Vermiculture in Egypt

7/23/2019 Vermiculture in Egypt

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Vermiculture in Egypt:

Current Development

andFuture Potential


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Vermiculture in Egypt:

Current Development

andFuture Potential

Written by:

Mahmoud Medany, Ph.D.

Environment Consultant

Egypt

Edited by:

ElhadiYahia, Ph.D.

Agro industry and infrastructure Officer

Food and Agriculture Organizatioon

(FAO/UN)

Regional Office for North Africa

and the Near East, Cairo, Egypt

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsRegional Office for the Near East

Cairo, Egypt

April, 2011


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The designations employed and the presentation of material in thisinformation product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoeveron the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, cityor area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers,whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these havebeen endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similarnature that are not mentioned.

ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5

All rights reserved. FAO encourages reproduction and dissemination ofmaterial in this information product. Non-commercial uses will be authorizedfree of charge, upon request. Reproduction for resale or other commercialpurposes, including educational purposes, may incur fees. Applications forpermission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright materials, and allqueries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch,Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO,Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.

FAO 2011


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Table of contents

Table of contents...................................................................................................................... ivList of Photos ............................................................................................................................viList of Figures.......................................................................................................................... vi

List of tables............................................................................................................................

vii

Abbreviations.........................................................................................................................viiiIntroduction............................................................................................................................... 1Executive Summary.................................................................................................................. 21. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt.............................................................. 3

1.1. Historical background ......................................................................................31.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms........................................................41.3. Types of earthworms ........................................................................................61.4. Vermicomposting species .................................................................................61.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt .................................................................71.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting...............................................................8

2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting implementation in Egypt...............................

102.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting.........................................10

2.1.1. Bedding .....................................................................................................102.1.2. Worm Food ...............................................................................................112.1.3. Moisture ....................................................................................................142.1.4. Aeration ....................................................................................................142.1.5. Temperature control ................................................................................15

2.2. Methods of vermicomposting .........................................................................162.2.1. Pits below the ground ..............................................................................162.2.2. Heaping above the ground ......................................................................172.2.3. Tanks above the ground ..........................................................................17

2.2.4. Cement rings.............................................................................................

18

2.2.5. Commercial model ...................................................................................182.3. The trial experience in Egypt .........................................................................20

2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:...........................................................................202.3.2. Bedding .....................................................................................................202.3.3. Food ...........................................................................................................212.3.4. Moisture ....................................................................................................222.3.5. Aeration ....................................................................................................222.3.6. Temperature .............................................................................................232.3.7 Harvesting ..................................................................................................23

3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate......................................... 26

3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines.......................................................................................

26

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba ..............................................................................283.3. Vermicomposting in India ..............................................................................293.4. Vermicompost teas in Ohio, USA...............................................................323.5. Vermicomposting in United Kingdom ..........................................................33

4. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices in Egypt: gap analysis.. 34

4.1. On-farm organic waste ...................................................................................344.1.1. Weak points in rice straw system in Egypt ................................................35

4.2. Urban wastes ...................................................................................................354.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem in Egypt..........................354.2.2.

Main factors contributing to soil waste management problem..................36

4.2.3. Waste generation rates...............................................................................

37

4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are ..............................................39


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4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options ................................................404.3.1. Feeding animals ........................................................................................404.3.2. Compost ....................................................................................................404.3.3 Landfill disposal or incineration .................................................................40

5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers in Egypt.................................. 45

5.1. Fertilizer use in Egypt....................................................................................

455.2. Fertilizer statistics .............................................................................................46

5.3. Vermicomposting as fertilizers in Egypt.......................................................485.3.1. Urban waste vermicomposting..................................................................495.3.2. Vermicomposting of agricultural wastes...................................................505.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth ......................................................50

5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer in Egypt..................516. Current animal feed protein supplements production in Egypt and the potential to substitute

desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms inaquaculture industries....................................................................................................... 53

6.1. Animal and aquaculture feed .........................................................................53

6.2. Worm meal......................................................................................................

546.3. Earthworms, the sustainable aquaculture feed of the future.....................56

7. Current on-farm and urban organic waste management practices and environmental effectsof those practices, e.g. carbon and methane emissions..................................................... 62

7.1. Emissions from vermicompost .......................................................................627.2 Total emissions from waste sector in Egypt..................................................647.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes..............................................................667.4. Vermifilters in domestic wastewater treatment ...........................................69

8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on greenhouse gasemission reductions...........................................................................................................71

8.1. Background .....................................................................................................71

8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements in Egypt................

738.3. Egypt National Strategy on the CDM ...........................................................74

8.4. The national regulatory framework..............................................................759. Analysis of the Egyptian context and applicability of vermiculture as a means of

greenhouse gas emission reduction................................................................................... 76

9.1. Profile of wastes in Egypt ...............................................................................769.1.1. Municipal solid waste ................................................................................769.1.2. Agricultural wastes ..................................................................................77

9.2. Mitigating greenhouse gas from the solid wastes .........................................779.3.Mitigating greenhouse gas from the agriculture wastes..............................79

References............................................................................................................................... 80

Annex 1...................................................................................................................................

85

General information and FAQ................................................................................................. 85


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List of Photos

Photo 1.1 Rich fertile soil of the Nile Delta enables wide variety of cropsto be grown.

4

Photo 2.1 Open pit vermicomposting - Kirungakottai. 16Photo 2.2 Open heap vermicomposting. 17Photo 2.3 Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India 18Photo 2.4 Cement ring vermicomposting 18Photo 2.5 Commercial vermicomposting unit 19Photo 2.6 Earthworms used in Egypt 20Photo 2.7 Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki. 21Photo 2.8 Mixture of food wastes and shredded plant material ready to be

mixed in the rotating machine.21

Photo 2.9 The locally manufactured shredding machine. 22Photo 2.10 The shaded growing beds. 23

Photo 2.11 Harvesting of castings. 24Photo 2.12 Harvested adult worms from the growing beds. 24Photo 2.13 Couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum in both of them. 25

Photo 2.14 Worm eggs. 25

Photo 3.1 Earthworm plots showing plastic covers and support frame. 27

Photo 3.2 Windrows vermicomposting method: in Havana, Cuba . 29

Photo 3.3 Women self-help group involved in vermicomposting, topromote micro-enterprises and generate income.

30

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Commercial model of vermicomposting developed by ICRISAT 19Figure 5.1 Trends of production, imports and exports (1000 tonnes of

nutrients) of fertilizers in Egypt47

Figure 5.2 Consumption of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium and totalfertilizers in Egypt.

48

Figure 7.1 Egypts GHG emissions by gas type for the year 2000 in megatones of carbon dioxide equivalent.

68

Figure 7.2 Egypts GHG emissions by sector for the year 2000, in megatones of carbon dioxide equivalent.

69

Figure 7.3 Layout of the vermifilter. 70


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List of tables

Table 1.1 Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and theirregions of origin.

5

Table 2.1 Common bedding materials. 11Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed. 12Table 3.1 Summary for production of vermicompost at farm scale in

Andaman and Nicobar (A&N) Islands, India.31

Table 4.1 Municipal solid waste contents 2000-2005. 36Table 4.2 Distribution of waste according to the sources. 37Table 4.3 Distribution of wastes according to its sources and Governorate

2007/2008 in tons.38

Table 4.4 Egypts Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan for the period2007-2012.

42

Table 4.5 Solid waste accumulation in the Egyptian Governorates. 43Table 4.6 Solid waste amount produced by governorates and the organic

materials percentages For the year 2008.44

Table 5.1 Physical and chemical analysis of various soil types. 46Table 5.2 The main types of fertilizers used in Egypt. 47Table 5.3 Potential nutrients that could be obtained from urban and

agriculture wastes in Egypt.52

Table 6.1 Chemical composition % of various worm meal (in dry matter). 55Table 6.2 Essential amino acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN). 55Table 6.3 Macro and trace mineral contents of freeze dried vermi meal

(Eudrilus eugeniae).55

Table 6.4 Different nutrient concentration in manure and fertilizer applied(average value of triplicate sample analyzed).

58

Table 6.5 Average values (SD) of physico-chemical parameters of water,primary productivity of phytoplankton and final body weights andfish production of Cyprinus carpio(Ham.) in various treatments.

59

Table 6.6 Composition (% dry matter) of tested proteins sources orsupplements for fish feeds.

60

Table 6.7 Amino acid (g/100g protein) profiles of tested protein sources orsupplement as compared to fish meal (FM).

