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VassilisLambropoulos

ModernistTheoryandTheaterbetweentheTragicandtheMelancholic

(materialforalecture,Winter2018*)

MessianismasaModernistCritiqueofModernity

TherejectionofthecovenantofJewishassimilationbytwentieth-century

Messianismwasanintegralpartofthepre-1914pan-Europeancritiqueof

modernityand"romanticanti-capitalism"(Lukács),whichalsoincludedthinkers

likePauldeLagarde,PaulErnst,ErnstJünger,HermannHesse,andMaxWeber

(AnsonRabinbach:"BetweenEnlightenmentandApocalypse:Benjamin,Blochand

ModernGermanJewishMessianism,"NGC34,Winter1985,80)."Intheyears

approachingtheFirstWorldWar,theself-confidenceandsecurityofGermanJewry

waschallengedbyanewJewishsensibilitythatcanbedescribedasatonceradical,

secularandMessianicinbothtoneandcontent.WhatthisnewJewishethosrefused

toacceptwasabovealltheoptimismofthegenerationofGermanJewsnurturedon

theconceptofBildungastheGermanJewishmystique....ForGermanJewsofthat

earliergenerationthe'Bildungsideal'ofKant,GoetheandSchillerassuredthemofan

indissolublebondbetweenEnlightenment,universalethics,autonomousartand

monotheism(strippedofanyparticularist'Jewish'characteristics)."(78).Ananti-

rationalistJewishspiritemergedattheturnofthecenturytochallengeHermann

Cohen'sJudaic"ReligionofReason.""ThisnewJewishspirit,aproductofthe'post-

assimilatoryRenaissance,'canbedescribedasamodernJewishMessianism:radical,

uncompromising,andcomprisedofanesotericintellectualismthatisas

uncomfortablewiththeEnlightenmentasitisenamoredofapocalypticvisions-

whetherrevolutionaryorpurelyredemptiveinthespiritualsense"(80).

"Messianismdemandsacompleterepudiationoftheworldasitis,placingitshope

inafuturewhoserealizationcanonlybebroughtaboutbythedestructionoftheold

order.Apocalypric,catastrophic,utopian,andpessimistic,Messianismcaptureda

generationofJewishintellectualsbeforetheFirstWorldWar.TheMessianic

impulseappearsinmanyforms...:secularandtheological,asatraditionthatstands

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opposedtobothsecularrationalismandwhathasbeencalled'normativeJudaism'"

(81)."ThenewMessianismturnedonthedoubleproblemofredefiningthecrisisof

EuropeanculturethroughaspecifickindofJewishradicalism,andatthesametime

ofredefiningJewishintellectualpoliticsthroughanewattitudetowardEuropean

culture"(82).

Tragedyvs.Trauerspiel

AlargenumberoftheseJewishthinkerswerepreoccupiedwithboththe

ancientmeaningandthemodernpossibilityoftragedy.Interestintheideaofthe

tragic"wascommonamongseveralliterary,politicalandtheologicallyoriented

German-speakingJewsintheperiodprecedingandfollowingtheFirstWorldWar"

(Jacobson:MetaphysicsoftheProfane38).Thelistisimpressivelylongandmay

include(inroughchronologicalorder)Freud,Cohen,Simmel,Lukács,Mannheim,

Scheler,Rosenzweig,Shestov,Bloch,Benjamin,Cassirer,Arendt,Weil,and

Goldmann.Theywereamongtheseveralartists,writers,critics,andphilosophers

who,intheearlytwentiethcentury,respondedtoNietzsche’scallforarejuvenation

oftragedythrougharecoveryofitsoriginsandfundamentals.Buttheirresponse

wasthoroughlyaffectedbyGeorgSimmel'spessimisticverdictonculture.

Thecontradictionsofmodernculturerepresentanintensedramatizationof

theconstitutiveconflictbetweenlifeprocessandgeneratedforms.Thisiswhat

Simmelcalled"tragedyofculture."Itdescribesthedebilitatngalienationbetween

individualsandtheirlabor,culturalcreations,fellowhumans,andthemselves.

Graduallyhesawtragedyasthecursedconditionofyearningforafulfilledlifeand

achievingitonlyinossifiedforms."Thegreatenterpriseofthespiritsucceeds

innumerabletimesinovercomingtheobjectassuchbymakinganobjectofitself,

returningtoitselfenrichedbyitscreation.Butthespirithastopayforthisself-

perfectionwiththetragicpotentialthatalogicanddynamicisinevitablycreatedby

theuniquelawsofitsownworldwhichincreasinglyseparatesthecontentsof

culturefromitsessentialmeaningandvalue"(Simmel:"Concept&Tragedyof

Culture"[1911].1968:46).Whatmakesthehumanrelationshiptoculturalobjects

tragicisthattheirhuman-madeobjectivityacquiresanindependentnormof

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developmentwhichtearsthemawayfromthesubject,andthesubjectfromitself(in

amannerthatrepeatsthesceneofitsoriginalsin)(TragicIdea99).Tousethe

terminologyofLukács,Simmel'sstudent,thetragedyoflife,whichisalwaysinflux,

isthatsoulgivesitstaticforms.Therefore,ifsubjectiveexperienceandobjective

culturecannotbereconciled,ifunityremainselusiveandthislifecannotbefully

lived,wehavetoanticipateanotherlifeandprepareforit.

