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Vermont Hydroelectric Development Handbook

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Acknowledgments

This book represents the efforts of staff members of the Vermont Public Service Board and theVermont Agency of Environmental Conservation. Public Service Board engineers Wayne Foster andGordon Stensrud contributed to writing and editing. Thomas Willard, Leonard Gerardi, Angelo Incerpi,and Eldon Morrison of the Agency of Environmental Conservation reviewed and commented on sec't ions pertaining to environmental impact.

The authors would l ike to thank the fol lowing persons for information and crit iques. R. Stephen Klein'schmidt, Fred Ayer, and B. Hayward Adams of Kleinschmidt and Dutt ing gave generously of t ime andexperience to critique the technical and licensing aspects of the manual. Phil Rettger of Essex Develop-ments Associates, Roger Lamson, and Richard Hungerford contributed their experience as developersof small hydro. Stephen Carr of the Chittenden Bank offered advice on private f inancing. RaymondDe Forge of Green Mountain Power critiqued the operations and maintenance section. Porter Clevelandof GMP f urnished many wonderf ul photos of faci l i t ies in earl ier years.

Figure Gredits

Figures 2.3, 2.7, 3.2, 3.3, 8.1 and 9.1 are reprinted with permission of Green Mountain Power Company,Montpelier, VT.

Figure 2.1. is modif ied f rom an or ig inal drawing by Al l is-Chalmers. Repr inted with permission.

FiguresA and B are reprinted with permission from Hans Haumberger, Technical l l lustrator, The Na't ional Center for Appropriate Technology, P.O. Box 3838, Butte, MT.

Figures 3.1,4.1, 5.1 are modif ied f rom those prepared by Kleinschmidt and Dutt ing, Pittsf ield, ME.

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Figure 2.1 Typical Vermont Hydropower Instal lat ion. The wal ls of the powerhouse and intake structure are removed tol l lustrate t i rd project works: (1) Dam with f lashboards, (2) waste gates and gatehouse, (3) intake forebay, (4) t rash racks,(5) intake gate, (6) intake gate hoist , (7)penstock, (8)shut-of f valve, (9) turbine, (10)draf t tube, (11)generator, (12)switchgear, (13) t ransformer, (14) c i rcui t breaker, (15) draf t tube gate and hoist .

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Turbines

There are two general types of turbines, impulseand reaction turbines. Both convert energy in waterinto mechanical energy, but by different means.lmpulse turbines direct water through a nozzle atthe runner blade, converting the water energy intokinetic or velocity energy. lmpulse turbines aremore suitable for high head applications, sincesmall volumes a t a high velocity can turn the turbinerunner at a reasonable speed. A common type ofimpulse turbine is the Pelton Wheel (Fig. A). Reactionturbines wo rk on a dif ferent principle. Water f lowsequally over all the runner blad€s,' both the press ureand velocity of the water cause the runner to turn.The draft tube has a vacuum in it that helps pull thewater th roug h. A com m on reaction tu rbine, nowused chief ly af sifes with moderate heads, is theFrancis turbine (Fig. B). Propeller turbines operateon the same principle as the Francis and are usedat low head sifes. Propeller turbines can be installedvertically, horizontally, or on a s/a nt (Fig. C).

Figure B Francis Turbine,

Figure C ProPel ler Turbine'instal led at a s lant .

This turbine maY also be

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Figu re 2.6 A Modem (1950's) Powerhouse-faci l i ty is an addi t ion to a f lood control dam1930's.

The powerhouse containS the power equipment( turbine, generator, governor, switch gear, etc.) .

The bui ld ing var ies in s ize, design, and construct iondepending on the size and or ientat ion of the equip-ment, and aesthet ic pref erences of the owner andcommunity (Fig .2.6).

Water energy is converted by the turbine into

mechanical energy, which is then immediatelyconverted into electr ical energy by the generator.

The inset br ief ly descr ibes types of turbines. Sui t -

able equipment to start , stop, and regulate the

mechanical energy output of the turbine are provided.

Water that has passed through the tu rbine exi tsthrough the draf t tube, into the ta i l race canal andback into the r iver (Fig. 2.7). The draf t tube out letis below the level of the r iver to form a seal ; theresul t ing vacuum al lows the head between the tur-bine and the tai lwater to be used ( in the case of areact ion turbine).

The turbine is connected by a shaf t to the rotor

of an electr ic generator, which produces electr ic i tyat i ts output terminals. The turbine and generator

must be matched in s ize so that their power rat ingsare s imi lar . l f a turbine is too large for the generator,

water may be wasted, oI the generator may burn out.

Generated electr ic i ty is conducted through the

switch gear and i ts controls before enter ing the

substat ion. The switch gear, located on the power-

house control panel , contains switches, f l lays andother electr ical devices for connect ing, d isconnect-ing, protect ing, and monitcr ing the generator out-put. The control panel may also display meters f or

The powerbui l t in the

Figure 2.7 Excavated Tai l race Underconstruct ion. The concrete form for the

draf t tube out let for the powerhousepictured in Figure 2.6. The circular sect ionis where the draf t tube wi l l be located.The water level r ises above the out let .

.:$it:

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F,-+,,,,1 ,,, ,.,,,It,']., ,

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uo!leladO lueld

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to cAecK€cK

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hKYAa, vlsTOr(lq;zv-ffifa,ni

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Figure 3.1 Flow Chart . Steps in prel iminary evaluat ion.

sA^ I s*t/ sn

10

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/noll lo spJocoJ lecuolslLl'uo!l!ppe ul 'sacJnosou

roleM lo luotuuedao luoulron oql ro (scsn) Aarung

lec!$ogoeg salels pollun aLll ruorl alqelle^e sl sulseq

JaAtJ luorulan Jol aOeuleJp lo scl1spolceleqc pue

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u!P}qoo}}|ncI}}IpoJoujua}los!B}ep/v\o|}oL|I

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^q uJep aLll le pojnseau aq uec dotp leclua^ aql