61

Table 7.1 Summary of greenhouse gas emissions for Egypt, 2000. 65Table 7.2 Egypts greenhouse gas emissions by gas type for the year 2000. 67

Table 7.3 Egypts greenhouse gas emissions by sector for the year 2000. 68Table 9.1 Summary of identified mitigation measures for solid wastes. 78


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Abbreviations

AF Africa

ARC Agricultural Research Center of Egypt

ARE Arab Republic of Egypt

AS Asia

CA Central America

CDM Clean Development Mechanism

CER Certified Emissions Reductions

CH4 Methane

CO Carbon monoxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CO2e Equivalent carbon dioxide

COPx Conference of parties number x

DAP Diammonium phosphate

EEAA Egypt Environmental Affairs Agency

EU Europe

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

GHG Greenhouse gas

GIS Geographic Information System

GTZ German Technical Cooperation Agency

GWP Global Warming Potential

ha Hectare, 10 thousand square meters

HFC Hydrofluorocarbon

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change

JA Japan

MA Madagascar

ME Mediteranean

MSW Municipal Solid WasteMSW Municipal Solid Waste

Mt Million tons

N2O Nitrous oxide

NA North America

NH3 Ammonia

NOx Nitrogen oxides

NSS National Strategy Studies

OC Oceania

PFC's Perfluorocarbons

SA South America


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SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride

SWM Solid Waste Management

Tg Teragrams

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNDP United Nations Development ProgramUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

USA The United States of America

USA Unites States of America

VF Vermifiltration: filtration utilizing earth worms

VOC Volatile Organic Compound

VSS Volatile suspendedsolids

WWTP Wastewater treatment plant


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Introduction

The total amount of solid waste generated yearly in Egypt is about 17 million tonsfrom municipal sources, 6 million tons from industrial sources and 30 million tons

from agricultural sources. Approximately 8% of municipal solid waste is composted,2% recycled, 2% land-filled and 88% disposed of in uncontrolled dumpsites.Agricultural wastes either burned in the fields or used in the production of organicfertilizers, animal fodder and food or energy production. National efforts are beingexerted to minimize burning the agricultural wastes. There is a great opportunity formaximizing the economical benefits of organic wastes by utilizing the earth worms as"biological machines" utilizing the waste for valuable commodities.Assessment of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions for Egypt revealed that the totalemissions in the year 2000 were about 193 MtCO2e, compared to about 117 MtCO2ein 1990, representing an average increase of 5.1% annually. Estimated total

greenhouse gas emissions in 2008 are about 288 MtCO2e. Although waste sectorproduces the least quantity of greenhouse gases in Egypt, without the organic residuesburned from the agriculture sector, which when added together can be in a higherrank. Converting organic wastes, whether municipal or agricultural, intovermicompost can substantially reduce the greenhouse gas emission that could be paid

back through the clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.From another perspective, proper handling of wastes, especially organic, in megacities such as Cairo, will reduce the environmental impact on both public andgovernment. Any effort lead to cleaner streets is highly appreciated. The availabilityof organic compost from various sources will have a direct positive impact onagriculture in Egypt, as most soils of modern agriculture have poor organic matter

contents. The benefits of converting organic wastes into compost to be added to thesoil apply also to similar countries in the Middle East and North Africa.As general information regarding the utilization of earthworm in composting:

- One thousand adult worms weigh approximately one kilogram.- One kilogram of adults can convert up to 5 kilograms of waste per day.- Approximately ten kilograms of adults can convert one ton waste per month.- Two thousand adults can be accommodated in one square meter.- One thousand earthworms and their descendants, under ideal conditions, could

convert approximately one ton of organic waste into high yield fertilizer in oneyear.

The purpose of this work is to investigating current development of vermiculture

under the Egyptian conditions, and to discuss its potential as an effective means ofconverting the carbon and nitrogen in domestic and agricultural organic wastes into

bio-available nutrients for food production, and the potential of vermiculture as meansof reduction the greenhouse gas emissions that have negative impacts on theenvironment.


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Executive Summary

Vermiculture in Egypt dates since Cleopatra. However, the Green Revolution, with itsdependence on fossil fuelled large scale machinery and operations, together with thedamming of the Nile, has in recent times all but removed the environment in whichcompost worms, most commonlyEisenia Foetida, can thrive.

The total quantity of solid wastes generated in Egypt is 118.6 million tons/year in2007/2008, including municipal solid waste (garbage) and agricultural wastes.Household waste constitutes about 60% of the total municipal waste quantities, withthe remaining 40% being generated by commercial establishments, serviceinstitutions, streets and gardens, hotels and other entertainment sector entities. Percapita generation rates in Egyptian cities, villages and towns vary from lower than 0.3

kg for low socio-economic groups and rural areas, to more than 1 kg for higher livingstandards in urban centers. On a nationwide average, the composition is about 50-60%food wastes, 10-20% paper, and 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, and plastics, andthe remainder is basically inorganic matter and others.

Currently, solid waste quantities handled by waste management systems are estimatedat about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day being produced in cities, andthe rest generated from the pre-urban and rural areas. Final destinations of municipalsolid waste entail about 8% of the waste being composted, 2% recycled, 2%landfilled, and 88% dumped in uncontrolled open dumps.

The organic wastes in cities can be as large as 10-15 thousand tons per day. After theswine flu and the government decision to get rid of all swine used to live on theorganic wastes in the garbage collection sites near the cities, earth worms could be thealternate biological machines that could handle the wastes with greater revenues andcleaner production. There is a great opportunity for all municipal waste systems toadapt the vermicompost in their operation.

Egypt produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tonsper day). Some of this waste is used in the production of organic fertilizers, animalfodder, food production, energy production, or other useful purposes. Vermiculture isalso a valuable system for converting most of the organic waste into vermicompost.

With rural awareness and training, vermicompost could be produced in all villages.

The target groups of this book are all growers, including organic agriculture growers,as well as all organic waste producers from as small scale as households to the largescale urban solid waste operations. The very rich and valuable organic vermicompost

produce will assist in enriching the soil, especially sandy and newly reclaimed soil,with organic matter and fertilizers in the form of proteins, enzymes, hormones, humussubstances, vitamins, sugars, and synergistic compounds, which makes it as

productive as good soil.


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1. Introduction to the use of compost worms in Egypt

1.1. Historical background

The importance of earthworms is not a very modern phenomenon. Earthworms havebeen on the Earth for over 20 million years. In this time they have faithfully done theirpart to keep the cycle of life continuously moving. Their purpose is simple but veryimportant. They are natures way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues

back to living organisms. Many have recognized the value of these worms. Ancientcivilizations, including Greece and Egypt valued the role earthworms played in soil.The ancient Egyptians were the first to recognize the beneficial status of theearthworm. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Cleopatra (69 30 B.C.) said, Earthworms aresacred. She recognized the important role the worms played in fertilizing the NileValley croplands after annual floods. Removal of earthworms from Egypt was

punishable by death. Egyptian farmers were not allowed to even touch an earthwormfor fear of offending the God of fertility. The Ancient Greeks considered theearthworm to have an important role in improving the quality of the soil. The Greek

philosopher Aristotle (384 322 B.C.) referred to worms as the intestines of theearth.

Jerry Minnich, in The Earthworm Book (Rodale, 1977), provides a historicaloverview which indicates that at the end of the last Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago,earthworm populations had been decimated in many regions by glaciers and other

adverse climatic conditions. Many surviving species were neither productive norprolific. In places where active species and suitable environments were found, such asthe Nile River Valley, earthworms played a significant role in agriculturalsustainability. While the Niles long-term fertility is well known and attributed to richalluvial deposits brought by annual floods, these materials were mixed and stabilized

by valley-dwelling earthworms. In 1949, the USDA estimated that earthwormscontributed approximately 120 tons of their castings per year to each acre of the Nilefloodplain (Tilth, 1982).

Egypt has historically had some of the most productive and fertile land in the world.The Nile River not only provides water critical for agriculture, but in times past, the

annual flooding of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich soil onto the land. In recent years,the Aswan High Dam has virtually eliminated the annual flood which has resulted in aloss of the beneficial soil deposits leading to a need for organic material on lands usedfor agricultural production in Egypt.

Charles Darwin (1809 1882) studied earthworms for more than forty years anddevoted an entire book (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action ofWorms) to the earthworm. Darwin said, it may be doubted that there are many otheranimals which have played so important a part in the history of the world as havethese lowly organized creatures.