Messianismoftennegotiateditsculturalorientationbyquestioningtragic

thoughtandtheater.Simmel'sstudents(suchasLukács,Mannheim,Blochand

Benjamin)andotheravidreaderstalkedabouttragedyamongthemselves,debating

ideasandplanningprojects.Theywereparticularlyinterestedinemerging

theatricalprojects,fromnewdramastorevivedfestivals.Twohighlyrepresentative

figuresstandout:GeorgLukács(1885-1971)wasinconversationwith20-year

olderplaywrightandauthorPaulErnst(1866-1933)[authoroftheTrauerspiel

Canossa(1908)],whomovedfromclassical"tragedy"towhathecalled"redemption

drama"or"meta-tragedy,"whileWalterBenjamin(1892-1940)wasinconversation

with20-yearolderplaywrightandauthorHugovonHofmannsthal(1874-1924),

whomovedfromsymbolistclassicistdramatoexpressionistreligioustheater.To

bothofthemtragedyreferredsimultaneouslytophilosophy,literarypractice,and

dramaticproduction.

Morethananyoneofhiscontemporaries,Benjaminwasdeterminedto

discreditboththetheoryandthewritingoftragedy:IfNietzsche'sGodwasdead,

hisGoddidnotdie–heonlyforsooktheworldtotestpeople'smessianicfaith.

[Asweshallseeattheend,AgambendrawsonBenjamintoinvokethedestituent

powerofmessianicfaith.]“Anincompletesecularization,theindirectyieldof

Lutheranism,hadlefttheworldwithavacuumfromwhichtragicfreedomand

tragicgrandeurcouldnolongeremerge.Thetheaterofthisvacuum,itsennui,its

irrationalandcruelpassions,isthatofdeusabsconditus,thetheaterofthehidden

god”(Heller1991:311).Caughtbetweenethnicnostalgiaandreligiousdesolation,

Benjamin,togetherwithseveralotherpeopleofhisgeneration,aimedtogivethe

godforsakenworldofmodernityanalternative,messianicvision,withthe“angelof

history”providinghope,utopia,andredemptiontothosewhomightidentifywith

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theopeninglineofRilke's1stDuinoElegy(writtenin1912,publ.1923):"Who,ifI

criedout,wouldhearmeamongtheangelicorders?"Thathistoricalpredicament

wasmelancholic,nottragic,asmortalsstilllookedforwardtotheDayofJudgment.

...Whiletragictimeisonlyindividuallyfulfilled,truehistoricaltime(thetimeofthe

empiricalevent)isinfiniteandunfulfilled.Fulfilledhistoricaltimeisnot

individuallyfulfilled;itismessianictime,thehistoricalideaprovidedbytheBible

(Benjamin1996:55-6).

Benjamin'ssystematicendeavortoreplacetragedywiththeTraurspielasa

modernidealoftheaterandthoughtlastedforsometenyears,andrepresentedhis

life'smajorprojectofcombinedphilosophicalinquiryandstylisticstudy.Tohim,

thefundamentalquestionwas"whetherthetragicisaformwhichcanberealizedat

allatthepresenttime,orwhetheritisnotahistoricallylimitedform"(Benjamin,

OriginofGermanDrama,39).Thatiswhyheasked,withMaxScheler,"howjustified

areweinacceptingthatwhatpeopledescribeastragicistragic?"(38)Notonlydid

herejectattempts"torecognizeelementsoftheGreektragedy...astheessential

elementsoftheTrauerspiel"(100)butheinsistedcategoricallythat"themodern

theatrehasnothingtoshowwhichremotelyresemblesthetragedyoftheGreeks.In

denyingthisactualstateofaffairssuchdoctrinesofthetragicbetraythe

presumptionthatitmuststillbepossibletowritetragedies.Thatistheiressential

buthiddenmotive"(101),heconcluded,accusingthemof"culturalarrogance"

(101).

“Benjamin’spurposeinstagingaconfrontationbetweenGreektragedyand

GermanTrauerspielistodemonstratethatGreektragedycannomorebeseenasa

prototypicalformofGermanTrauerspielthanTrauerspielcanbesaidtocontain

elementsoftragedysuchastragicplot,tragicheroortragicdeath”(Asman1992:

607).LikeRosenzweigbeforehim,Benjaminrejectedtheideathatarejuvenationof

tragedyispossible.TheGreekpastrepresentedtheonlypossibilityoftragedy.

“WhereasNietzsche’sBirthofTragedyseemedtoestablishatheoryofmodernityas

ascenariooftragedy,Benjamin’sbookontheTrauespielproposesatheoryof

modernityasatheoryoftheTrauerspielinradicaloppositiontotragedy.The

incompatibilityoftragedyandTrauerspielisthearchitecturalfoundation”(Nägele

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1991:113)ofthelattertreatise.Soistheincompatibilityoftheclassicalandthe

baroque.Asalways,Benjamin'smodalityofthoughtoperatedinpolarities:profane

vs.religioushistory,fallennaturevs.fulfilledtime,mythicvs.messianic,fatevs.

redemption,symbolvs.allegory,imagevs.timeandsoonthroughtheentire

repertoireoftheoverarchingoppositionbetweenHellenismandHebraism.

TheBaroquedramaastheauthenticoriginofGermantheater

IntheOrigin(written1924-5,publ.1928),followingthemethodological

prologue,Benjaminsuggeststhat,sinceinGermany"aliterary'baroque'didnot

anywherebecomeconspicuous"(Origin58),untilveryrecentlythischapterin

literaryhistorydidnothaveitsownheadingandstyle.Instead,itwasdescribed,on

thebasisofverytraditional"classicisticschemes"(59),asaGermanRenaissance.