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uollenle^3 lelluelod rafnod

'gsd oLll ,{q mel^oj0ulsuacrl or.ll oI sa;1red fuotnlels aq lll/v\ suo!ssltu-ruoc 0uluueld qloq ocurs'passaJppp aq lsnu lBrllsanss! lecol uo uo!lerujolu! Jol ,{ttt!cBl pasodotdaql Jeau sjau/v\o Ayadord pue'suolss!Luruoc 0u1u-ueld leuo;0er pue lecol aLll lceluoc plnoLls redo;an-op orll'salcueOe olels 0ullceluoc ol uolllppe ul

'll xlpuaddV u I pau !eluocsr sossalppe J!aql pue sa!cuaOe lo lsll V 'sanssr

lpcllpc alqrssod lo uolssncslp polrelap e suleluoc nraldeqC 'uaql qll/vr lpop ol sAern pue sonssr lecllpcoJoldxa ol pauJacuoc ,{cue0e ,{rena Ll}l/v\ }ce}uocsnoaupllnurs Llsllqelso uec radotanap aLll ocurspapuauuocol sl alnpocord re1lel aLlI'gpls gsd

^q pa0ueJre 0ullaau dnor0 e u! ro,{llenpl^lpu! raq}loredola^ap aql ,{q pa}ce}uoc aq plnolls sarcuaOe llv'pollnsuoc aq lsnul uolleyodsuell lo luoruueda6aql 'polecolaJ aq lsnrrt peol e ll 'lcalord aLl] ]noqesujacuoc a^eq ,{eu osle acll}o 0uluueld a}e}s aLlI

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lPJnlcauqcJe 'cttolslLl lo salls Aue JaLllaLl/v\ auluJalap

loo[ord e 0ulU!rured ro 0ulsuoc!l '0ulpunl {cue0e

lBJapol aql leql aJlnbat rsuo!le;nOat leJapa3

'A;1soc oq ol anold ,{tqtssod ,{etu s}uorualtnbar le}uour-uojtAUa lo uollcBlsrlPs acuts'sonssl leluauuoJtA-uo leclllrc 0uluracuoc polceluoc oq plnoqs (CfV)uolleruosuoc leluauuoJ!Au:l lo ,{cuaov oql '}sJIlpalceluoc oq plnoqs pue 'sle11euj Jo/v\odorpr{rt uo,{cueOe o}e}s peol orl} se s}ce (gSa) preog ac!ruasc!lq nd aql 'alq rssod se uoos sp so!cue0e luarrl-uJo^o0 alegrdordde lceluoc plnoqs ladola^ap V

suJacuoc lelueuuJa^oc

'uollesuedruoc lsnI qttrn 'uleruop ]uaululo Aq uale] oq,{eu }! 'CU3J r{q pasuacllsl }co[ord aq] oul] aq]

^q polrnbce aq louupc Ayadotd fuessacou aL{} lle ll'oJnllnctJ0e ro; posn Jo uodn lllnq ,{;luesetd oq }L{Olutpuel lPql acu!s r{l|e;cadsa'sjau/v\o }uaJJnc aLl} tl}!MpalelloOeuoJ aq plnoLls 'Jau/v\o ruep Jotulol aql

^q poJrnbce ala/n slLl0lt pue lsPd atll ul papooll sem l! l!ua^a 'popooll aq ol 0u!o0 sl leql puel ueallsdn olslrl0;r aql'lltnqoJ aq ol st uep paqceoJq e ll '(ecltlo

s,xJalc u/v\ol aql u! alll uo r{llensn) spaap plo l.uoJlopeu aq lsnul slLl0lt tale/v\ lo sJaumo Jol LlcJeos Ppue 'slr.l0;r rale/v\ otll opnlcul lou op uallo Ayadoldueltedp ol spaap luoJJnC 'll OulpunolJns ,{padotd aq}ruoll Ateletedas plos Jo pau/v\o aq uec Jale/n otll asnol lrl0ll otll '(,{erua}e/v\ leJn}eu e lo Xueq oq} uopalecol puel 'o'l) puel ue;red;t lo Joumo ue ,{q Ja}e/v\

lo osn Jo ol ssaoce lo ltl0lJ aql se pau!lop aq uecsttll1 ueltedrU 'lcalla ut st /v\el Jalem ueltedtt 'se1e1suJalsea oLll to lsal aql u! sB'luol.uJon ul 'uep e loOutplrnqor Aq petepunut aq lll^^ leql puel ,{ue o1 (aseal,{q ro aal u! JoLl}lo) al}!} Jealc a^eq }snru Jedola^ap

V 'ter{rvre; e lo dtaq aq} Ll}l/vl 'paulujJo}ap aq }sj!lplnoLls olls aql le slq0p ralem lo dttlsraumo aql

sltl6lU ralPn

'L't '0tf u! palcldap s; '{pn}s fueululllald aq} ;o saOe}saLll Oullerlsnlll Ueqc /v\oll V 'eOels sltll le parlLlaq luellnsuoc pacuat1edxa ue IEL{} papuagUocaJ

'{l0uoJ}S S! }! 'pa4 u!ulul aq }snu S}Soc uol}cnl}suocoJoLl/v\ slca[ord u! Alte;cads3 'suo!]elnclec le!]-ualod larvrod fueulullald lcaLlc ol 0ullll/v\ aq plnoqsraau;Oue ll^lc leco; e '1see; fuen aql lV 'Apnls fueulLull-atd aql Jol paJlLl aq plnoLls luellnsuoc 0ut.taeul0-uo ue 'lcalord aLl] to az!s oU] uo 0ulpuadaq ']uouJ

-dolanap lo slllauaq pue slsoc alenlena pue 'SanSSt

letcos Jo leluoutuoJt^uo leclllJc {lttuap! 's}L{0lJge0ag au!uJalop plnoLls uo!lenle^o fueuluJ;latd V'sasuac!l leJapal pue alels Jol 0ulAldde pue Apnls

cnllouoca pue'leluauuo1lnua'0ulloau;Oua pallelap

e 0ulleyapun orolaq alqelllold aq lllM luaudola^-ap e leql alns Alrre; aq plnoLls ladola^ap V

i

I

uollenle^f olls fiteulutllard'll l

on a monthly and year ly basis, obtained f rom USGSriver gauging stat ions on many r ivers, are avai lableat the Department of Water Resources.