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For three millennia (3,000 years), the thriving civilization of ancient Egypt wasstrikingly successful for two reasons: 1) The Nile River, which brought abundantwater to the otherwise parched lands of the region; and 2) the billions of earthwormsthat converted the annual deposit of silt and organic matter, brought down by the

annual floods into the richest food-producing soil anywhere. Those Egyptian wormsare thought to be the founding stock of the night crawlers that slowly spreadthroughout Europe and eventually came to the Western Hemisphere with the earlysettlers (Burton and Burton, 2002).

Photo 1.1.Rich fertile soil ofthe Nile Deltaenables wide variety

of crops to begrown.

Source: Author

1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms

The diversity of earthworm community is influenced by the characteristics of soil,climate and organic resources of the locality as well as history of land use. Thespecies poor communities are characterized by extreme soil conditions such as low

pH, poor fertility, low fertility litter or a high degree of soil disturbance. The mostsignificant soil factors affecting the distribution of different species of earthworm arethe C/N ratio, pH and contents of Al, Ca, Mg, organic matter, silt and coarse sand(Ghafoor et al., 2008).

Europe is the original home of some of most common and productive earthwormspecies: Lumbricus rubellus (the red worm or red wiggler); Eisenia foetida (the

brandling, manure worm or tiger worm); Lumbricus terrestris (the common nightcrawler); andAllolobophora ealignosa(the field worm). The first two species are themajor earthworms of commerce, whose ideal living environments are manure or

compost heaps. The night crawler and field worms, on the other hand, both prefergrasslands and woodland margins. The main types in Egypt are Alma niloticoandA.

stuhlmannt. Details of distribution of types will be discussed later in this chapter.Over 3500 earthworm species have been described worldwide, and it is estimated thatfurther surveys will reveal this number to be much larger. Distinct taxonomic groupsof earthworms have arisen on every continent except Antarctica, and, through humantransport, some groups have been distributed worldwide (Hendrix and Bohlen, 2002).Earthworms are classified within the phylum Annelida, class Clitellata, subclass

Oligochaeta, order Opisthophora. There are 16 families worldwide (Table 1.1). Six of


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these families (cohort Aquamegadriliplussuborder Alluroidina) comprise aquatic orsemiaquatic worms, whereas the other 10 (cohort Terrimegadrili) consist of theterrestrial forms commonly known as earthworms. Two families (Lutodrilidae and

Komarekionidae, both monospecific) and genera from three or four others

(Sparganophilidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, and possibly Ocnerodrilidae) areNearctic.

No native earthworms have been reported from Canada east of the Pacific Northwestor from Alaska or Hawaii, although exotic species now occur in all of these regions.

Native earthworms in the families Ocnerodrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, andMegascolecidaeoccur in Mexico and the Caribbean islands.

Table 1.1. Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) and their regions oforigin.

Family Region of origin

Limicolous or aquatic

Alluroididae

Syngenodrilidae

Sparganophilidae

Biwadrilidae

Almidae

Lutodrilidae

Terrestrial

Ocnerodrilidae

Eudrilidae

KynotidaeKomarekionidae

Ailoscolecidae

Microchaetidae

Hormogastridae

Glossoscolecidae

Lumbricidae

Megascolecidae

AF, SAAF

NA, EUJAEU, AF, SA, AS

NA

SA, CA, AF, AS, MAAF

MA

NA

EUAFMESA, CA

NA, EUNA, CA, SA, OC, AS, AF, MA

Note: AF = Africa, AS = Asia, CA = Central America,EU = Europe, JA = Japan, MA = Madagascar, ME = Mediteranean,

NA = North America, OC = Oceania, SA = South AmericaSource: Hendrix and Bohlen (2002)


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1.3. Types of earthworms

Earthworm is a common polyphagous annelidand plays an important role in the soilecosystem.

Although all species of earthworms contribute to the breakdown of plant-derivedorganic matter, they differ in the ways by which they degrade organic matter.According to their habitat types and ecological functions, earthworms can be dividedinto three types: the anecic, the endogeic, and the epigeic.

Anecic(Greek for out of the earth) these are burrowing worms that come to thesurface at night to drag food down into their permanent burrows deep within themineral layers of the soil. Example: the Canadian Night crawler (Munroe, 2007).These species are of primary importance in pedogenesis.

Endogeic(Greek for within the earth) these are also burrowing worms but their

burrows are typically more shallow. Such species are limited mainly to the plantlitter layer on the soil surface, composed of decaying organic matter or wood, andseldom penetrate soil more than superficially. The main role of these speciesseems to be shredding of the organic matter into fine particles, which facilitates

increased microbial activity.

Epigeic (Greek for upon the earth), they are limited to living in organic materialsand cannot survive long in soil; these species are commonly used in vermicultureand vermicomposting. All earthworm species depend on consuming organicmatter in some form, and they play an important role, mainly by promotingmicrobial activity in various stages of organic matter decomposition, whicheventually includes humification into complex and stable amorphous colloids

containing phenolic materials. An example isEisenia fetida, commonly known as(partial list only): the compost worm, manure worm, redworm, and red

wiggler. This extremely tough and adaptable worm is indigenous to most parts ofthe world.

1.4. Vermicomposting species

To consider a species to be suitable for use in vermicomposting, it should possesscertain specific biological and ecological characteristics, i.e., an ability for colonizing

organic wastes naturally; high rates of organic matter consumption, digestion andassimilation of organic matter, able to tolerate a wide range of environmental factors;have high reproduction rate, producing large numbers of cocoons that should not havea long hatching time, and their growth and maturation rates from hatchling to adultindividual should be rapid. It should be strong, resistant and survive handling. Not toomany species of earth worm have all these characteristics.Those species used in vermiculture around the world are mainly litter species thatinclude, but are not limited to:Eisenia fetidaTiger Worm, as mentioned earlier, andits sibling species E. andrei Red Tiger Worm; Perionyx excavatusIndian Blue;

Eudrilus eugeniae African Nightcrawler; Amynthas corticis) and A. gracilisPheretimas (formerly known aP. hawayana);Eisenia hortensisandEiseniaveneta

European Nightcrawlers;Lampito mauritiiMauritius Worm.


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Additional species used in Australia are Anisochaeta buckerfieldi, Anisochaeta spp.andDichogasterspp.Other worm species involved in vermicomposting are of Family Enchytraeidae(enchytraeid or pot worms), microdriles (small aquatic worms), free-living

nematodes (roundworms) (Blakemore,

2000).

In recent years, interactions of earthworms with microorganisms in degrading organicmatter have been used commercially in systems designed to dispose agricultural andurban organic wastes and convert these materials into valuable soil amendments forcrop production. Commercial enterprises processing wastes in this way are expandingworldwide and diverting organic wastes from more expensive and environmentallyharmful ways of disposal, such as incinerators and landfills (Padmavathiamma et al.,2008).

1.5. Native earthworm species in Egypt

The Nile basin is subdivided into three Obligataete subregions: the main (Lower)Nile, from the Delta to Kartoum (Characterized byAlma niloticoandA. stuhlmannt),the Upper Nile from Kartoum to Centeral and East Africa (Characterized byA. emini),and the Ethiopian subregion (Characterized byEudrilus).In Egypt Species and locations newly investigated include Allolboplora(Aporrectodea) caliginosa, associated with the aquatic Eiseniella tetraedra in springnear the St. Catherine monastery in South Sinai, and Allolboplora (Aporrectodea)rosea (Eisenia rosea) on the slops of the Mountain of Moses, and near Monastery.

Allolobophoru jassyensis is found in the Delta and Eiseniella tetraedra in Sinai(Ghabbour, 2009).

The scarcity of earthworm in Egyptian soils is mostly attributable to the aridity of theclimate and to the fact that the majority of cultivated land is under the plough (arable).In an arid, almost rainless country like Egypt, earth worm, which are highly sensitiveto water loss, cannot move easily from a less to a more favorable place in or on dryground. Earthworms are scarce in Egypt because of acreage of favorable soils (e.g.orchards and forest) is very small. Moreover, in other places (e.g. arable land soils)the favorable conditions are transient. These favorable conditions are:

1. An undisturbed soil.2. A regular and adequate water supply.

3. A fine soil texture (to raise the availability of water).4. A regular and adequate supply of organic matter.

There are several well known species in Egypt, such asAporrectodea caliginoosathatcan survive in sand dunes soils but numbers decreased with increased proportions ofgravel and sand.Quantitative sampling for earthworms by hand-sorting was carried out in fourteenlocalities in Beheira Governorate and adjacent areas by El-Duweini and Ghabbour(1965). They collected five different species: 1- Gordiodrilus sp., 2- Pheretimacalifonica ; 3-Pheretima Elongate; 4- Allolbophora caliginoosa f. trapezoids and 5-

Eisenia rosea f. Biomastoides. A number of juvenile lumbrivids found in cattle


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enclosure could not be ascribed with certainty to either of the latter two species andare therefore recorded separately.