Stylisticanalysisshowsthistobeincorrect.Infact,bothancientthemesandtragic

poeticswereignoredbytheateratthattime."Weshouldnowemphasizethatthe

term'renaissance-tragedy'impliesanoverestimationoftheinfluenceofthe

Aristoteliandoctrineonthedramaofthebaroque"(60).

"ThebaroqueculturalpracticeatstakeforBenjaministhecollective

negotiationofthedissipationofsovereignty,thatis,legitimate–divinely

legitimated–rule.ThisisthenorthernandlargelyProtestantbaroqueofthe

Reformation,theperiodoffragmentationthatheraldsmodernity.Assuchitmight

bedescribedastheantibaroque,inthattheCatholicbaroqueworldasitstheatrical

cosmologyhadfirstclaimedcontrolofrepresentation,andhenceofpolitics,andhad

reassertedthesesameprincipleswithavengeanceinCounter-Reformationculture.

Thelamentationplaymournsthelossoftotalitybutmakesnoattempttorestoreit.

…ThroughhisattentiontoTrauerspielversustragedyandtoProtestantpractice

versusCatholicformalpractice,BenjaminineffectunwritesTheBirthofTragedy

here"(Steinberg1996:16).Benjamin’simpendingMessianicReformation

renouncesAthensratherthantheVatican.

LukácssavedGodfromdeathinNietzsche’shandsbymakinghimaspectator

ofhumandrama:"Godmustleavethestage,butmustyetremainaspectator;thatis

thehistoricalpossibilityoftragicepochs"("TheMetaphysicsofTragedy"[1911],

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TragicIdea102).HealsorespondedtoSimmel'siconoclasmbyproposingthat

"everytruetragedyisamysteryplay.Itsreal,centralmeaningisarevelationofGod

beforethefaceofGod"(102).BenjaminwriteswithLukácsagainstNietzscheashe

usestheformer’smetaphysicstoattackmyth.However,whiletheearlyLukács,like

Nietzsche,stillbelievedinthere-creationoftragedy,Benjamindeclarestragedy

longdead.Theonlytheaterpossibleisthatofthehiddenorevacuatedgod(their

differenceusuallyunclear),betterknownasthepassionplay.Thesearchisonfor

anuntragicdramathatwouldillustrateacriticalstancetowardantiquity.“Forthe

factisthateversincetheGreeks,thesearchfortheuntragicheroontheEuropean

stagehasneverceased.Despitealltheclassicalrevivals,thegreatdramatistshave

alwayskeptasfarawayaspossiblefromtheauthenticfigureoftragedy”(Benjamin

1977b:5).Benjaminclaimsthatinthissearchfortheuntragicthereisanespecially

GermanpathwhichwindsthroughtheMiddleAges,theBaroque,thelateGoethe,

andreappearsincontemporaryexpressionism.Lessthanasurvey,therecoveryof

thatpathconstituteshisculturalprogram."Andifoneonlylearnstorecognizeits

characteristicsinmanydifferentstylesofdramafromCalderóntoStrindbergit

mustbecomeclearthatthisform,aformofthemysteryplay,stillhasafuture"

(Benjamin113).Expressionismissuchastyle,andBenjaminvindicatesit."Forlike

expressionism,thebaroqueisnotsomuchanageofgenuineartisticachievementas

anagepossessedofanunremittingartisticwill.Thisistrueofallperiodsofso-

calleddecadence"(Origin55).Duringperiodsofdecadent"artisticwill"(Benjamin

isusingRiegl'sinfluentialterm)"aformedexpressionofrealcontentcanscarcelybe

extractedfromtheconflictoftheforceswhichhavebeenunleashed.Inthisstateof

disruptionthepresentagereflectscertainaspectsofthespiritualconstitutionofthe

baroque,evendowntothedetailsofitsartisticpractice"(55).

WegetasenseofwhatBenjaminhadinmindfromhisCalderónandHebbel

essay(1923),basedonacomparisonbetweentragedyandhistoricaldrama[=fate

tragedy],whereheemphasizestherepresentationoffateasagameturninghistory

intonature,theforceoffatenaturalizinghistory."Theworldoffatewasself-

contained.Itwasthe'sublunar'worldinthestrictsense-aworldofthewretched

orgloriouscreaturewhereagainandagaintherulesofthefatetowhichevery

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creatureissubjectweretoconfirmtheirvalidityinanastonishingandvirtuosic

way,admaioremdeigloriamandfortheenjoymentofthespectators"(Benjamin,

Calderonessay378).[Hebbel(1813-63)didnotunderstandSpanishdrama(381).]

Benjamin'sadvocatedactivelyforaCalderóniandramabygettinginvolvedinthe

revisionofcontemporaryplay.HugovonHofmannsthal'sengagementwith

Calderón,especiallyhisLifeisaDream,startedin1901andculminatedinhismost

ambitiousplay,TheTower(1925,1928).Afteritsfirstappearance,hepublished

(1924-5)inhismagazineBenjamin'sGoetheessay,andwassoinfluencedbyitthat

herevisedtheplay,whosepremiereBenjaminreviewedin1926andrevisionsread

laterinmanuscript.HavingstartedwithGreektragicmodels(Alcestis,Oedipus,

Electra,Ariadne),HofmannsthalturnedtoCalderónandGrillparzer,thetheatrical

modelsoftheAustro-Spanishtradition,ashejoinedthe"conservativerevolution"in

whichAustro-BavarianCatholicism(cf.CarlSchmitt)soughtcommunityand

cohesion,opposingPrussiansecularmodernity.Despitehismisgivings,Benjamin

remainedinterestedinthisTrauerspieltilltheendofhislife.