Average annual f low data is suf f ic ient for a roughprel iminary assessment of power potent ia l and isadequate for the very f i rst analysis of a s i te. Infor-mat ion concerning f low f luctuat ions, however, isabsolutely necessary for fur ther studies, not onlyto more accurately predict power potent ia l , but a lsoto ascertain the feasibi l i ty of hydroelectr ic develop-ment at extremes of f low ( f lood and drought) . l fthe USGS does not have informat ion for f low at asi te, f low data f rom a nearby index stat ion can beadjusted, or index stat ion informat ion on a r iverwith a s imi lar drainage area and runoff character-ist ics can be used.

The bibl iography contains references to manualsthat explain how head and f low can be measuredfor a smal l project . In the case of a larger dam, i t isrecommended that: a surveyor be hired to determinehead, f low data located in state f i les be used when-ever possible, and a consul t ing engineer be hiredto perform or ver i fy in i t ia l calculat ions of poweravai labi l i ty ( instal led capaci ty) . See the inset f oran example of in i t ia l calculat ions.

once a theoret ical instal led capaci ty is obtained,the services of a consul tant wi l l probably be neededto calculate whether there is f low at a s i te enoughof the t ime to instal l that amou nt of capaci ty,especial ly in the case of a plant that wi l l operateas "run of the r iver." Using what is known as a f lowdurat ion curve (see glossary), the consul tant wi l ldraw up a curve that shows the amount of energyprod uced an nual ly as a f u nct ion of the instal ledcapaci ty. l t should be easy to see from this curve arange within which an instal led capaci ty can bechosen that wi l l maximize energy output.

l f a s i te is f arge enough, a consuf tant may invest i -gate the power potent ia l at three or four di f ferentinstal led capaci t ies corresponding to a range ofhead and f low condi t ions. corresponding averageannual energy outputs wi l l be est imated, as wel las the range of outputs by month and over the years.

Exist ing Faci l i t ies Assessmentl f there is developable power potent ia l , the de-

veloper and consul tant should assess the dam, theimpoundment, and any structures or equipmentthat may be at the s i te.

A visual inspect ion of the dam may reveal surfacecracks, hol€s, leaks, and crumbl ing masonry orconcrete. As wi th assessment of power potent ia l(and other aspects of development) , a prel iminaryreview of dam safety by alayman must not be sub-

Power Potent ia l Determinat ion

A simple calculation using f low and head at theproject yields approximate power availability. Thef orm u la used is;

Pp= Qxh

709where:P1 = power in k i lowattsO = dV€rage annual f low in cubic feet per minute

(cFM)h = net head709 - a constant der ived f rom the densi ty of water

at 62.4 pounds per cubic foot

Flow might be expressed in cubic f eet per secondor gallons per minute. Multiply CFS by 60 to obtainCFM. Divide gallons per minute by 7.a8 b obtain CFM.

For exam ple, a f low of 20A CFS (12000 CF M) anda net head of 25 feet would work out as fol lows:

Pl -709 709

= 423 KW

The f igure of 423 KW represenfs the theoreticalpower available, which is more than the generatingequipment wi l l produc€, since al l equipment wi l loperate af /ess than 100 percent eff iciency. A reason-able approximation is 85 percent eff iciency f or theturbine generator unit, thus:

423 KW x .85 eff ic iency = 360 KW

The /as t f igure represenfs the power that mightbe available in a stream. The one or more turbine'generafors ins tal led wil l have approximately thispower rating. The power rating is a/so called installedcapac ity.

st i tuted for a professional examinat ion. The StateDepartment of Water Resources employs a structuralengineer famil iar with the condit ion of many Vermontdams and who would be wi l l ing to help assess adam's structural integr i ty. The Army Corps of En-gineers (Corps) has conducted dam safety inspec-t ions on numerous dams in Vermont, that data alsobeing available from Water Resources or from theCorps.

Histor ic records or s igns of f lood damage aroundand below a dam may be evidence that the spi l lwayhas not been able to pass a f lood (Fig.3,2). l f i t ap-pears l ikely that th is might be a problem, the feasi-bi l i ty study wi l l have to include the cost of redesignof the spi l lway.

12

OL

'n raldpLlC u ! pollelap se ,{pn}s Ay llq-tseal aLll rol s!sBq aql se saruas osle ll '(A; taldeLlc)al!s aLll dola^ap ol llrured fueulullald e rol sa!ldderadola^ap aLll uollm pue ll (cu3J) uo!ssrrrrr.lrocArolelnOau ,{0rauf lprapoJ aLl} o} }lqlqxa ue sepasn aq uec uodar slLll- 'elqedolo^ap suaas lcololdaql ll 0ulleclpu! uodar uor.ls e olul palerodjoculaq plnoLls,{pn1s fueululllard aLl} lo s0ulpull aLlr

lrodag

'0u!cueu!l toApnls pallBlap oJotu e su!eluoc lln JaldeL{C 's}uet0

lelopo3 ro Ourcupu!l alenrrd ol pre0e: ut polceluoo aqplnoqs slelclllo

^0reu3 lo luauyedeg 'olqtseal sl

luourdola^ap (Llolr.lA /v\oloq Jo) LlclLl/v\ lp lsaJalul looler B aleclpul plnoL{s srsr{leue }l}ouoq-}soc aLlI

6u Icu eu !J

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^q pled eq ol oclrd oLll

^q poltdlilnLU

palereue0 HMy lenuup oLll 0ul,{ldl}lnLU Aq poutru-rolop aq uec palejeuao ,{olouo }o anle^ lenuue oql'A0roua lEOrJloola lo alps oL.ll tuoJl opeu ,{euou lolunoup aLll asJnoc lo s! paulelqo oq ol ltlouaq oL{I