1.6. Vermiculture and vermicomposting

Vermiculture is the process of breeding worms. Growers usually pay for theirfeedstock, and the worm castings are often considered a waste product. Vermicultureis the culture of earthworms. The goal is to continually increase the number of wormsin order to obtain a sustainable harvest. The worms are either used to expand avermicomposting operation or sold to customers who use them for the same or other

purposes.

Vermicomposting, is a simple biotechnological process of composting, "Vermi" is aLatin word meaning "worm" and thus, vermicomposting is composting with the aid ofworms, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of

waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting differs fromcomposting in several ways. It is a mesophilic process, utilizing microorganisms andearthworms that are active at 1032C (not ambient temperature but temperaturewithin the pile of moist organic material). The process is faster than composting;

because the material passes through the earthworm gut, a significant but not yet fullyunderstood transformation takes place, whereby the resulting earthworm castings(worm manure) are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortifiedwith pest repellence attributes as well (Munroe, 2007). In short, earthworms, througha type of biological alchemy, are capable of transforming garbage into valuablematerial (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The ultimate goal of vermicomposting is to

produce vermicompost as quickly and efficiently as possible. If the goal is to producevermicompost, maximum worm population density needs to be maintained all of thetime. If the goal is to produce worms, population density needs to be kept low enoughthat reproductive rates are optimized.It is known that many extracellular enzymes can become bound to humic matterduring a composting or a vermicomposting process, regardless of the type of organicmatter used, but knowledge of the chemical and biochemical properties of suchextracellular enzymes is very scanty (Bentez et al., 2000).

Vermitechnology has been promoted as an eco-biotechnological tool to manageorganic wastes generated from different sources (Suthar, 2010).

Vermicast, similarly known as worm castings, worm humusor worm manure, isthe end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by a species of earthworm.Vermicast is very important to the fertility of the soil. The castings contain highamounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. Castingscontain: 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1 timesmore calcium than found in good topsoil. It has excellent aeration, porosity, structure,drainage, and moisture-holding capacity. Vermicast can hold close to nine times theirweight in water. It is a very good fertilizer, growth promoter and helps inducingflowering and fruit-bearing in higher plants. This can even help plants to get rid of

pests and diseases (Venkatesh and Eevera, 2008).


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1.7. Compost vs. vermicompost

Composting, generally defined as the biological aerobic transformation of an organicbyproduct into a different organic product that can be added to the soil without

detrimental effects on crop growth, has been indicated as the most adequate methodfor pre-treating and managing organic wastes. In the process of composting, organicwastes are recycled into stabilized products that can be applied to the soil as anodorless and relatively dry source of organic matter, which would respond moreefficiently and safely than the fresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. Theconventional and most traditional method of composting consists of an accelerated

biooxydation of the organic matter as it passes through a thermophilic stage (45 to65C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide and water.

Vermicomposts contain nutrients in forms that are readily taken up by the plants suchas nitrates, exchangeable phosphorus, and soluble potassium, calcium, and

magnesium. Vermicomposts should have a great potential in the horticultural andagricultural industries as media for plant growth. Vermicomposts, whether used assoil additives or as components of horticultural media, improved seed germinationand enhanced rates of seedling growth and development.

However, composting and vermicomposting are quite distinct processes, particularlyconcerning the optimum temperatures for each process and the types of microbialcommunities that predominate during active processing (i.e. thermophilic bacteria incomposting, mesophilic bacteria and fungi in vermicomposting). The wastes

processed by the two systems are also quite different. Vermicomposts have a muchfiner structure than composts and contain nutrients in forms that are readily availablefor plant uptake. There have also been reports of production of plant growthregulators in the vermicomposts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that there should beconsiderable differences in the performances and effects of composts andvermicomposts on plant growth when used as soil amendments or as components ofhorticultural plant growth media (Atiyeh et al., 2000).


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2. Trial of vermiculture and vermicomposting

implementation in Egypt

The historical background, geographic distribution of earth worms, types ofearthworms, native earthworm species, formal definitions of vermiculture andvermicomposting, and a comparison between compost and vermicompost wereintroduced in the previous chapter. This chapter deals with the physical requirementsof vermiculture and vermicompost, and ends by the implementation trial of bothvermiculture and vermicompost in Egypt, including all details of this trial.

2.1. Principle of vermiculture and vermicomposting

Compost worms need five basic principles: a hospitable living environment, usuallycalled bedding, a food source, adequate moisture (greater than 50% water content

by weight), adequate aeration, and protection from temperature extremes. These fiveessentials are discussed below in more details according to Munroe (2007).

2.1.1. Bedding

Bedding is any material that provides the worms with a relatively stable habitat. Thishabitat must have the following characteristics:- High absorbency. Worms breathe through their skins and therefore must have a

moist environment in which to live. If a worms skin dries out, it dies. The bedding

must be able to absorb and retain water fairly well if the worms are to thrive.- Good bulking potential. If the material is too dense to begin with, or packs too

tightly, then the flow of air is reduced or eliminated. Worms require oxygen to live,just as we do. Different materials affect the overall porosity of the bedding througha variety of factors, including the range of particle size and shape, the texture, andthe strength and rigidity of its structure.

- Low protein and/or nitrogen content(high carbon: nitrogen ratio). Although theworms do consume their bedding as it breaks down, it is very important that this bea slow process. High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation and itsassociated heating, creating inhospitable, often fatal, conditions. Heating can occursafely in the food layers of the vermiculture or vermicomposting system, but not inthe bedding.

Some materials make good beddings all by themselves, while others lack one or moreof the above characteristics and need to be used in various combinations. Table 2.1

provides a list of some of the most commonly used beddings and provides some inputregarding each materials absorbency, bulking potential, and carbon to nitrogen (C:N)

ratios.


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Table 2.1.Common Bedding Materials:

Bedding Material Absorbency Bulking Pot. C:N Ratio

Horse Manure Medium-Good Good 22 - 56

Peat Moss Good Medium 58Corn Silage Medium-Good Medium 38 - 43

Haygeneral Poor Medium 15 - 32

Strawgeneral Poor Medium-Good 48 - 150

Strawoat Poor Medium 48 - 98

Strawwheat Poor Medium-Good 100 - 150

Paper from municipal waste stream Medium-Good Medium 127 - 178

Newspaper Good Medium 170

Barkhardwoods Poor Good 116 - 436

Bark -- softwoods Poor Good 131 - 1285

Corrugated cardboard Good Medium 563

Lumber mill waste -- chipped Poor Good 170Paper fiber sludge Medium-Good Medium 250

Paper mill sludge Good Medium 54

Sawdust Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 142 - 750

Shrub trimmings Poor Good 53

Hardwood chips, shavings Poor Good 451 - 819

Softwood chips, shavings Poor Good 212 - 1313

Leaves (dry, loose) Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 40 - 80

Corn stalks Poor Good 60 - 73

Corn cobs Poor-Medium Good 56 - 123

Source: Munroe (2007).

Researchers in Canada made an experiment to determine the feasibility of mixingmunicipally generated fiber wastes (e.g., non-recyclable paper, corrugated cardboard,and boxboard) with farm wastes (animal manures) and processing the mixture withworms (large-scale vermiculture) to produce a commercially viable compost productfor farms. The results show that the greatest worm population increases were in the

pure shredded cardboard or in the high-fiber-content cow-manure mixes, but thatbiomass changes were more positive in the chicken-manure series (GEORG, 2004).

2.1.2. Worm Food

Compost worms are big eaters. Under ideal conditions, they are able to consume morethan their body weight each day, although the general rule-of-thumb is of their

body weight per day. Table 2.2 summarizes the most important attributes of someworm food that could be used in an on-farm vermicomposting or vermicultureoperation.


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Table 2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of feed.

Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes

Cattle manureGood nutrition; naturalfood, therefore little

adaptation required.

Weed seeds makepre-composting

necessary.