"BenjaminremainedfaithfultotheprogramoftheTrauerspielessay.Asfar

asthetheoryofdramawasconcerned,hisattempttocreateablueprintforuntragic

drama,thedramapropertomodernity,remainedhisprincipallifelongconcern"

(Heller&Fehér:TheGrandeurandTwilightofRadicalUniversalism,1991:314).

Later,inthe1930s,hethoughthehadfoundsuchablueprintin“epictheater”which

tohimwasessentiallyuntragicdrama.Specifically,inthecritiqueofAristotelian

catharsishediscoveredaqualitythatmovedBrecht’sdidacticLehrstückawayfrom

itsSchillerianconcernwiththestageasamoralinstitutionandclosetoapassion

playwhoseoriginaryuntragicheroisSocrates.“Theanti-Nietzschepolemicof

Benjamin,commencedalmosttwodecadesearlierandinspiredbytheyoung

Lukács’theoryofdrama,hasnowdescribedafullcircle.TheSocraticprinciple,the

allegedgravediggeroftragedy,returnsasthenewdramaticmuseintheepic,

untragictheater”(316).Let'slooknowatthedistinctcharacteroftheTrauerspiel.

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Sovereignty

Aswesawearlier:"ThebaroqueculturalpracticeatstakeforBenjaminis

thecollectivenegotiationofthedissipationofsovereignty,thatis,legitimate–

divinelylegitimated–rule"(Steinberg).Benjaminarguesthat"itisthesinglefactof

theroyalherowhichpromptedthecriticstorelatethenewTrauerspieltothe

ancienttragedyoftheGreeks"(61).However,sincethecontentoftheTrauerspielis

history,notmyth,"itisnottheconflictwithGodandFate,therepresentationofa

primordialpast,whichisthekeytoalivingsenseofnationalcommunity,butthe

confirmationofprincelyvirtues,thedepictionofprincelyvices,theinsightinto

diplomacyandthemanipulationofallthepoliticalschemes,whichmakesthe

monarchthemaincharacterintheTrauerspiel.Thesovereign,theprincipal

exponentofhistory,almostservesasitsincarnation"(62).DrawingheavilyonCarl

Schmitt'sPoliticalTheology(1922),Benjaminproposesasthecentraltopicofthe

Trauerspielthesovereignfacingaspecific"stateofemergency"whichrepresents

theinterruptionofthehistoryofChristiansalvation.["Sovereigniswhodecideson

theexception"(Schmitt5).Inastateofemergency,inaconflictwhich"canbe

characterizedasacaseofextremeperil,adangertotheexistenceofthestate"(6),

hehasthe"monopolytodecide"(13)"whatconstitutesthepublicinterestor

interestofthestate,publicsafetyandorder"(6)onthebasisofwhotheenemyis.]

"Benjaminsituatesthestateofemergencyagainstthetermsofthemedieval

mysteryplay,whichisseentoprovideastoryofredemption;thesecularizationof

themysteryplayinbaroquedramaleavesastateofemergencywithoutredemption,

resultingintheevacuationofeschatology.Inthebaroquedrama,thestateof

emergencyisexpressedintheambivalenceofthecharacterofthesovereignand

sovereignaction.Thevirtuousprincesuffersstoicallythestateofemergency,giving

risetothegenreofmartyrdrama,whiletheviciousprincerespondstyrannicallyin

thedramaoftyranny.TheTrauerspiellocatesbothresponseswithinthecharacter

ofthesovereign,withthecharacterofthemonarchinthestateofemergency

vacillatingbetweenpassivemartyrdomandtyrannicalviolence....Inplaceofthe

catastrophicresolutionoftragedy,Benjaminlocatestheformalprincipleof

Trauerspielinthemourningforaperpetualandirresolvablestateofemergency"

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(HowardCaygill:"WB'sConceptofAllegory,inCompaniontoAllegory247).He

suggeststhat"inthetermsofthemartyr-dramaitisnotmoraltransgressionbutthe

veryestateofmanascreaturewhichprovidesthereasonforthecatastrophe.This

typicalcatastrophe,whichissodifferentfromtheextraordinarycatastropheofthe

tragichero,iswhatthedramatistshadinmindwhen...theydescribedaworkasa

Trauerspiel"(Benjamin89).

AsNovaliswritesin1798:“Everyrepresentationofthepastisamourning-play

[Trauerspiel]inthegenuinesense.”

"IntheTrauerspielbookBenjaminbringstogetherhisownearlierreflections

onfateandcharacterwithRosenzweig'sconceptofthedeclineofthetragicheroto

introducethenotionofTrauerspielasreligioustragedy.Onlythroughthedramaof

themartyristheTrauerspielas'heiligeTragödie'believable"(Jacobson:

MetaphysicsoftheProfane246)."Themartyr-dramawasbornfromthedeathof

Socratesasaparodyoftragedy.Andhere,assooften,theparodyofaform

proclaimsitsend.TheagonalhasdisappearedfromthedramaofSocrates...andin

onestrokethedeathoftheherohasbeentransformedintothatofthemartyr.Like

theChristianherooffaith...Socratesdiesvoluntarily,"(113-14)andestablishesthe

traditionthat,throughthepassion-playandthemystery-play,leadsdirectlytothe

martyroftheTrauerspiel."TheTrauerspielisconfirmedasaformofthetragedyof

thesaintbymeansofthemartyr-drama"(Benjamin113)."Thetragedyofthesaint

isthesecretlongingofthetragedian"(Benjamin112).