'(stsoc Iuau-dola^ap lplol lo %gl,{llensn) uols!ruedns uo!}cnr}s-uoc pue'0u!suoc!l 'u0rsep Jol sool 0uuaou;0uasE Llcns slsoc lcoJ!pul pue 'slsoc ocueuoluleupuP suollpjado's1so3 luaulsa^ul olBLUIlso plnollsluellnsuoc oL{}'s1soc uo!}cnJ}suo3 or{} soplsog'osle polelnclec oq plnoqs luecrad gL lo ocue/v\olle,{cuaOu!}uoc uol}cnl}suoc teuol}lppe uV'}unocoeolur sajnspau L{cns ole} o} }uacjad 97 ,{q posBojculaq oleu llso lsoc uollcnJlstroo aql lpLll slsa00nsqunLll lo alnr poo0 e ipeppe oq plnoqs Llyol ospue 'sa1rs ctJolslLl 'luouluoJtAuo aLll plen0ales oluolel soJnspau lo slsos orll'poleu!lsa r{tti0nolaq plnoqs uolllslnbce puel pue'aseqcrnd luoru-drnbe 'uorlcnllsuoc pue 'sleder lo slsoc 1e1rde3

suollel ncl ec I lleuag.lsoc rfu eu I ut Ilard'Janomoq'0ulLlsl

-u!rx!p ^lprder

st luaurdrnba pasn olqp!loJ pup olpslo ,{lddns aLl} jteq^ oruos pala}le oq Aeu o}eLU!}solsoc aL{} 'pautp}qo oq uec }uotudlnba pesn olqellal }l 'fuessocou lou sr saleu cr;rceds lo acloLlc pue luau

'll!s ra^ru !ISooulMpulqaq uMopMerc

lo ^llluenb

e polea^ar seq uep aql'uollellrs luaupunodurg e't a,rn013

-dlnbe ramod eql lo lnoAel lenlcB ar.ll'a0e1s sltll lV'uo!lpLU !lsa lsoc Jol stseq e se aruos ol uo!leleua0rervrod rc1 frrcssacou luaudlnba llP lo uollPulLUJalapq0nor p aleu ol alqe oq plnoqs luellnsuoc aql

'(uotssncs!P JoLlUnl Jol lllAreldeqC aas) 'uotlonllsuoc 0u;lnp polllsap aq ol a^Bq,{eu puod oll}'Lualqotd slLl} to Atlra^as oLl} uodn0ulpuedag '(e'e 'Otf ) sreeA aql ro^o pal;sodap slrqopJorllo pue';anelO 'll!s lo llnl aq ,{er,u puod aql

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CNNA.ERCIALffiRAttaU

14

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^q poillurqns

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^q posuocll aq lsnu slco[otd asaq]

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lsoc ltlOltu pue 'solcuaOe alels pue CH3J ^q

/v\al^aJJol aJorrt Jo sLlluotu xls tlll/v\ aledetd ol stlluorrto/vU oxpl ltl0!trl 'a;duexa Jol'al!s My 009 e Jol suo!l-eclldde osuacllaLll'ol!s oLll lo azls aql uo'aslnoc

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siltujAd puB sasuec!-l 'nl

As in the case with the FERC l icenc€, ? developerwi l l not f i le a formal appl icat ion wi th the PSB for acert i f icate unless the project seems feasible. Be-fore f i l ing, the developer must send si te plans andpref i led test imony to the appropr iate municipal orregional p lanning commission, which has a 45-dayper iod to make recommendat ions.s

Pref i led test imony consists of a wr i t ten state-ment, e i ther in narrat ive or quest ion-and-answerform, by each witness discussing var ious issuesof the project .

After the 45-day wait ing period, a pet i t ion is f i led,accompanied by the prefi led testimony and exhibits.The pet i t ion, which can be in the form of a let ter ,states that the appl icant proposes to construct ahydroelectric plant at a certain location, and explainsthat the project complies with the criteria set forth inthe statute. The appl icat ion is designed to demon-strate that the project wi l l not interfere wi th theorderly development of the region and wi l l not havean "undue adverse ef fect" on aesthet ics, h istor icsi tes, air and water puri ty, the natural environment,and publ ic heal th and safety. Exhibi ts (see below)are avai lable for review by var ious state agencies(the statute enumerates them), which make theirrecommendat ions known to the Publ ic ServiceBoard at the publ ic hear ing. Most cr i t ical issuesinvolving these agencies should have been resolvedbefore submission of the appl icat ion.

I t rnay be possible to submit the FERC l icenseappl icat ion as an exhibi t in the 248 hearing. l t is l ikelythat the state wi l l require addi t ional informat ion,especial ly concerning environmental , aesthet ic,and social issues. In any event, the exhibi ts shouldinclude a map with the locat ion of the proposedproject , a project s i te plan, ?nd any other charts ori l lustrat ions that wi l l c lar i fy aspects of the project .

l f the Public Service Board does issue a Certif icateof Publ ic Good, review of subsequent detai led

8lf they do not respond within 45 days, they do not for fe i tto make recommendat ions at the hear ing.

eAccording to Publ ic Law 92-500 (Federal Water Pol lut ionof 1972 as amended by the Clean Water Act of 1977\

their r ight to

Control Act

design plans and plant construct ion may be a con-di t ion of the issuance.

401 Water Qual i ty Cert i f icateFERC wi l l not issue a l icense unt i l the state cert i -

f ies that the project meets state and federal waterqual i ty standards.n rhis cert i f icate, known as a"401 Cert i f icate" is obtained through the Depart-ment of Water Resources. The consul tant mustprepare a letter, accompanied by exhibits, describingthe impact of the development on water qual i ty andf isher ies (see Chapter V for a detai led discussionof water qual i ty) . The issuance of the cert i f icatesigni f ies that the Department of Water Resourcesis sat isf ied that the project does not v io late waterqual i ty standards. The approval of the Departmentof water Resources does not mean that the Agencyof Environmental Conservation as a whole approvesof the project , however, s ince the Agency mightrecommend against the project on such groundsas impact on r iver recreat ion.

Dredging and Fi l l ing Permitsl f a project involves excavat ion as for an impound-

ment or f i l l ing as for a new dam, the consul tantshould apply to the Army Corps of Engineers andto the State of Vermont for the requis i te permits.These appl icat ions are usual ly made after the FERClicense is filed and involve fairly detailed design plans.

The Arrny Corps of Engineers requires a "404Permit" '0 i f any f i l l is to be deposi ted in any water-way with a discharge over 5 CFS, and a "sect ion 10Permit"" i f there is to be dredging in any navigablewaterway (most Vermont r ivers are considerednavigable).

In addi t ion, the Protect ion Div is ion of the AEc,through the Distr ict Environmental Off ice, reguiresa Stream Alterat ion Permit '2 i f dredging or f i l l ingof 10 cubic yards or greater wi l l be performed in astream with a watershed of 10 square mi les or more.