All manures are partiallydecomposed and thus ready

for consumption by worms.Poultrymanure

High N content resultsin good nutrition and ahigh value product.

High protein levelscan be dangerous toworms, so must beused in smallquantities; majoradaptation requiredfor worms not used tothis feedstock. May

be precomposted butnot necessary if used

cautiously.

Some books suggest thatpoultry manure is notsuitable for worms becauseit is so hot; however,

research in has shown thatworms can adapt if initial

proportion of PM tobedding is 10% by volumeor less.

Sheep/Goatmanure

Good nutrition. Requireprecomposting (weedseeds); small particlesize can lead to

packing, necessitatingextra bulkingmaterial.

With right additives toincrease C:N ratio, thesemanures are also good

beddings

Rabbit manure N content second onlyto poultry manure,therefore good

nutrition; containsvery good mix ofvitamins & minerals;ideal earthworm feed.

Must be leached priorto use because of highurine content; can

overheat if quantitiestoo large; availabilityusually not good

Many U.S. rabbit growersplace earthworm bedsunder their rabbit hutches

to catch the pellets as theydrop through the wire meshcage floors.

Fresh foodscraps (e.g.,peels, other

food prepwaste,

leftovers,commercial

foodprocessing

wastes)

Excellent nutrition,good moisture content,

possibility of revenuesfrom waste tippingfees.

Extremely variable(depending onsource); high N canresult in heating; meat& high-fat wastes cancreate anaerobicconditions and odors,attract pests, soshould not beincluded without

precomposting.

Some food wastes aremuch better than others:coffee grounds areexcellent, as they are highin N, not greasy or smelly,and are attractive toworms; alternatively, rootvegetables (e.g., potatoculls) resist degradationand require a long time to

be consumed.

Precompostedfood wastes

Good nutrition; partialdecomposition makesdigestion by wormseasier and faster; caninclude meat and othergreasy wastes; lesstendency to overheat.

Nutrition less thanwith fresh foodwastes.

Vermicomposting canspeed the curing processfor conventionalcomposting operationswhile increasing value ofend product.


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Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes

Bio-solids(human

waste)

Excellent nutritionand excellent product;

can be activated ornon-activated sludge,septic sludge;

possibility of wastemanagement revenues

Heavy metal and/orchemical

contamination (iffrom municipalsources); odor duringapplication to beds(worms control fairlyquickly); possibilityof pathogen survivalif process notcomplete

Vermitech Pty Ltd. inAustralia has been very

successful with thisprocess, but they useautomated systems; EPA-funded tests in Floridademonstrated that wormsdestroy human pathogensas well as doesthermophillic composting

(Eastmanet al., 2001).Seaweed Good nutrition; results

in excellent product,

high in micronutrientsand beneficialmicrobes

Salt must be rinsedoff, as it is

detrimental to worms;availabilityvaries by region

Beef farmer in Antigonish,Nova Scotia, Canada, are

producing certified organicvermicompost from cattlemanure, bark, and seaweed

Legume hays Higher N contentmakes these good feedas well as reasonable

bedding.

Moisture levels not ashigh as other feeds,requires more inputand monitoring

Probably best to mix thisfeed with others, such asmanures

Grains (e.g.,feed mixtures

foranimals, such

as chickenmash)

Excellent, balancednutrition, easy tohandle, no odor, canuse organic grains for

certified organicproduct.

Higher value thanmost feeds, thereforeexpensive to use; lowmoisture content;

some larger seedshard to digest andslow to break down

Danger: Worms consumegrains but cannot digestlarger, tougher kernels;these are passed in castings

and build up in bedding,resulting in suddenoverheating.

Corrugatedcardboard(includingWaxed)

Excellent nutrition(due to high proteinglue used to holdlayers together);worms like thismaterial; possiblerevenue source fromWM fees

Must be shredded(waxed variety)and/or soaked (non-waxed) prior tofeeding

Some worm growers claimthat corrugated cardboardstimulates wormreproduction

Fish, poultryoffal; blood

wastes; animalmortalities

High N contentprovides goodnutrition; opportunityto turn problematicwastes into high-quality product

Must beprecomposted untilpast Thermophillicstage

Composting of offal, bloodwastes, etc. is difficult and

produces strong odors.Should only be done within- vessel systems; much

bulking required.Source: Munroe (2007).


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2.1.3. Moisture

The bedding used must be able to hold sufficient moisture if the worms are to have alivable environment. Earthworms do not have specialized breathing devices. They

breathe through their skin, which needs to remain moist to facilitate respiration. Liketheir aquatic ancestors, earthworms can live for months completely submerged inwater, and they will die if they dry out (Sherman, 2003). The ideal moisture-contentrange for materials in conventional composting systems is 45-60%. In contrast, theideal moisture-content range for vermicomposting or vermiculture processes is 70-90%. Within this broad range, researchers have found slightly different optimums:Dominguez and Edwards (1997) found that there is a direct relationship between themoisture content and the growth rate of earthworms. E. andreicultured in pig manuregrew and matured between 65 and 90% moisture content, the optimum being 85%.Until 85% moisture, the higher moisture conditions clearly facilitated growth, asmeasured by the increase in biomass. Increased moisture up to 90% clearly

accelerated the development of sexual maturity, whereas not all the worms at 65-75%developed a clitellum even after 44 days. Additionally, earthworms at sexual maturityhad greater biomass at higher moisture contents compared to worms grown at lowermoisture contents. Canadian researchers in Nova Scotia tested moisture contents withdifferent bedding materials, i.e. organic materials included shredded corrugatedcardboard, waxed corrugated cardboard, immature municipal solid waste compost,

biosolids (sewage sludge), chicken manure and dairy cow manure in a variety ofcombinations. They found that 75-80% moisture contents produced the best growthand reproductive response (GEORG, 2004).

The moisture content preferences of juvenile and clitellate cocoon-producing (adult)E. fetidain separated cow manure have been investigated. It ranged from 50% to 80%for adults, but juvenile earthworms had a narrower range of suitable moisture levelsfrom 65% to 70%. Clitellum development occurred in earthworms at a moisturecontent from 60% to 70% but occurred later at a moisture content from 55% to 60%.The tolerance limit for low moisture conditions on the growth of E. fetida wasreported to be below 50% for up to 1 month (Reinecke and Venter, 1987). WhileGunadi et al. (2003) found that the earthworm growth rate was fastest in the separatedcattle manure solids with a moisture content of 90% with a maximum mean weight ofearthworms of 600 mg after 12 weeks. The slowest growth rate ofE. fetidawas in theseparated cattle manure solids at a moisture content of 70%.

2.1.4. Aeration

Worms require oxygen and cannot survive anaerobic conditions (very low or absenceof oxygen). When factors such as high levels of grease in the feedstock or excessivemoisture combined with poor aeration conspire to cut off oxygen supplies, areas ofthe worm bed, or even the entire system, can become anaerobic. This will kill theworms very quickly. Not only are the worms deprived of oxygen, they are also killed

by toxic substances (e.g., ammonia) created by different sets of microbes that bloomunder these conditions. This is one of the main reasons for not including meat or othergreasy wastes in worm feedstock unless they have been pre-composted to break down

the oils and fats.


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2.1.5. Temperature control

Controlling temperature to within the worms tolerance is vital to both

vermicomposting and vermiculture processes.

2.1.5.1. Low temperatures

Eisenia can survive in temperatures as low as 0oC, but they dont reproduce at single-digit temperatures and they dont consume as much food. It is generally considered

necessary to keep the temperatures above 10oC (minimum) and preferably 15oC forvermicomposting efficiency and above 15oC (minimum) and preferably 20oC for

productive vermiculture operations.

2.1.5.2.Effects of freezing

Eiseniacan survive having their bodies partially encased in frozen bedding and willonly die when they are no longer able to consume food. Moreover, tests at the NovaScotia Agricultural College (NSAC) have confirmed that their cocoons surviveextended periods of deep freezing and remain viable (GEORG, 2004).

2.1.5.3.High temperatures

Compost worms can survive temperatures in the mid-30s but prefer a range in the 20s(oC). Above 35oC will cause the worms to leave the area. If they cannot leave, theywill quickly die. In general, warmer temperatures (above 20oC) stimulatereproduction.