Thetriadofthesovereigntyinthebaroquetragedyconsistsofthethree

interrelatedfiguresofthetyrant,themartyr,andtheintriguer.

1.Benjaminplacesthebaroquesovereignbetweenpoliticsandtheologywith

stateandgodlikepower.Thebaroqueconceptofsovereignty"emergesfroma

discussionofthestateofemergency,andmakesitthemostimportantfunctionof

theprincetoavertthis.Therulerisdesignatedfromtheoutsetastheholderof

dictatorialpowerifwar,revolt,orothercatastrophesshouldleadtoastateof

emergency.ThisistypicaloftheCounter-Reformation"(Origin,65).Thesovereign

findshimselfinasituationwherehemustdecideyethecannot,soheremains

uncertainandambivalent."Theantithesisbetweenthepoweroftherulerandhis

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capacitytoruleledtoafeaturepeculiartotheTrauerspielwhichis...the

indecisivenessofthetyrant.Theprince,whoisresponsibleformakingthedecision

toproclaimthestateofemergency,reveals,atthefirstopportunity,thatheisalmost

incapableofmakingadecision"(70-71)."Thetragedy...ofsocialrevolution,

therefore,istheTrauerspieloftheconstantinterplaybetweenexception-decision-

apparentpeaceandagaindivision.Theplayofaninsurmountablerevolution,

which,therefore,canbeseensubspecieaeternitatis"(Cacciari:TheUnpolitical,83).

Sinceadetermineddecisionandadefinitiveactareimpossible,everythingbecomes

actinginatheatricalframework,onthestageoftheroyalcourt.

"Atthemomentoftemporalcrisisthetyrant,whosestatusiscrystallized

aroundthecapacityfordecisiveaction,issuddenlyrenderedincapableofmakinga

decision.Thistendencytolosethepowerofdecisionatthemomentofemergencyis

relatedtoanotherconsistenttheme:theslowdescentofthetyrantintomadness.

Confrontedwiththeurgentnecessityofrestoringorder,thetyrantrespondsby

losinghiswits.Theconfrontationbetweenorderanddisorder,humanmeaningand

themeaninglessnessofthenaturalcontinuum,receivesintheTrauerspiela

characteristicallygraphic'resolution':thetyrantrespondstothethreatofdisorder

andtheneedfordecisionwithamad,self-destructive,meaninglessspasmof

violencehimself,ranting,lamentation,indecision,excessivemournfulness,paralysis,

suicide.Ashedestroyshimself,thetyrantfulfillshisroleastheincarnationof

historybybeingturned-alongwithhiscourt-intoacorpse"(Pensky:Melancholy

Dialectics,78-9).Benjaminarguesthat"themartyrdomoftheheroleads"tostoic

moralitywhilejustice"transformsthetyrant'sragetomadness"(Origin78).

Baroquetheaterisfascinatedbythetyrant's"sheerarbitrarinessofaconstantly

shiftingemotionalstorm"(71),with"theseventeenth-centuryruler,thesummitof

creation,eruptingintomadnesslikeavolcanoanddestroyinghimselfandhisentire

court"(70).

2."ThesublimestatusoftheEmperorontheonehand,andtheinfamous

futilityofhisconductontheother,createafundamentaluncertaintyastowhether

thisisadramaoftyrannyorahistoryofmartyrdom"(Benjamin73).Whilethe

dramaofthetyrantcausedfear,thedramaofthemartyrcausedpity."Seenin

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ideologicaltermstheyarestrictlycomplementary.Inthebaroquethetyrantand

themartyrarebutthetwofacesofthemonarch.Theyarethenecessarilyextreme

incarnationsoftheprincelyessence.Asfarasthetyrantisconcerned,thisisclear

enough.Thetheoryofsovereigntywhichtakesasitsexamplethespecialcasein

whichdictatorialpowersareunfolded,positivelydemandsthecompletionofthe

imageofthesovereign,astyrant."(69).Atthesametime,"anelementofmartyr-

dramalieshiddenineverydramaoftyranny.Itismuchlesseasytotracethe

elementofthedramaoftyrannyinthemartyr-drama"(73)."JustasChrist,theKing,

sufferedinthenameofmankind,so,intheeyesofthewritersofthebaroque,does

royaltyingeneral"(Benjamin73).Herod,theJewishking(averypopularBaroque

subject),isatyrantwhileHamlet,theChrist-likefigure,isamartyr.