'033 U.S.C. 1344"33 U.S.C. 403"10 V.S.A. Chapter 41, Subchapter 2, S 1021

II

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16

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I

Apnts Alllqlseal aql'n

feasibi l i ty studies. Al though there is compet i t ionfor only l imi ted funds, government programs areworth invest igat ing, through the PSB, the VermontEnergy Off ice, or the U.S. Department of Energy inBoston or ldaho. Depending on the si te and thesource of Fed eral f unding, a more detai led andtherefore more costly study may be required, however.

Engineer ing StudiesSeveral schemes for development wi l l be invest i -

gated in the f easibi l i ty study. The prod uct of theengineer ing study should be a plan showing thelayout of a l l works, a long with prel iminary structuralplans of the dam, spi l lway, penstock, etc. Theturbine and generator should be sized accordingto f low var iabi l i ty and their layout descr ibed. Aprel iminary design of the electr ical systems shouldbe performed as wel l .

Fees for engineer i ng and design are usual lycalculated as 10 to 20 percent of total developmentcosts. The smal ler the project is , the larger the feewi l l be in proport ion to development costs, s incethe same number of tasks must be undertaken f orsmal l as wel l as large projects.

EquipmentAl though several establ ished American f i rms

manufacture hydroelectr ic equipment, most equip-ment current ly on the market is of European designand manuf acture. Several f oreign f i rms, af f i l iatedwith U.S. companies, are planning manufactur ingplants in th is country. A consul tant therefore, hasa wide var iety of equipment to choose f rom for apart i c u lar appl icat i on.

Tu rbines, generators, and other eq u ipment canbe purchased in a package uni t or separately.Separate components may be less expensive init ial ly,but may prove to be incompat ib le in operat ion.The select ion and proper matching of machinery,both to the site, and to the other machinery, requiresthe services of an exper ienced consu l tant .

Economic StudiesBased on the prel iminary cost-benef i t analysis

and subsequent study f indings, a calculat ion ismade of total project costs and compared with thebenef i ts der ived from sel l ing electr ic i ty. As wi thany endeavor, the project is feasible from the economicpoint of v iew i f costs are met and a reasonablereturn on investment is real ized.

Total development costs include the fol lowing:capi ta l costs (study costs, l icense fees, land acqui-s i t ion costs, construct ion costs), f ixed charges(taxes, insurance, depreciat ion, interest on loans),and operat ing and maintenance costs (salar i€s,

repairs) . Total development costs are usual ly ex-pressed in terms of total annual costs of the project.Annual cost is determined by assuming a f inanciall i fe f or the project and div id ing the total costs bythe number of years. Twenty years is of ten thedesig nated project l i f e.

Construct ion costs include those for excavat ion,repairs, construct ion of new works, and the pur-chase and instal lat ion of equipment. In some cases,the developer is required to pay for environmentalmit igat ion as in the construct ion of f ishways oraddi t ion of aerators. The lat ter part of th is chapterdeals wi th environmental issues. A twenty percentcont ingency est imate is usual ly added to construc-t ion cost est imates to take into account unforseenpr ice increases, foundat ion condi t ions or damaged ue to natu ral d isasters or u n i nsu red vandal ism.

Fixed charges can be est imated in the course ofdiscussions with insurance companies, lendinginst i tut ions, and the l is ters of the town(s) to whichthe project wi l l pay property taxes. Income taxescan be calculated f rom the predicted amount ofincome (see discussion below). Pr ivate developerscan take advantage of income tax credi ts, a tax al-lowance for in i t ia l repairs, and accelerated depreci-at ion al lowances. These benef i ts shou ld be con-sidered in the economic studies.

Operat ing and maintenance costs are usual lysmal l , but should be included in total annual costs.Maintenance costs for i tems not direct ly relatedto operat ions, such as recreat ion areas, should alsobe considered. Faci l i ty operat ing and maintenancecosts vary wi th the instal led capaci ty and can becalculated by the consul t ing engineer.

Annual income from the sale of e lectr ic i ty equalsannual KWH product ion mult ip l ied by pr ice perKWH paid by the ut i l i ty or other customer. Pr icenegot iat ions wi l l be proceeding during the feasibi l i tystudy. A further discussion or market ing is cont inuedon Chapter Vl .

Environmental StudiesThe Vermont Agency of Environmental Conserva-

t ion (AEC) is charged with the protect ion and con-servat ion of Vermont waters. The Agency, whichis composed of several d i f ferent departments, hasconcerns about hydropower development. TheWater Qual i ty Div is ion of the Department of WaterResources protects Vermont waters f rom pol lut ionand water qual i ty degradat ion of a l l k inds. TheDepartment of Fish and Game is responsible forthe management of Vermont 's f ish and game re-sou rces and related recreat ional opportu n i t i€s,and for special projects such as the restorat ion ofonce-nat ive f ishes and game animals. The PlanningDivision has an interest in the recreational resourcesof water bodies.

18

6L

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e,'seale uollcnpotdpool pue 0ulurvreds qsll rupollsu/vlop lo 0ulzoe;,lJo 0ulr{rp se sacuaJlncco r.lcns pue alll c!}pnberaqlo pup r.lsll rol lellqpq lo uolleper0ap oql lua^-etd ol 'olqelrene ,{glern}eu sl }l JonauaLl/v\ '0 LO/ aLl}uptll Jalear0 rvroll snonu lluoc e lsanbar {eut uo!}en-JasuoC leluauuoJ!Au:l lo Acue0V or.ll 'uolllppe ul'sreer{ ua} ,{lana acuo Jncco o} alqell sl }eq} po;led,{ep-uonos aA!}ncosuoc }sa/v\ol aL.l} Jol s/v\oll o0eloneaLll ol lenbe /v\oll aql s! /v\oll 0LO/ pallec-os slLll'r{1r1enb lelervr lueal]sumop orueserd o] popaacxo JopouleluleLU ,{1|enu!}uoc oq plnoLls }eLl} /v\ol} unulultulo prppuels e los seq uo!s!^l6

^l!leno raleM oLlI

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'suolllpuoc

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lellqeH qs Il pue At lteng raleM