Hou et al. (2005) studied the influence of some environmental parameters on thegrowth and survival of earthworms in municipal solid waste. Earthworms attained thehighest growth rate of 0.0459g / g-day at a temperature of 19.7C. The shortest growth

period was 52 days at 25C, with the largest growth rate 0.0138 g /g-day. At 15C,20C and 25C, the fastest growth rate appeared, respectively, in 53 days, 34 days and27 days, with the growth rate 0.0068, 0.0123 and 0.0138 g /g-day.

Activities in all soil organisms follow a typical seasonal fluctuation. This cycle is

related to optimal temperature and moisture, such that a peak in activity usuallyoccurs in the spring as temperature and moisture become optimal after cold wintertemperatures. In systems where snow accumulates on the soil surface, such that thesoil does not actually freeze, fungal activity may continue at high levels throughoutthe winter in litter. Decomposition may continue at the highest rates through thewinter under the snow in the litter. In systems where moisture becomes limiting in thesummer, activity may reach levels even lower than in the winter. When temperaturesremain warm in the fall and rain begins again after a summer drought, such as inMediterranean climates, a second peak of activity may be observed in the fall. If these

peaks are not observed, this suggests inadequate organic matter in the soil.


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The growth of E. fetida in organic matter substrates with different moisturecontents and temperatures has been studied by various authors in the laboratory. Thisspecies gained weight maximally and survived best at temperatures between 20Cand 29C and moisture contents between 70% and 85% in horse manure and activated

sludge (Kaplan et al., 1980). Edwards (1988) reported that the optimum growth ofE.fetidain different animal and vegetable wastes occurred at 25-30C and at a moisturecontent range of 75-90%, but these factors could vary in different substrates.

2.1.5.4. Wormss response to temperature differentials.

Compost worms will redistribute themselves within piles, beds or windrowsaccording to temperature gradients. In outdoor composting windrows in wintertime,where internal heat from decomposition is in contrast to frigid external temperatures,the worms will be found in a relatively narrow band at a depth where the temperatureis close to optimum. They will also be found in much greater numbers on the south

facing side of windrows in the winter and on the opposite side in the summer.

Edwards (1988) studied the life cycles and optimal conditions for survival and growthof E. fetida, D. veneta, E. eugeniae, and P. excavatus. Each of these four speciesdiffered considerably in terms of their responses and tolerance to differenttemperatures. The optimum temperature forE. fetidawas 25 C, and its temperaturetolerance was between 0 and 35C.Dendrobaena venetahad a rather low temperatureoptimum and rather less tolerance to extreme temperatures. The optimumtemperatures forE. eugeniaeandP. excavatuswere around 25 C, but they died attemperatures below 9C and above 30C. Optimal temperatures for cocoon

production were much lower than those for growth for all these species.

2.2. Methods of vermicomposting

2.2.1. Pits below the ground

Pit of any convenient dimension can be constructed in the backyard or garden orin a field. It may be single pit, two pits or tank of any sizes with brick and mortar with

proper water outlets. The most convenient pit or chamber of easily manageable size is2m x 1m x 0.75m. The size of the pits and chambers should be determined accordingto the volume of biomass and agricultural waste. To combat the ants from attackingthe worms, it is good to have a water column in the centre of the parapet wall of thevermin-pits.

Photo 2.1.Open Pit Vermicomposting

Source: Kirungakottai

(http://www.icasaweb.google.com)


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2.2.2. Heaping above the ground

The waste material is spread on a polythene sheet placed on the ground and thencovered with cattle dung. Sunitha et al. (1997) compared the efficacy of pit and heapmethods of preparing vermicompost under field conditions. Considering the

biodegradation of wastes as the criterion, the heap method of preparing vermicompostwas better than the pit method. Earthworm population was high in the heap method,with a 21-fold increase inEudrilus eugenaeas compared to 17-fold increase in the pitmethod. Biomass production was also higher in the heap method (46-fold increase)than in the pit method (31-fold). Consequent production of vermicompost was alsohigher in the heap method (51 kg) than in the pit method (40 kg). On the contrary,Saini (2008) compared the efficacy of pit and heap methods under field conditions

over three seasons (winter, summer and rainy) using,Eisenia fetida. A pit size of 2 0.5 0.6 m (length width depth); and heap of size 2 0.6 0.5 m (length width hight) were prepared with the same amount of mixture. The pits and heaps weremade under shady trees, in open field having a temporary shed made of straw, raisedon pillars, to prevent them from direct sunlight and rainfall. The pits had brick liningsand plastered bottoms. The pits and heaps carrying the organic waste mixture werecovered with gunny bags and were watered at 10 liter/pit or heap daily, except onrainy days, to maintain moisture. On the basis of the results of three seasons, it wasconcluded that summer and winter were better for the pit method, whereas the rainyseason favored the heap method for vermicomposting, utilizing Eisenia fetida.However, if the annual performance of the two methods is compared, the pit method

produced more worms and more biomass. Therefore, on the latter grounds, the pitmethod of vermicomposting is more suitable than the heap method in the semi-aridsub-tropical regions of North-West India.

Photo 2.2.Open heap vermicomposting

Source: Department of Agriculture,Andaman & Nicobar:

(http://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htm)

2.2.3. Tanks above the ground

Tanks made up of different materials such as normal bricks, hollow bricks, localstones, asbestos sheets and locally available rocks were evaluated for vermicompost

preparation (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).
http://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htmhttp://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htmhttp://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htmhttp://agri.and.nic.in/vermi_culture.htm


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Photo 2.3.Commercial vermicompost operationat KCDC Bangalore, India.

Source: Basavaiah (2006)

2.2.4. Cement rings

Vermicompost can also be prepared above the ground by using cement rings. The size

of the cement ring should be 90 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height (Nagavallemma etal., 2004).

Photo 2.4.Cement ringvermicomposting.

Source: Nagavallemma et al.

(2004)

2.2.5. Commercial model

This model contains partition walls with small holes to facilitate easy movementof earthworms from one chamber to another (Figure 2.1). Providing an outlet at onecorner of each chamber with a slight slope facilitates collection of excess water. The

four components are filled with plant residues one after another. Once the firstchamber is filled layer by layer along with cow dung, earthworms are released. Thenthe second chamber is started filling layer by layer. Once the contents in first chamberare decomposed the earthworms move to the chamber 2, which is already filled andready for earthworms. This facilitates harvesting of decomposed material from thefirst chamber and also saves labor for harvesting and introducing earthworms. Thistechnology reduces labor cost and saves water as well as time (Twomlow, 2004).Water is saved by reducing evaporation from the surface during handling from oneroom to another in limited distances with minimum exposure to drier air outside.Tanks can be constructed with the dimensions suitable for operations. with smallholes to facilitate easy movement of earthworms from one tank to the other.


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Photo 2.5.Commercial vermicomposting unit

Source: Ecoscience

Research Foundation:

(http://www.erfindia.org)

Vermicomposting based on the use of worms results in high quality compost. The

process does not require physical turning of the material. To maintain aerobicconditions and limit the temperature rise, the bed or pile of materials needs to be oflimited size. Temperatures should be regulated so as to favour growth and activity ofworms. Composting period is longer as compared to other rapid methods and varies

between six to twelve weeks.

Figure2.1.Commercial model ofvermicompostingdeveloped byICRISAT.

Source: Twomlow,

2004.
http://www.erfindia.org/http://www.erfindia.org/http://www.erfindia.org/http://www.erfindia.org/


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2.3. The trial experience in Egypt

2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:

Four types of earthworms were brought to Egypt from Australia. from Australia:Lumbriscus Rubellus(Red Worm),Eisenia Fetida(Tiger Worm),Perionyx Excavatus(Indian Blue), andEudrilus Eugeniae(African Night Crawler).

2.3.2. Bedding

Two types of vermiculture were used. The first was aiming at increasing thepopulation and known as breeding vermiculture. The other type is the growing systemaiming at converting organic matter into vermicompost.

Commercially available perforated plastic containers, generally used for harvestingfruits and vegetables, each has the dimensions of 30cm wide, 50cm long and 20cmheight were used for the breeding system.The first 5cm from the bottom was lined bya mixture of 2/3 shredded cardboard and 1/3 shredded newspaper, as beddingmaterial. The cardboard and newspaper were wetted in a bucket of water; andallowing the excess water to run out before using. The next layer was 5cm of pHneutral castings spread evenly, then 1-2kg/m of adult worms was supplied. Every 1-2days, 1-2kg of old manure was added. The surface was covered by 5cm shredded

newspaper to keep moisture.