3."TheGermandramatists...knowthetwofacesofthecourtier:the

intriguer,astheevilgeniusoftheirdespots,andthefaithfulservant,asthe

companioninsufferingtoinnocenceenthroned"(98).Theintriguer,who"standsas

athirdtypealongsidethedespotandthemartyr"(95),istheplotterwhocontests

theruleofthetyrantandholdsthekeytothefateofsovereignty."Baroquedrama

knowsnootherhistoricalactivitythanthecorruptenergyofschemers.Innoneof

thecountlessrebelswhoconfrontamonarchfrozenintheattitudesoftheChristian

martyr,isthereanytraceofrevolutionaryconviction.Discontentistheclassic

motive.Thesovereignalonereflectsanykindofmoraldignity,andevenhereitis

thetotallyahistoricalmoraldignityofthestoic"(Benjamin88).Thekingis

"constantlyinterveningdirectlyintheworkingsofthestatesoastoarrangethe

dataofthehistoricalprocessinaregularandharmonioussequence...Inthecourse

ofpoliticaleventsintriguebeatsoutthatrhythmofthesecondhandwhichcontrols

andregulatestheseevents"(Benjamin97)."Thesovereignintriguerisallintellect

andwill-power"(95).Theplotofthedramaisbasedonthisvirtuosicchallenge,

whichtreatstheexceptionasagameandthecourtasatroupeofactors."Unlikethe

sovereign,however,theplotter'knows'thatthecourtisatheaterofactionsthatcan

neverbetotalizedbutonlystagedwithmoreorlessvirtuosity.Bythisheedingonly

therulesofthegamewithoutseekingtoreachultimateprinciples,theplotterbegins

wherethesovereignhopestoend:withtheex-clusionofthestateofexception.The

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stateofexceptionisexcludedastheater.Whatcharacterizesthistheateristhatinit,

nothingcaneverauthenticallytakeplace,leastofallthestageitself"(Samuel

Weber:"TakingExceptiontoDecision:WBandCS,"Diacritics22:3-4,1992,17).

Theimageoftheabsolutistcourt"becomesthekeytohistoricalunderstanding.For

thecourtisthesettingparexcellence"(Benjamin92).Itiswhere"historyis

secularized"and"mergesintothesetting"(92)."Tounderstandthelifeofthe

courtiermeanstorecognizecompletelywhythecourt,aboveallelse,providesthe

settingoftheTrauerspiel"(97).[Pirandello'stoo!]"ButwhereasintheSpanish

dramatheprimarycharacteristicofthecourtwasthesplendourofroyalpower,the

GermanTrauerspielisdominatedbythegloomytoneofintrigue"(97).

Benjamin'sHamlet

"Benjamindevotesanindependentsectionofthebooktoadiscussionof

Hamlet,somethinghedoesnotdowithanyotherplay,figure,orplaywright,andit

appearsthatratherthanbeingamereexample,theplayserveshimasanalmost

necessaryexemplaroftheTrauerspiel"(Ferber:Philosophy&Melancholy,68).

"Conceivingtheeverydayasfutileandtrifling,asmereemptyplay,hasproduced

melancholyingreatmen,writesBenjamin,whilementioningLutherhimselfas

havingsufferedfrommelancholyanda'heavinessofsoul.'AccordingtoBenjamin,

Hamlet,theconsummateLutheran,alsostronglyproteststhisexistentialemptiness,

expressedinhisownmelancholy"(Ferber:Philosophy&Melancholy,29).Thatwas

whathecallsthe"philosophyofWittenberg":"Humanactionsweredeprivedofall

value.Somethingnewarose:anemptyworld....Forthosewholookeddeepersaw

thesceneoftheirexistenceasarubbishheapofpartial,inauthenticactions"

(Benjamin,Origin138-39).

WhenBenjaminsaysthatmourning"revivestheemptyworldintheformofamask"

(139)heimpliestwofacetsofemptiness,"thatoftheemptyworldandthatofthe

maskintowhichthisworldistransferredormolded....Themeaninglessworld,

lackinganypotentialforsalvation,isechoedintheonlywayitcanbeapproached-

anemptymask....Themaskduplicatesthelosswithoutreplacingitwithan

13

alternative.Themaskisalso,ofcourse,atheatricalmask-theemptymaskofthe

Trauerspielitself"(Ferber:Philosophy&Melancholy,31).

InHamlet'scase"whatseemstobeanormalmournfulresponsetohis

father'sdeathattheplay'sbeginningissoonrevealedtobeamelancholicreaction

towhatexceedsanyconcretedeathorlossandrefersrathertoamuchmore

fundamentalstateofdisenchantmentwithwhatHamletseesasanempty,sterile,

andbarrenworld"whichisforhim"aruinofmeaning,anemptycastofwhatwas

oncemeaningfultohimandisnowinhabitedbynothingsignificantorredemptive"

(Ferber:Philosophy&Melancholy,30-1).

To"passionatecontemplation...alonewasattributedthepowertorelease

thoseinhighplacesfromthesatanicensnarementofhistory,inwhichthebaroque

recognizedonlythepoliticalaspect"(141-2).Hamletisthe"sorrowful

Contemplator"(157)who"cannotfindsatisfactioninwhatheseesenacted,onlyin

hisownfate.Hislife[is]theexemplaryobjectofhismourning...Onlyinaprincely

lifesuchasthisismelancholyredeemed,bybeingconfrontedwithitself"(158).

"Theprinceistheparadigmofthemelancholyman"(142)."Melancholybetraysthe

worldforthesakeofknowledge.Butinitstenaciousself-absorptionitembraces

deadobjectsinitscontemplation,inordertoredeemthem"(157).

Andnow,let'slookatPirandello'sEnricoIV(1922),aModernistTrauerspiel,also

writteninthe1920s,whosecontemplativeHamletisnotkilledbutlivesasa

madman,whilehisplaywithintheplaybecomeshisownlife.