'luor.uJan lo alels oLll pue

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'etJalceq Aq paAecaq aJe PueJaleA aql telua saJsen cluefuo /o sJ unowe taleatisP palaMol aq illtA suolleJluacuoc oo 'Jalsel l!asn s{,1/S/U efuo asnecaq pue 'JauJeM sJaD J/ sP OOssa/ sptotl Attentce JaleM asnecaq qrcq 'pawJeM stJapA lt asealcap tlt uaiAxo patloss/p 'pueq JaqPaql uO'saop ayl lew!ue sP tsnl raleM aql worl OOtcertxa Aaql tq11u p q1noqlg 'stnoq utittAep 6ulrnps/saryJ uAsolotqd 1o ssaco.rd atll to Ued sP uaDAxoasealal pue acnpotd ae61e pue slueld tateM 'swep

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OO -ua6fxg pa^loss!O

Depending on i ts locat ion, creat ion of a damwhere no natural barr ier existed before can af f ectthe migrat ion of anadromous f ish and can block themigrat ion of local f ish species. Anadromous f ish,such as salmon, Some trout, and shad, travel upstreamin order to spawn. The Department of Fish andGame plans to reestabl ish certain populat ions ofanadromous fish, such as landlocked Atlantic Salmon,and American shad in the Connect icut River. l fdams on tr ibutaries of these bodies are substantial lyrebui l t , the Department of Fish and Game may re-quire construct ion of f ish ladders or f ish passage-ways (Fig . 5.2).They may also require other suchmeasures as t rapping the migrat ing f ish and trans-port ing them by truck to above the dam. Faci l i t iesf or the passage of f ish migrat ing downstream mayalso be necess ary .

When a hydro faci l i ty is generat ing, f ish may bedirected through the turbine despi te the existenceof t rash racks. The magnitude of turbine mortal i tyvar ies wi th the species and with the type of turbine.The propel ler turbine is the least harmf u l . The De-partment of Fish and Game wi l l require informat ionon species inhabi t ing the r iver and the reservoir aswel las on turbine design.

A dam is not only a barr ier to f ish migrat ion, i ta lso interrupts the f low of the current and al l thati t carr ies, causing both organic and inorganicmater ia ls (s i l t ) to set t le in the pond. Si l t deposi tseventual ly c log intakes and reduce reservoir volumeand may require per iodic dredging or f lushing out.A sudden release of s i l t wi l l increase downstreamwater turbidi ty, damaging aquat ic l i fe ( f ish as wel las plants). Such a release might also scour thedownstream banks denuding them of vegetat ion,thus increasing erosion potent ia l and decreasing

Figu re 5.2 Fish Ladder (Deni l Type). Thewooden baff les removed at lef t f i t tntothe grooves in the concrete.

shady f ish habi tats. The Water Qual i ty Div is ionmust be not i f ied pr ior to desi l t ing operat ions (seeChapter Vl l l ) .

Game ConcernsWildl i fe habi tats may also be af fected by creat ion

of impoundments changing wet lands to ponds.

Flow regulat ion may also impinge on game habi tats,s ince reservoir and downstream water levels mayf luctuate independent of natural f luctuat ions. Thepr incipal game species most inf luenced by theseproblems are waterfowl and f urbearers. Upland wi ld-l i fe species such as whi te-tai led deer may be af -

fected by the f looding of deer yards.

Social ConcernsConstruct ion of a hydropower faci l i ty af fects

land and water use in dramat ic and subt le ways.Such recreat ional use of a stream aS a whi te watercanoeing or kayaking cou rse, f or exam ple, wi l l beaffected by impoundment. l f a forested area is tobe f looded, the developer wi l l have to submit a planfor the harvest ing and disposal of wood. A developermight have to bear most of the costs of reconstruct-ing bridges and roads that will be flooded out upstream.The developer may be required to provide water-based recreat ion faci l i t ies i f there is an impoundment(Exhibi t R of the major FERC l icense).

l f the Federal agency (FERC) in consul tat ion wi ththe State H istor ic Preservat ion Of f icer determinesthat propert ies which are included in or el ig ib lefor inclusion in the Nat ional Register wi l l be adverselyaffected by the project, f urther planning and redesignmay be necessry in order to comply wi th Federalreg u lat io n s.

20

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'euoluc c!laL{}saes,pJeog octruas c!lqnd aLll ol rujoluoc lsnu lca[ordaql lo yed oJe lerll sloppJoc au!l uo!sslLusueJI'sacual Jo s1ueld ,{q 0uluoojcs aJtnbar ,(eur }ueldorp{q V 'pasteJ aq osle }L;0!LU }uaupunodu! aLl} pupsa!llllcel lcalord aq] 0uluJacuoc sonssl cl]aq]sav

Vl. Market ing Electr ic i ty

A pr ivate developer can sel l e lectr ic i ty to a ut i l i tycompany or to a local industry. l t is a lso possibleto create a new ut i l i ty to Sel l to retai l customers, '3but in most cases this opt ion is not worth the effortor expense.

The PURPA of 1978 removed market ing obstaclesf rom the path of non-ut i l i ty developers. The Act re-qu i res ut i l i ty companies to purchase power f romand interconnect wi th a faci l i ty that is pr ivatelydeveloped. In addi t ion, the Act mandates the stateregulatory author i ty (PSB in Vermont) to set a" iustand reasonable pr ice" that protects the interestsof both ut i l i ty ratepayers and the pr ivate developer.A detai led discussion of th is f o l lows below.

Al though a developer is guaranteed a marketwith a uti l i ty, another option may be equally attractive.A developer can negotiate a joint ownership arrange-ment with a local industry or industr ies, for example.f f the users of the power are also part owners, f lostate regulat ion is required and the developer does

not need a FERC l icense. This opt ion thus avoidsa potent ia l ly t ime-consuming and cost ly process.

l f sel l ing to a ut i l i ty company is the chosen opt ion,the ut i l i ty wi l l need to know detai ls of proposedoperat ion in order to est imate a pr ice. The ut i l i tywi l l want to know the physical locat ion of the plan,i ts capaci ty and annual energy output (KWH), andthe planned mode of operat ion and dispatch. Loca-t ion in regard to ut i l i ty t ransmission l ines is im-portant, s ince the cost of l ines interconnect ingwith the gr id is direct ly related to their length (aswel l as the vol tage of the t ransmission l ine). Theut i l i ty a lso must determine whether the nearesttransmission line is already being used to full capacity.