The growing system was made of brick, with the dimensions 1m width, 0.5m height,and 3m long, and 0.5m between beds. The bottom of the beds was insulated by 20cmcement layer with a slight slope in order to facilitate collection of leachate (Photo2.7).

The sequence of layers for the growing beds was the same as the breeding systemexcept that the base of the bed was 10cm of cardboard/newspaper moist mixture, andthe worms spread over the surface were the juvenile worms only.

Photo 2.6.Earthworms used in

Egypt

Source: Auther


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Photo 2.7.Trial vermicompost set up atDokki.

Source: Author

2.3.3. Food

For the feeding of the breeding boxes, a mixture of rabbit manure and fresh kitchenscraps (citrus not more than 1/3 of food scraps) were used. The feed was mixed wellin the mixing unit until it resembles dairy slurry. This was added in one strip alonglengthwise wall in a maximum 5cm thick and 10cm wide. The feed was suppliedagain only when first strip is finished, and the new feed is added along opposite wall.

As for the growing beds, the feed varies over time. Potato wastes from themanufacturers as potato peels were brought into the site to be dried and used asneeded. Plant wastes from the location were shredded and mixed with animal manureto be composted for 1-2 weeks. This semi-composted material was the base feed thatgoes to the mixing unit with available fruits and vegetable wastes were brought fromthe nearby shops. The feed mixture was spread evenly on the surface of the beds.

Photo 2.8.Mixture of food wastes and shredded

plant material ready to be mixed in the

rotating machine.

Source: Author

In order to facilitate the work, a shredding machine was manufactured locally (Photo2.9) to prepare large plant material before mixed with other fruit or vegetable wastesusing a rotating mixing machine.


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Photo 2.9.The locally manufactured shreddingmachine.

Source: Author

2.3.4. Moisture

The rule of thump is to check manually for moisture on a daily basis to ensure that isnot too dry, and when watering it is important not to make it too wet. Only fresh waterwas used. The breeding boxes were rearranged to make the first on the top to becomethe first from the bottom in order to avoid moisture variations between the boxes.The instructions were:

- Water little and oftenonly the newspaper on the surface should be wet.- Water after checking the bed surfaceif already damp, skip one watering.- Water should be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation.- Use a spray or mist, not jets of water.

2.3.5. Aeration

The aeration was maintained as the bottom of beds or boxes has sufficient beddingmaterial, and the surface is only shredded newspaper. The aeration could be a

problem mainly if watering is not done properly leading to too wet conditions.Only the newspaper on the surface should be wet, and as mentioned earlier, watershould be used to supplement existing humidity and replace evaporation. Beds

must be mixed if:- The bed smells bad.- The bed is too wet.- The bed is hot or lukewarm to touch.- The worms are not distributed evenly on the surface.- The section of bed turned only when there is no food on the surface ofthe bed, and to a depth of 10-15cm only.


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2.3.6. Temperature

The location of the growing beds was selected in order to avoid strong winds. Ashading roof made of reed mats was installed in order to prevent direct solar radiation

over the beds in summer. The mats were removed during the winter. Narrower mats were used to cover the beds, as they shade the growing beds, and alsoprotect from birds, cats or dogs.

The breeding boxes were laid under grape vines grown in a shaded greenhouse. Inwinter, the vines were pruned allowing sun to penetrate, while in summer the shadingscreens and the shade of the green leaves of the vines were pleasant, not onlytemperature wise, but also moisture as well. No other temperature control measureswere used and this made growing and breeding conditions maintained stable over bothsummer and winter without major reduction in worms activities. Temperatures

maintained by daily checking. The general practice was to turn the beds or boxeswhen conditions were not suitable. When a bed is hot or lukewarm to touch, it must

be mixed gently in order to allow air flow between the layers. In such cases,precomposted food must be used to prevent over heating from organic matterdecomposition. It should be remembered that earth worms move from one side toanother horizontally, and from the bottom to be close to surface and close or far fromthe food according to the comfortable combination of moisture and humidity. In suchdynamic situations, temperature varies over time of the day, season, type of organicmaterial, the covering material, as well as uniformity of the beds.

Photo 2.10.The shaded growing beds at Dokkigreenhouse station.

Source: Author

2.3.7 Harvesting

Harvesting is an important procedure for the success of vermiculture operations.

Regardless of the harvesting target, it should be done quickly and simply. The target

of harvest could be castings, adult worms or babies and eggs.

a- Harvesting castings is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a growing bed.


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- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure along each side of bed.

- Waiting 1-2 days

- Scooping out from the centre of the bed some castings.

- Checking for eggs and wormsthese should be very limited.

- Collecting castings from centre of bed.

- Spreading castings to dry.

- When castings clump and crumble, pack into plastic bags with pin-

prick holes

Photo 2. 11. Harvesting ofcastings.

source: Basavaiah (2006)

b- Harvesting adult worms is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a growing bed.

- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure inside 70% shade-cloth along

centre of bed.

- Waiting 1-2 days.- Collecting worms and castings from side walls.

Photo 2. 12.Harvested adult worms from thegrowing beds.

Source: Author


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- Checking size of wormshould be approaching reproductive state and

clitellum should be noticeable.

- Placing adult worms in breeding beds.

- Checking castings for eggs - replace in growing bed.

Photo 2. 13.

A couple of adult worms, with clear

clitellum in both of them.

Source: Author

c- Harvesting babies is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a breeding bed.- Placing narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure or thin fruit peels (not citrus)

inside 90% shade-cloth along centre of bed.

- Waiting1-2 days.

- Emptying contents straight into growing bed, under newspaper cover.

- Checking for babies that may be caught in shade-cloth.

d-Harvesting eggs is performed according to the following steps:

- Selecting a breeding bed.

- Baiting one side of the bed.

- Wait 1-2 days.- Scooping out the bed on the opposite side of the bait.

- Checking for adult worms and replace in bed.

- Placing contents directly in growing bed.

- Placing new bedding and food on empty side of breeding bed.

Photo 2.14.

Worm eggs.

Source: Author


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3. Use of compost worms globally in countries of similar climate

The previous two chapters covered the historical background as well as the trial ThePhilippines, Cuba and India are examples of countries with similar overall conditions

to Egypt Their technologies are simple and could be easily adapted to the localconditions. The United States of America is the model example of advancedtechnologies in vermiculture. Such examples will broaden the readers choice withwhat could be done in the future. Unfortunately, vermicompost and vermiculture arevery limited in MENA region, Most of the studies look at utilization of local speciesto produce vermicompost. For example, Aldadi et al. (2005), Nourbakhsh(2007)andYousefi et al. (2009) had some studies in Iran aiming for waste water treatment.Therefore, the following examples were selected to broaden the picture of commercial

production. One could adapt or modify any of them or even create a newer version.

3.1 Vermicomposting in Philippines

The worms used are Lumbricus rubellus and/orPerionyx excavator. The worms arereared and multiplied from a commercially-obtained breeder stock in shallow wooden

boxes stored in a shed. The boxes are approximately 45 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm and havedrainage holes; they are stored on shelves in rows and tiers. A bedding material iscompounded from miscellaneous organic residues such as sawdust, cereal straw, ricehusks, bagasse, cardboard and so on, and is moistened well with water. The wetmixture is stored for about one month, being covered with a damp sack to minimizeevaporation, and is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete,chicken manure and green matter such as water hyacinth is added. The material is

placed in the boxes and should be sufficiently loose for the worms to burrow andshould be able to retain moisture. The proportions of the different materials will varyaccording to the nature of the material but a final protein content of about 15% should

be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is necessary and the boxes shouldbe kept at temperatures between 20oC and 27oC. At higher temperatures, the wormswill aestivate and, at lower temperatures, they hibernate. The excess worms that have

been harvested from the pit can be used in other pits, sold to other farmers for thesame purpose, used or sold for use as animal feed supplement, used or sold for use asfish food or, may even be used in certain human food preparations (Misra and Roy,2003).

African night crawler was introduced in the Philippines in the 1970s for theproduction vermicastings as an organic fertilizer. Its use today remains focused forthis purpose. Recently, with rising cost of imported fishmeal, a study explores on thecommercial farming of the species, specifically on its production economics, and thetechnical challenges in husbandry and operation (Cruz, 2005). This project wasfunding assistance of the DOST-PCAMRD1 . The site chosen was a flat but slightlyinclining area (around 3%) of approximately 1,000 m2. It is partially shaded bymahogany trees in the morning and the afternoon. The soil is clay loam with nearlyneutral pH. Water used for the experiment was provided from an adjacent deep well.

