actions of protesters were disloyal to the U.S. 70% polled in 1967 felt that protesters were disloyal to U.S. 70% polled in 1967 felt that protesters were disloyal to U.S. They were appalled that people were publicly protesting while Americans were fighting & dying for their country Americans who support U.S. involvement began to demonstrate as well Americans who support U.S. involvement began to demonstrate as well Developing slogans such as Support our men in Vietnam & America Love it or Leave it

Hawks vs. Doves Despite attacks from the Doves for not Despite attacks from the Doves for not withdrawing and attacks from the Hawks for not increasing military power fast enough Johnson remained firm that slow escalation was the way to go The Johnson administration took a hit when The Johnson administration took a hit when Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara resigned to become the head of World Bank McNamara had been the biggest supporter of slow escalation and Johnsons chief war advisor Many in the military attacked Johnson for his micromanagement of the war Many in the military attacked Johnson for his micromanagement of the war Pres. Johnson placed limits on the areas in which the U.S. forces could bomb Weary of military people Johnson demanded that he approve ALL targets in N. Vietnam before they could be bombed The military ordered many bombing halts to show the Vietcong that we were willing to negotiate These halts only allowed the Vietcong to regroup Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara

Opposition to Vietnam

The anti-war protesters were a very divided group The anti-war protesters were a very divided group The New Left viewed the war as a classic example of the way the American ruling class exploited helpless people to sustain a decadent capitalist system The New Left viewed the war as a classic example of the way the American ruling class exploited helpless people to sustain a decadent capitalist system Anti-War Liberals charged that U.S. escalation in Vietnam violated the 1954 Geneva Accords and the Constitution of the U.S. Anti-War Liberals charged that U.S. escalation in Vietnam violated the 1954 Geneva Accords and the Constitution of the U.S. They felt that by backing a corrupt authoritarian government the U.S. was betraying its own principles That the use of napalm & herbicides violated basic standards of human behavior Questioned the validity of the domino theory Made up of a wide group from college students to Army Generals to artists and singers to politicians

Opposition to Vietnam College campuses in the 1960s became much more politically active College campuses in the 1960s became much more politically active Civil rights struggles made many students more politically aware Now Vietnam gave them another cause The growing youth movement became known as the New Left The growing youth movement became known as the New Left Organizations such as the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) claimed that the U.S. had been taken over by corporations and large government institutions Free Speech Movement (FSM) started in 1964 at the University of California at Berkeley and began constant protests on campus In April of 1965 SDS organized a march on Washington D.C. that included nearly 20,000 protesters In April of 1965 SDS organized a march on Washington D.C. that included nearly 20,000 protesters In November a protest rally in Washington drew In November a protest rally in Washington drew more than 30,000 In February of 1966 Pres. Johnson announced that In February of 1966 Pres. Johnson announced that deferments would only be granted to college students that were in good academic standing This set off protests on college campuses all across the nation The SDS actively counseled students to flee to Canada or Sweden 400 campuses had an active SDS chapter by 1969

Opposition to Vietnam Reasons for opposition varied Reasons for opposition varied The most common was the belief that the conflict in Vietnam was a civil war & the U.S. had no business being involved Many felt that the oppressive regime in South Vietnam was no better than the communists they were fighting Some felt that the U.S. shouldnt be policing the globe Others were just morally against war Popular singers of the day such as Peter, Paul & Mary; Joan Baez etc used music as a way to protest the war Popular singers of the day such as Peter, Paul & Mary; Joan Baez etc used music as a way to protest the war They pointed out the fact that an American male could be drafted at age 18 but had to be 21 to vote for or against the people that were sending them to war

Opposition to Vietnam Although the opposition to Vietnam was a small group they were visible and articulate Although the opposition to Vietnam was a small group they were visible and articulate Singer Joan Baez refused to pay that portion of her income tax that went to the defense budget Muhammad Ali declared himself a conscientious objector and refused induction into the army Captain Howard Levy used the doctrine of individual responsibility set forth at the Nuremberg war crimes trial of WWII to justify his refusal to train medical teams for combat in Vietnam Quaker Norman Morrison immolated himself directly below Sec. of Defense Robert McNamaras Pentagon office window in Nov. of 1965 Sen. William Fulbright held nationally televised hearings over the Vietnam War Protestors marched daily around Protestors marched daily around the White House Singer Joan Baez Boxer Muhammad AliSen. William Fulbright

Opposition to Vietnam In the spring of 1967 half a million protesters gathered in Central Park, NYC In the spring of 1967 half a million protesters gathered in Central Park, NYC Chanting Hell, no, we wont go! and Burn cards, not people! Burnt draft cards in a large bonfire In October of 1967 demonstrations at Washington D.C.s Lincoln Memorial drew 75,000 protesters In October of 1967 demonstrations at Washington D.C.s Lincoln Memorial drew 75,000 protesters Of those 30,000 locked arms & marched on the Pentagon They were met by military police 1,500 demonstrators were injured and 700+ arrested