By the t ime the feasibi l i ty study is underway,the developer and ut i l i ty shou ld be negot iat ing acontract . The services of a lawyer are essent ia lhere to wr i te a c lear contract . l f agreement cannotbe reached over the pr ice or terms of the contract ,a developer should contact the PSB to discuss thedi f f icul t ies. l f no resolut ion can be reached by in-formal negot iat ions, the developer should send awri t ten pet i t ion to the PSB for a rate hear ing, ?Smandated by the PURPA. The PSB wi l l def ine termsof a purchase power contract that hopef u l ly , issat isfactory to both part ies.

' rEnabl ing legis lat ion is 30 V.S A.SS 249,251,259.

22

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6ulcueu!J'lfn

Vl l l . Construct ion

Construct ion of the project is the next step indevelopment af ter feasibi l i ty studies and l icensing.A construct ion engineer, a member or subcontractorof the f i rm that designed the project , usual ly man-ages the ent i re bui ld ing process (c iv i l , hydraul icand mechanical, and electrical work) from excavationto br inging the new power plant on l ine. This personusual ly has wr i t ten or assisted with equipment bidspeci f icat ions, and is f ami l iar wi th the intr icaciesof the project . Occasional ly, the equ ipment man-ufacturer wi l l provide construct ion supervis ion forthe eq u ipment instal lat ion as a cond i t ion of theguarantee. l t is important that one person superviseconstruct ion f rom beginning to end.

The project manager puts the construct ion workout to bid and choses the general contractor. Thereare many qual i f ied heavy construct ion contractorsin Vermont and northern New England, al thoughnone special ize in hydro work. Contractors usual lysubmit a performance bond with the construct ionbids. The bond, usual ly for 10 percent of the bid,protects the developer f rom cost overruns, delays,or errors in construct ion. l f the bid is rejected, thecheck should be returned to the contractor.

The project manager is responsible for schedul ingconstruct ion so that outs ide bu i ld ing coincideswith dry seasoos, inside work can be done in thewinter, and equipment arr ives at the proper t imeto be instal led (Fig. 8.1). Delays in construct iont iming or equipment arr ival can be extremely cost ly.

Publ ic relat ions is also part of the project man-ager 's concern. Since construct ion can involveblasting of ledge and movement of heavy equipment,such events should be t imed to be convenient toarea residents. Such courtesies wi l l earn good wi l lfor the project , d l though i t may be impossible toavoid some d istu rbance.

Figu re 8.1 Instal lat ion of a Propel ler Turbine.

Any act iv i ty involved in construct ion or operat ionof a plant that wi l l v io late water qual i ty standardsrequires a So-cal led 1272 order 'o f rom the WaterQual i ty Div is ion. Examples of such act iv i t ies includedesi l t ing of an impoundment, eXcavat ion of a ta i l -race, and release of water f rom a coffer dam. Theorder speci f ies dates on which certain act iv i t iescannot take place and requests not i f icat ion ofAgency personnel so that they can monitor operations.

Because of delays in construct ion or other un-forseeable circumstances, construct ion costs mayhave to be cut. A developer should be caref u l incutt ing corners, s ince a rushed job may causemore problems than i t solves. On the other hand,unnecessary parts of the construct ion might beeliminated without lowering project design standards.Discussions between the developer, project manager,construct ion contractor, and f inancers cou ld y ie ldfrui t fu l resul ts in th is area.

24

'osect ion 1 272 of 10 V.S.A. Chapter 47

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26

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Flow-Volume of water per uni t t ime. Can be expressed in gal lons or cubic feet per minute (GPM,CFM)or in cubic feet per second (CFS). See "Q" also.

Flow Durat ion Curve-Acurve which shows the percentage of t ime ( in a certain t ime period) that ar iver 's f low was equal to or greater than a given discharge. For example, i t might show that over aperiod of a year a r iver f lowed 500 CFS 10"h of the t ime and 100 CFS 80% of the t ime.

Flashboards-Boards placed on top of a spi l lway or dam crest to temporari ly raise the impoundmentlevel .

Flume-A canal that conducts water to the intake gate.

Forebay-The enlarged body of water above the intake.

Francis Turbine-A react ion turbine commonly used in moderate to high head faci l i t ies. See text .

Generator-A machine that converts mechanical energy into electr ical energy.

Governor-A device to control the operat ion of a turbine or engine, which makes the speed constantby varying the input (amount of water) to match the load. Governors can perform other f unct ionssuch as maintaining a constant head pond level or automat ical ly responding to peaks in electr icaldemand above a certain level.

Histor ic or Archaeological Si te-A standing structure, part of a structure, or area where evidence ofprehistor ic habi tat ion is found, which is l is ted or is el ig ib le to be l is ted in the Nat ional Register ofHistor ic Places.

Hydraul ics-The science that deals wi th the laws governing water in mot ion.

Hydraul ic Works-The works of a faci l i ty associated with the conversion of water energy into mechan-ical energy; for example, penstock and turbine.

lmpoundment- Reservoi r or art i f ic ia l pond created beh i nd a dam.

lmpulse Turbine-A turbine that uses the veloci ty of water to move the runner and that discharges toatmospheric pressure.

Instal led Capacity-The total of the capacit ies shown on the nameplates of al l the generators in ahydro plant.

Intake-The structure that lets water into the penstock.

Intermediate Load-The amount of electr ical power needed to be del ivered at t imes when the baseload does not f i l l demand.

Ki lowatt (KW)-One thousand watts. A measure of electr ical power (work per unit t ime).

Ki lowatt Hour (KWH)-The amount of e lectr ical energy involved with a one ki lowatt demand over aper iod of one hour.

Load-The amount of power needed to be del ivered at a given point in an electr ical system.

Low Head-Sometimes def ined as head 66 feet (20 meters)or smal ler . Many engineers use the termto refer to a type of faci l i ty (a) that ut i l izes a react ion type turbine, or (b) where there is a short pen-stock or the powerhouse is bui l t into the dam, or both.

Mechanical Works-Turbines, pumps, gatehoists, governors, cranes, and al l other such equipment.