["ItiscertainlyPirandello'sHamlet.BelcrediisitsClaudius,CountessMatildaits

Gertrude,FridaitsOphelia.AndHamlet'santiquedispositionhasspreaditselfover

thewholelifeofthePirandellianprotagonist"(Bentley67).]

ThehistoricalbackgroundofPirandello'sEnricoIV:

"TheInvestitureControversy,"aconflictbetweenstateandchurch

Theprotagonistoftheplay,anamnesiacnoblemanaround50years-old,has

beenplayingfortwentyyearsHeinrichIV(1050-1106),amajorfigureofthe11th

century,attheageof26.HeinrichbecameKingoftheGermansin1056,andfrom

1084untilhisforcedabdicationin1105hewasalsoreferredtoHolyRoman

14

Emperor.HeclashedwithPopeGregoryVIIovertheprimacyofthesacerdotium

overtheimperium.In1075HenryresistedGregory’sreformsoverhisrightto

nominateandinvestbishopswhoatthattimehadbothecclesiasticalandimperial

authorityintheirprincipalities.Thefollowingyear,theAssemblyofWorms

declaredGregorydeposedand,inresponse,theLentensynoddeclaredHenry

deposed,andexcommunicatedhim.TheEmperorwasdesertedbythebishopsand

opposedbyprinceswhostartedplanningtheelectionofanewking.Toavoidthe

dangerofnationalassemblywherehewouldfacehiscriticsayearlater,inJanuary

1077hesecretlycrossedtheAlpsandappearedoutsidethecastleofCanossa

(wherethePopewastheguestoftheEmperor’senemy,MarchesaMatildeof

Tuscany)tobegforGregory’sforgiveness.Afterthreedaysinthesnow,the

penitentwasbroughtbacktothefold.Henrysufferedhumiliationbutsavedhis

throne.(Ihaveincorporatedthe"WalktoCanossa"tomypaper"WhyIamnota

Post-Secularist,"boundary240:1,2013,77-80.)Hisstrategicrepentancewasan

interestingpolicymoveeventhoughitssuccesswasshortlivedsincejusttwo

monthslatertheprinceswhosupportedGregoryelectedananti-kingandcivilwas

brokeoutinGermany.In1080bothdepositionswererenewedasthetwostrong

menwereclashingagain.

Twenty-twoyearsagotheunnamedprotagonistwas26,theageofbothEnricoand

DiNollinow.Theparticularmomentthatfascinateshimistheonethatinspiredhischoice

ofcostumeinthepageantofthecarnivaltwentyyearsearlier–theKingdoingpenanceso

thathecanprovehehasrepented,bereceivedbythePope,andhavehisexcommunication

lifted.However,throughouttheplay,hemakesnoefforttocomprehend,letaloneconvey,

thehistoricalcircumstances.HemovesupanddowntheEmperor’slifeconfusedastohow

thesechronologicalchoicesaremade.Bishopsandnobles,palacesandmonasteriesare

mentionedbutthehighstakesinvolvedatthisturningpointinCatholichistoryarenot.An

earlyreferenceto“theterriblewarbetweenChurchandState”(81)isforgotten.Tohim,

monumentalpastmaybeclosedanddefinitivetimebutitisnothistory.Itisjusta

completeplay.“It’stheclotheshelooksat–notthemaninsidethem”(Pirandello92).

15

HenrystopstheFluxandfixesForm

ThisisPirandello’sonlycostumeplayandhisonlymajorworkthathelabeled“a

tragedy.”Itisaveryspecialtragedyabouttheefforttotameformandescapewhathe

calledthroughouthislifethe"tragedyoflife"alongthoroughlySimellianlines.Intheearly

essay"Umorismo"(1908)Pirandellofirstformulatedhisfamousdialecticaldistinction

betweenthefluxoflifeandthefixednessofform:"Lifeisacontinualfluxwhichwetryto

stop,tofixinstableanddeterminedforms,bothinsideandoutsideourselves....Theforms

inwhichweseektostop,tofixinourselvesthisconstantfluxaretheconcepts,theideals

withwhichwewouldlikeconsistentlytocomply,allthefictionswecreateforourselves,

theconditions,thestateinwhichwetendtostabilizeourselves.Butwithinourselves,in

whatwecallthesoulandisthelifeinus,thefluxcontinues"(OnHumor1974,137).Inthe

prefacetotheSixCharacters(1921)hewroteabout"theinherenttragicconflictbetween

life(whichisalwaysmovingandchanging)andform(whichfixesit,immutable"(quotedin

Brustein302-3).In1923hewrotethathehad“alwaysfelttheimmanenttragedyoflife

which…requiresaform,butsensesdeathineveryformitassumes.”Thisisthe“tragiclaw

ofmovementandform”(quotedinGiudice1975:145-46).Henry'stragedysuggeststhatif,

asModernistsfeared,formcankilllife,thenlife,insteadofavoidingit,shouldbecometotal

form,totalartwork,inthisparticularcase,amasquerade.Thsbringstomind

Shakespeare'shero,towhomhehasbeenoftencompared.