1

Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, (Department of Science andTechnology)


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A total of 8 units of 1 m x 5 m earthworm plots were constructed on bareground utilizing roofing material as sidewalls. The sidewalls had a total height ofaround 40 cm, of which 3-4 cm was sunk on the ground. Wooden stakes supportedthese sidewalls. Each plot was sub-divided into two units of 1 m x 2.5 m beds for ease

of management. The unit was provided with a hapa net lining, to prevent the wormsfrom digging beneath the substrate and escaping. Plots were covered with a plasticsheet to protect it from direct sunlight and rain. A horizontal wooden beam stretchingthe length of plot and held by vertical poles provided the support for the plastic sheetcover. Earthworm plots were kept covered with a plastic canopy, and opened onlyduring inspection or when watering was done.

Photo 3.1.

Earthworm plots showing plasticcovers and support frame

Source: Wormsphilippines.com

Several types of substrates were used in the study; these were sugarcane bagasse,mudpress, spent mushroom substrate, and cow manure. The plots were watered every3-6 days, depending on the weather. During the dry months, watering was routinelydone every 3 days.

Based on the data and experience gathered in this study, the cost and returnprojection for a larger scale earthworm farm are based on the following keyassumptions:

- 3 full-time workers with a salary of PhP150 (3.33$)/day- Crop cycle of 60 days (2 months), or 6 production cycles/yr- Total of 52 units of 2.5 m2area earthworm plots- Stocking of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month)

- Harvesting of 1 bed a day (26 working days a month)- Earthworm stocking biomass of 3 kg/plot and harvest biomass of 9 kg/plot,

fter 60 days (200% biomass gain)- Total substrate volume of 600 kg/plot/crop cycle based on two 300 kg

loadings- 70% recovery of vermicastings from total substrate weight- 20% recovery of vermi-meal from total earthworm biomass

The total operational cost for 52 plots for a 2 month crop cycle is estimated atPhP80,401.79 (1783.74$), including the cost of equipment depreciation (capital cost

assumed at PhP5,000 per plot, depreciated in 6 crops or 1 year). The total volume of


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vermicastings produced per crop is 21,840 kg based on a production of 420 kg/plot(from 600 kg x 70% recovery). The total gross production of earthworm biomass percrop is 468 kg, based on a yield of 9 kg/plot (from the 3 kg starter and 6 kg of biomassgain). At the selling price of 0.11$/kg of vermicastings and 0.22$/kg for the

earthworms biomass, gross sales for one crop cycle is estimated at 2356.11$ and1035.62$, respectively. This would provide the venture a net profit of around 742.73$every 2 months, and a rate of return of 249.83% annually. The study suggests a

potential for developing the use of earthworms in farm-made moist feeds. Such typeof feed is simple to produce and is proven to work well when properly formulated and

processed. In as much as the production technology for earthworm farming can bereadily adopted at the village level, where organic raw materials abound and wherelabor is cheap.

3.2 Vermicomposting in Cuba

In Cuba, different methods are used for worm propagation and vermicomposting. Thefirst and most common is cement troughs, two feet wide and six feet long, much likelivestock watering troughs, used to raise worms and create worm compost. Because ofthe climate, they are watered by hand every day. In these beds, the only feedstock forthe worms is manure, which is aged for about one week before being added to thetrough.First, a layer of three to four inches of manure is placed in the empty trough, thenworms are added. As the worms consume the manure, more manure is layered on top,roughly every ten days, until the worm compost reaches within a couple inches of thetop of the trough, about two months. Then the worms are separated from the compostand transferred to another trough.

The second method of vermicomposting is windrows, where cow manure is piledabout three feet across and three feet wide, and then it is seeded with worms. As theworms work their way through it, fresh manure is added to the end of the row, and theworms move forward. The rows are covered with fronds or palm leaves to keep themshaded and cool. Some of these rows have a drip system - a hose running alongsidethe row with holes in it. But mostly, the rows are watered by hand. Some of theserows are hundreds of feet long. The compost is gathered from the opposite end whenthe worms have moved forward. Then it is bagged and sold. Fresh manure, seededwith worms, begins the row and the process again. Some of the windrows have bricks

running along their sides, but most are simply piles of manure without sides orprotection. Manure is static composted for 30 days, then transferred to rows forworms to be added. After 90 days, the piles reach three feet high. It has been reportedthat worm populations can double in 60 to 90 days.


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Photo 3.2.Windrows vermicomposting method:in Havana, Cuba .

Source:newfarm.org

3.3. Vermicomposting in India

A study on production and marketing of vermicompost was carried out during 2007-08 in Dharwad District of Karnataka (Shivakumar et al., 2009). The study made anattempt to analyze the economics of vermicompost production, marketing methodsfollowed, financial feasibility of vermicomposting and the problems faced invermicompost production and marketing in Dharwad District. The players involved invermicompost production activities are the farming sector, government organizations,

private organizations and other agencies. This has encouraged many government andnongovernment agencies to promote vermicompost production. The rough estimatesindicate that Karnataka state produces around 40,000 to 50,000 metric tons annually.The study pertains to Dharwad district. Two locations of the district, namely Dharwadand Kalaghatagi were purposively selected and two villages each were randomlyselected from each location. For the economics of production, 10 vermicompost

producers, who followed traditional heap system of vermicomposting, were randomlyselected from each village. Thus, the total sample size was 40 producers. The resultsrevealed that 70 % of vermicompost producers were illiterate. With regard to familytype of vermicompost producers, it can be seen that as many as 60 % of them had afamily, while 40 percent had joint families. A majority of them (~70 %) had annual

income in the range of $257 to 1070$ followed by around 18 per cent of them havingincome of more than $1070 per annum and the rest having annual income of less than$257. With respect to method of production, heap method of vermicomposting wasfollowed by 70 % of the producers and trench method was followed by the remaining30 %. With respect to method of production, a majority of respondents were found to

produce vermicompost using heap method because it costs considerably lowercompared to the trench method of production. The production of Vermicompost

provided part time employment for the family members and hence it generatedadditional revenue for the family.

The total cost of production of vermicompost per ton was 28.6$. The total marketing

cost amounted to $4.3 per ton in channel-I (the producer-seller sold the produce to


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users in Dharwad) and $3.2 per ton in channel-II (the producer-seller sold the producethrough BAIF to the users in Kalghatagi). The net returns per ton of vermicompostwere $26 in channel-I compared to $24.5 in channel-II. The net present value for thevermicompost production was $2136.89, the benefit cost ratio at 12% discount rate

was 3.44, internal rate of return was 38% and payback period was 1.71 years .

Some islands in India such as Andaman and Nicobar islands are known for their widevariety of crops such as paddy, coconut, areca_nut, clove, black pepper, cinnamon,nutmeg and vegetables. About 2-3 kg of earthworms is required for 1000 kg of

biomass, whereas about 1100 number earthworms are required for one square meterarea. Non burrowing species are mostly used for compost making. Red earthwormspecies like Eisenia foetida and Eudrillus enginae are most efficient in compostmaking. Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale is shown in Table3.1.

Women self-help groupes (SHGs) in several watersheds in India have set upvermicomposting enterprises. By becoming an earning member of the family, they areinvolved in the decision-making process, which has raised their social status. One ofthe women managed to earn earned $36 per month from this activity. She has alsoinspired and trained 300 peers in 50 villages. (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).

Photo 3.3.Women self-help group involvedin vermicomposting, to promotemicro-enterprises and generateincome

Source: Nagavallemma et al.

(2004)


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Table 3.1.Summary for Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale inAndaman andNicobar (A&N) Islands, India:

Parameters Low lying area Hilly areaLow lying +

Hilly areaArea (ha) 0.08 5.08 5.08

Cropping SystemPaddy-

vegetable

1Coconut/

2Areca_nutspices

Paddy-vegetable/ (1 ha) Coconut/

arecanut/spices (1 ha)

Vermicompost requirement(kg/year)

2500 + 5000= 7500

2500 7500 + 2500 =10000

Crop residue requirement (kg)7750 Paddy

system +homestead waste

1750 fromcoconut orareca_nut

plantations

3000 from paddysystem + 6500 from

plantations

Gliricidia production fromfence (kg)

1250 1250 2500

Cow dung required (kg) 6000 2000 Kg 8000 kg

Number of animals required1 cow + 4 goats+10 poultry birds

1 cow 2cow

Total waste for composting (kg)Earth worms re

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Vermiculture in Egypt