Megawatt (MW)-One thousand ki lowatts.

NEPOOL-New England Power Pool , a consort ium of New England ut i l i t ies that sel ls power to eachother and that dispatches (cal ls upon) generat ing stat ions in response to demand.

On Line-Generat ing electr ic i ty and sending i t out over the t ransmission l ines.

Outage-The per iod when a generat ing uni t is out of service.

Packing Glands-Seal ing devices used to provide pressure-t ight jo ints where rotat ing or reciprocat ingshafts pass through wal ls f rom one pressure zone to another.

Peak Load-The maximal load in a stated period of t ime; for example, yearly peak and dai ly peak.

Pel ton Wheel-A type of impulse turbine.28

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Appendix l lState and Federal Agencies

Agency Su bject Phone

VERMONT (802)

Agency of Development & Community AffairsPavi l ion bui ld ingState StreetMontpelier, VT 05602

Division for Historic Preservation Historic and archaeological 828-3226Wil l iam Pinney, Director s i tes

Agency of Environmental ConservationHeri tage Bui ld ing79-81 River StreetMontpelier, VT 05602

Fish & Game DepartmentAngelo lncerpi, Chief Fisheries Fisheries and game concerns 828-3371

BiologistBen Day, Chief Wi ld l i fe Biologist

Forests, Parks, and Recreation Dept. Recreation concerns, 828-3375forestry concerns

Planning Divis ion Generalenvironmental concerns 828-3357Edward Koenemann, Director

Protection Division Stream f low alteration permit 828-3341Howard Flanders. Director

Water Resources Department,Division of Water Quality

David Clough, Director Water quali ty concerns, 828'2761Thomas Wil lard, Environmental Engineer " 401" permitPeter Barranco, Dam Engineer Exist ing dams, engineering 828-2761

and safety concerns

Agency of TransportationAdministrat ion Bui ld ingMontpelier, VT 05602Sherman J. Gage, Director Flooding of roads or bridges 828-2661

Engineer ingBrookins Delano, Uti l i t ies Division Flooding of roads or bridges 828'2653

Robert Merchant, Division of Operations Flooding of rai lroads 828'2828

Public Service Board120 State StreetMontpelier, VT 05602

Wayne Foster, Electr ical Engineer Section 248 application, al l state 828-2839l icensing concerns

Gordon Stensrud, Chief Engineer Electr ical engineering, 828-2636rate information

State Energy Off ice4 East State StreetMontpel ier , VT 05602

Ronald Albee, DirectorJoseph G ainza

Government grants forf easibi l i ty stud ies

30

828-2393

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Appendix l l l

New Electr ic Generation and Transmission Facil i t ies:Certificate ot Public Good (30 V.S.A., S 248)

(a) No company, as defined in 30 V.S.A. S 201, or cooperative, may begin site preparation or construc-t ion of an electr ic generation faci l i ty within the State, or electr ic transmission faci l i ty within the Statewhich is designed for immediate or eventual operat ion at any vol tage or exercise the r ight of eminentdomain in connection with site preparation for or construction of any such transmission or generationfaci l i ty, except for the replacement of exist ing with equivalent faci l i t ies in the usual course of business,unless the Public Service Board f irst f inds that the same to promote the general good of the Stateand issues a cert i f icate to that effect. The Public Service Board shall hold a public hearing on eachpet i t ion for such f inding and cert i f icate in a county in which any port ion of the construct ion of saidfaci l i ty is proposed to be located. Notice shall be given to the Attorney General, the Departments ofHealth, Agency of Environmental Conservation, Historic Sites Board, Scenery Preservation Council ,State Planning Off ice, Vermont Aeronautics Board and by cert i f ied mail shall be given to the chairmanor director of the municipal and regional p lanning commissions and the municipal legis lat ive bodyfor each town and city in which the proposed faci l i ty wil l be located not less than thirty days prior tosaid hear ing. Not ice of the publ ic hear ing shal l be publ ished in a newspaper of general c i rculat ion inthe county or counties in which the proposed faci l i ty wil l be located two weeks successively, the lastpublication to be at least twelve days before the day appointed for the hearing.

(b) Before the Publ ic Service Board issues a cert i f icate of publ ic good, i t shal l f ind that the con-struct ion:

(1)wil l not unduly interfere with the orderly development of the region with due consideration havingbeen given to the recommendat ions of the municipal and regional p lanning commissions and themunicipal legis lat ive bodies;

(2) is required to meet the need for present and f uture demand for service;(3) wil l not adversely affect system stabil i ty and rel iabi l i ty and economic factors; and(a) wil l not have an undue adverse effect on esthetics, historic sites, air and water purity, the natura

environment and the publ ic heal th and safety.(5) plans have been submit ted to the municipal and regional p lanning commissions in accordance

with th is sect ion.(c) Before a cert i f icate of public good is issued for the construction of a nuclear f ission plant the

Public Service Board shall obtain the approval of the General Assembly and the Assembly's determin-ation that the construction of the proposed faci l i ty wil l promote the general welfare. The Public ServiceBoard shall advise the General Assembly of any petit ion submitted under this section for the construc-t ion of a nuclear f ission plant, by written notice delivered to the Speaker of the House of Representa-t ives and to the President of the Senate. The Public Service Board may submit recommendationsrelating to the proposed plant, and shall make available all relevant material. The requirernents of thissubsect ion shal l be in addi t ion to the f indings set for th in subsect ion (b) of th is sect ion.

(d) However, p lans for the construct ion of such a faci l i ty must be submit ted by the pet i t ioner to themunicipal and regional planning commissions no less than 45 days prior to application for a cert i f icateof publ ic good under th is sect ion. unless the municipal and regional p lanning commissions shal lwaive such requirement. Such municipal or regional planning commissions may hold a public hearingon the proposed plans. Such commissions shall make recommendations, i f any, to the Public ServiceBoard and to the pet i t ioner at least 7 days pr ior to f i l ing of the pet i t ion wi th the Publ ic Service Board.

(e) However, notwithstanding the above, plans involving the relocation of an exist ing transmissionl ine must be submit ted to the municipal and regional p lanning commissions no less than 21 dayspr ior to appl icat ion for a cert i f icate of publ ic good under th is sect ion.

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