Draft Dodgers Men such as David Harris spent 20 months in jail rather than serving in Vietnam Men such as David Harris spent 20 months in jail rather than serving in Vietnam From 1967 until the end of the war 200,000+ were accused by the govt of some sort of draft offense From 1967 until the end of the war 200,000+ were accused by the govt of some sort of draft offense Nearly 4,000 draft resisters were imprisoned 30,000 Americans fled the country to avoid service 30,000 Americans fled the country to avoid service Most to Canada

Legacy of Opposition to Vietnam The impact of the antiwar protestors has been controversial The impact of the antiwar protestors has been controversial Dissent in the United States undoubtedly encouraged Hanoi to hold out for victory Dissent in the United States undoubtedly encouraged Hanoi to hold out for victory But nothing says they would have gave up any sooner Anti-War protests did not turn the American people against the war Anti-War protests did not turn the American people against the war Many Americans found the radical and hippie elements more obnoxious than the war Protests may have even strengthened support for the war The protests did expose error and self-deception in the government and encourage distrust of political authority The protests did expose error and self-deception in the government and encourage distrust of political authority The protests did cause fatigue and anxiety among the policy makers and the public The protests did cause fatigue and anxiety among the policy makers and the public Which led to a shortening of the war

Helicopter War The Helicopter became a The Helicopter became a very important part of the Vietnam war These gun ships were used These gun ships were used to move small platoons of soldiers in and out of jungle areas Since their was not solid front the helicopters allowed armies to be more mobile Since their was not solid front the helicopters allowed armies to be more mobile They were also great to evacuate wounded or to bring in supplies into dense jungle area They were also great to evacuate wounded or to bring in supplies into dense jungle area

Helicopter War The Helicopter was also used to provide artillery support for ground troops The Helicopter was also used to provide artillery support for ground troops Because of the dense jungle it was difficult to locate targets at high speed with jet aircrafts The helicopter with its slower speed & ability to hover was a perfect tool for providing air artillery Many helicopter patrols would go out and interdict Vietcong supply lines Many helicopter patrols would go out and interdict Vietcong supply lines

Tet Offensive On January 30, 1968 the Vietnamese began the Tet holiday On January 30, 1968 the Vietnamese began the Tet holiday Tet was the Vietnamese New Year (Lunar year began) Throughout the day villagers took advantage of the week long truce and flooded into the cities across S. Vietnam to celebrate the New Year Throughout the day villagers took advantage of the week long truce and flooded into the cities across S. Vietnam to celebrate the New Year Many funerals for war victims were being held at this same time With the funerals came firecrackers, flutes, & coffins Rather than dead bodies however the coffins contained weapons & many of the villagers were Vietcong agents Rather than dead bodies however the coffins contained weapons & many of the villagers were Vietcong agents That night the Vietcong launched an overwhelming attack on over 100 towns and cities in S. Vietnam as well as 12 U.S. air bases That night the Vietcong launched an overwhelming attack on over 100 towns and cities in S. Vietnam as well as 12 U.S. air bases Even attacking the U.S. embassy at Saigon, killing 5 Americans Above: U.S. marines fighting at the S. Vietnamese city of Hue during the Tet offensive Below: Wounded soldiers

Tet Offensive

The Tet offensive lasted for a month before the U.S. and S. Vietnamese regained control of the cities The Tet offensive lasted for a month before the U.S. and S. Vietnamese regained control of the cities The U.S. claimed the Tet offensive to be an overwhelming victory for the U.S. The U.S. claimed the Tet offensive to be an overwhelming victory for the U.S. Militarily it was the Vietcong lost 32,000 soldiers in the month long battle U.S. & ARVN lost only about 3,000 Psychologically and politically Tet was a major defeat for the U.S. Psychologically and politically Tet was a major defeat for the U.S. The American public had been told time and again that the Vietcong were on the ropes & near defeat The American public had been told time and again that the Vietcong were on the ropes & near defeat If that were true how were they able to launch an offensive of this magnitude? President Johnsons credibility with the American people took a major hit President Johnsons credibility with the American people took a major hit Above: the charred remains of a Vietcong Right: Wounded U.S. soldiers during Tet Below: Pres. Johnson

Tet Offensive The image of assassination made a permanent impact on the consciousness of many Americans The image of assassination made a permanent impact on the consciousness of many Americans Despite atrocities on both sides the brutality made many question the purpose of the war Nguyen Ngoc Loan, Chief of the South Vietnamese national police assassinated a Vietcong captive

Aftermath of the Tet Offensive In a matter of weeks millions of Americans changed their minds about the war in Vietnam In a matter of weeks millions of Americans changed their minds about the war in Vietnam The percent of people who claimed to be hawks dropped from 56% before Tet to just 40% after while Doves rose from 28% to 40% The percent of people who claimed to be hawks dropped from 56% before Tet to just 40% after while Doves rose from 28% to 40% Even the mainstream journalists began to openly criticize the war Even the mainstream journalists began to openly criticize the war Walter Cronkite one of the most Walter Cronkite one of the most respected journalists of the day began to claim that the war in Vietnam would end in a stalemate Prompting Pres. Johnson to say that if Ive lost Cronkite then Ive lost the American people Walter Cronkite

Aftermath of the Tet Offensive Pres. Johnson replaced McNamara with Clark Clifford a supporter of Johnsons policy Pres. Johnson replaced McNamara with Clark Clifford a supporter of Johnsons policy After assuming the post Clifford decided that the war & Vietnam was a sinkhole with no end in sight Johnsons popularity plummeted after the Tet offensive Johnsons popularity plummeted after the Tet offensive Polls taken after Tet indicated 60% disapproval of his handling of the Vietnam war Almost half of the country now believed Almost half of the country now believed that it was a mistake to send troops to Vietnam War weariness set in and people began War weariness set in and people began to look for a way out Sec. of Defense Clark Clifford

Aftermath of the Tet Offensive Pres. Johnson listening to tapes of combat during the Tet Offensive

The Election of 1968 By 1968 the war in Vietnam was going badly & the Democratic party was split By 1968 the war in Vietnam was going badly & the Democratic party was split New York Senator Robert Kennedy announced that he would not run for president but fellow Senator Eugene McCarthy from Minnesota did choose to run In the March New Hampshire primary McCarthy only lost to the President 42% to 48% After this primary Senator Kennedy announced his candidacy The Democratic party became a house divided. The Democratic party became a house divided. Senator Eugene McCarthy Senator Robert F. Kennedy

The Election of 1968 On March 31, 1968 President Johnson made On March 31, 1968 President Johnson made a televised address to the nation announcing a dramatic change in the U.S.s policy toward Vietnam He said that the U.S. would seek negotiations to end the war, American escalation would end and steps would be made to ensure that the South Vietnamese played a larger role At the end of his speech President Johnson paused & then shocked the nation by announcing that he would not seek another term as President of the U.S. At the end of his speech President Johnson paused & then shocked the nation by announcing that he would not seek another term as President of the U.S. Later Vice President Hubert Humphrey would chose to run for the Democratic nomination as well Later Vice President Hubert Humphrey would chose to run for the Democratic nomination as well Pres. Johnson turns down re-election bid

RFK Assassinated On June 4, two months after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Democratic candidate Sen. Kennedy won the crucial California primary. On June 4, two months after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Democratic candidate Sen. Kennedy won the crucial California primary. Just after midnight on June 5, Sen. Robert Kennedy gave a victory speech in his Los Angeles hotel Just after midnight on June 5, Sen. Robert Kennedy gave a victory speech in his Los Angeles hotel To avoid the crowd Kennedy passed through the hotels kitchen A young Palestinian immigrant Sirhan Sirhan was hiding there with a gun Sirhan who later stated he was upset with Kennedys support of Israel fatally shot Sen. Robert Kennedy

The Election of 1968 After the assassination of Robert Kennedy the Democratic nomination centered around McCarthy & V-P Hubert Humphrey After the assassination of Robert Kennedy the Democratic nomination centered around McCarthy & V-P Hubert Humphrey The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon Richard Nixon promised to restore law & order & vaguely promised to end the war in Vietnam Alabama Governor George Wallace entered the race as an independent third party candidate Alabama Governor George Wallace entered the race as an independent third party candidate Wallace was in favor of school segregation & states rights & pulled many southern voter & even many northern voter that were tired of inner-city riots & anti-war protests

Democratic National Convention 1968 - Chicago

In August nearly 10 thousand anti-war demonstrators converged on the city of Chicago to protest the Democratic National Convention In August nearly 10 thousand anti-war demonstrators converged on the city of Chicago to protest the Democratic National Convention The nomination of the Democratic party had all been decided to go to VP Humphrey who because of his ties to Pres. Johnson was in full support of the U.S. war effort Chicagos Mayor Richard Daley mobilized 12,000 Chicago police and 5,000 National Guard Chicagos Mayor Richard Daley mobilized 12,000 Chicago police and 5,000 National Guard On August 28 th as delegates cast their votes for Humphrey protesters gathered to march on the convention On August 28 th as delegates cast their votes for Humphrey protesters gathered to march on the convention Police sprayed protesters with mace and beat them with nightsticks Protesters then pelted riot-helmeted police with rocks & bottles A riot ensued Inside the convention hall delegates began to argue & bitterly debate an anti-war plank to the party platform; TV cameras caught it all Inside the convention hall delegates began to argue & bitterly debate an anti-war plank to the party platform; TV cameras caught it all

Democratic National Convention 1968 - Chicago Above: Scenes inside the Convention Hall in Chicago Around: Scenes outside the Convention Hall in Chicago

Democratic National Convention 1968 - Chicago President Johnson tried to stage manage the convention President Johnson tried to stage manage the convention The large anti-war delegates from the New York and California delegations were separated and seated in the back of the hall Favorable delegates were seated nearest the podium The mikes were cut several times from the California delegations He ensured that the party would adopt a platform that praised the Presidency policy on Vietnam He ensured that the party would adopt a platform that praised the Presidency policy on Vietnam Protesters on top of the statue in Grant Park

Democratic National Convention 1968 - Chicago In front of the Hilton hotel, the campaign headquarters of Humphrey and McCarthy, people flow into the streets while the National Guard lines up to drive them out.

The Election of 1968 With the Democratic party in turmoil Republican candidate Richard Nixon walked away with the Presidency that had eluded him in 1960 With the Democratic party in turmoil Republican candidate Richard Nixon walked away with the Presidency that had eluded him in 1960 After the 1960 election defeat to Kennedy Nixon ran for Gov. of California in 1962 and lost that one as well Before the election of 1968 Nixons political career was seen as over Nixon had to answer to speculations of improper business dealings & gave his famous I am not a crook speech Richard Nixon won 301 electoral votes to 191 for Hubert Humphrey and 46 for George Wallace Richard Nixon won 301 electoral votes to 191 for Hubert Humphrey and 46 for George Wallace Pres. Richard Nixon

Election of 1968

America in 1968

Counter Culture As people became disenfranchised with the government and societal establishments a counter culture emerged As people became disenfranchised with the government and societal establishments a counter culture emerged Mostly white, middle-class college youths Instead of challenging the system they turned their back on traditional America and tried to establish a whole new society based on peace and love Hippies Harvard Psychology professor Timothy Leary Harvard Psychology professor Timothy Leary began to encourage youth to tune in, turn on, and drop out He also encouraged LSD use as a mind-expanding aid for self-awareness He also encouraged LSD use as a mind-expanding aid for self-awareness Many hippies turned to Eastern religions such as Zen Buddhism that stressed enlightenment through meditation Many hippies turned to Eastern religions such as Zen Buddhism that stressed enlightenment through meditation Hippies wore ragged jeans, tie-dyed T-shirts, love beads and Native American ornaments and grew their hair out Hippies wore ragged jeans, tie-dyed T-shirts, love beads and Native American ornaments and grew their hair out

Communal Living Many hippies left school, work, or home to live in communes Many hippies left school, work, or home to live in communes Members renounced private property Haight-Ashbury became the hippie capital because California did not outlaw hallucinogenic drugs until 1966 Haight-Ashbury became the hippie capital because California did not outlaw hallucinogenic drugs until 1966 The Hippie movement began to decline in the early 1970s The Hippie movement began to decline in the early 1970s Communes became dangerous places to live, violence erupted Drug use caused addiction and mental breakdowns in many Singers Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix died of drug overdoses in the 1970s Ironically thousands of hippies lined up at government offices to collect welfare checks and food stamps Ironically thousands of hippies lined up at government offices to collect welfare checks and food stamps Above: Dennis Hopper in a commune Below: Meditation at a commune Left: Janis Joplin Right: Jimi Hendrix

Rock Music Rock n Roll became the anthem of the counter culture Rock n Roll became the anthem of the counter culture The Beatles a British band from Liverpool burst on to the scene in 1964 The Beatles a British band from Liverpool burst on to the scene in 1964 Beatle mania set records in sales Beatle mania set records in sales Song lyrics spoke of the Song lyrics spoke of the discontent with the government & the Vietnam War Songs spoke of drug use & Songs spoke of drug use &rebellion

Woodstock

Woodstock In August of 1969 on a farm in upstate New York 400,000 people showed up for a free music festival called Woodstock Music and Art Fair In August of 1969 on a farm in upstate New York 400,000 people showed up for a free music festival called Woodstock Music and Art Fair For three days some of the most popular bands performed such as: Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Joe Cocker, and Joan Baez Represented the movement for peace and for peace andlove Above: Jimi Hendrix Below: The Grateful Dead

Documents

Vietnam & the 1970’s. French Indochina The territory that would become known as The territory that would become known as Vietnam was a colony of France