"Hamletisthesoleobserveroftheatrummundiortheatrumhistoricum"(Cho

266).Heisalsoitssoleprotagonist."Ashasbeenoftenobserved,hedoesnotactin

thepurposive,effectivewaycommandedbytheghostofhisfather:rather,heactsas

anactor,whileobservingasspectatorandstagingasdirector.Hedoesnotsomuch

accomplishhismissionasstageit"(Weber,TheatricalityasMedium,193).Hamletis

"player/actor,participant/partaker,and,itispossibletosay,alsoanobserver.His

lifedoesnotrepresentonlytheirruptingreality,butequallyhislifeisaplaythat

regardsitselfasaplay.Notonlyisthereagroundlessreflectionuponthingsbythe

subject,turningthisreflectionintoenigmaticmourning,butalsothemelancholy

regardsmelancholyasplayandsublatesitsubspecieaeternitatis"(Fohrmann:

"EnmityandCulture"inMonagle&Vardoulakis,eds.:ThePoliticsofNothing,27

[Benjamin/tragedyfolder]).Thisisonewayofdealingwiththe"tragedyoflife."

16

HerewecanalsodrawaconnectionwithBenjamin'saestheticsofdrama.In

hisstudyofGermanRomanticcriticismheobservedthat"whatattractedthe

theoreticallyinclinedRomanticssomagneticallytoCalderón-totheextentthathe

mightberegarded,despitetheiradmirationforShakespeare,astheirownspecial

dramatist-isthathefulfilledtoperfectiononeconditiontheystroveforaboveall

else.Thiswasthatinfinityshouldbeguaranteedthroughmerereflection....The

actionisplayfullydiminishedbythereflectionsthatCalderon'sheroesalwayshave

attheirfingertips.Thisenablesthem,sotospeak,totwistandturntheentireorder

offateintheirhandslikeaballsothatyoucanexamineit,nowfromthisside,now

fromthat.What,afterall,hadbeentheultimategoaloftheRomanticsifnottosee

genius,evenwhenboundbythegoldenchainsofauthority,stillirresponsibly

absorbedinitsownreflections?"(378-79).

Pirandello'sHenryisamelancholicintrovertoutoftheBaroqueTrauerspiel

ofShakespeareandCalderón.Heisthekingwhowithdrawsfromthetragedyof

fluidtimeintothemelancholyoffixedhistory.InthewordsoftheDoctor,hisstate

ofmindis“amorbidwallowinginreflectivemelancholy,accompaniedby,yes,

considerablecerebralactivity”(100).Hishubrisisthathehastriedtostoptime,to

freezetheflowofhistoryintohistoricaltimewhereeverythingissettledand

fortunehasalreadyworkedout."Henrymanagestoescapefromtimebyentering

history,whichisfrozentime.Hefollowedtheoutlineofaplotalreadywritten,

foreordained,predetermined...Henryfindsconsolationforhismelancholyand

despairbyconstructinghimselfintoahistoricalfigure,fixedandimmutable"

(Brustein297).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R4sTR5fla2kHeknowsthatrealitycannotbecontrolled,identitycannotbefixed,andlifeisa

masqueradeintheworld'scarnival.Thedoubleburdenofwordsandthedead,of

languageandtime,weighsheavilyonpeople’sshoulders.Lifeinthelivingworldis

condemnedtorepetition.Theforwardmovementpromisedbyeachdaybreakcan

onlyleadbackwardstotherenewedduplicationofconventionsandhabits.Those

whofollowitaretheherdwhoholdontotheirpresumedidentitiesandare

comfortedbyhopesofauthenticity.Theyalsowronglyidentifyappearancewith

17

reality,portraitswithmirrors,roleswithcharacters.Contingencyhascondemned

humanstoinauthenticity,societyhasimprisonedhemintoroleplaying.Theflowof

realtimewillneverletthembewhotheywanttobe,neverrevealtruthtothem.

Theirconditionisafallenonebecausetheywillneverbeabletoseebehind

appearances.Theonlywayoutofrelativetimeisabsolutetime,theonlyescape

fromvariabletruthismonumentalhistory,theonlyprotectionfromthemadnessof

sanityisthesanityofmadness,andtheonlyrefugefromthecompromisesof

identityistheconventionsofthemasque.

Henry’sgreatestenemyistime.Amiditsfluidity,hefightsvaliantlytocapturethe

permanent.Byembracinghistory,hehopestoconquerchance.Thusheassertshisrightto

self-determinationnotbyforminganoriginalselfbutbyborrowingahistoricalfigure,that

is,byplayacting.Hebelievesthat“onecanexistonlyifoneceasestoliveanddecides,with

premeditatedtenacity,tosimulateendlessly.Inthismanneronehastotalmasteryoverthe

precariousandtheunfixed:life.ByimpersonatingHenryIVofGermany,EnricoIVis

incontrovertiblyacharacter,oneandinalienable,asestablishedbyhistory”(Santeramo

1999:108).“Afixedconstruction,themaskofHenryIVismoresecurethantheflimsy,

unstable,unprotected,andsociallyimposedconstructionsofotherswhostruggle

ceaselesslyagainstthedailydisintegrationoftheiridentitiesandtheeternalchangeability

oflife”(Bassanese1997;82).Theatricalitytranscendslife'sinauthenticity.

Themotivationofhisresistancetofluxisstrictlypersonalandprivate.Sincehe

doesnotbelievethatthehumanlotcanimprove,hisoppositionisaprivatematter.Henry

resistsbutdoesnotrebel.Hehasrejectedsocialoppressionandpresenttimeforeight

yearsbutnobodyhasknownaboutit.Heseemstobelievethat,iflifeisatheatrummundi,

theonlyalternativeiswhatFyodorSologubcalledin1908a“theaterofonewill.”Init,

scenery,lighting,andtheotherelementsofthestageoughttogiveformto“thetragicplay

offatewithitsmarionettes”(1986:118)whereearthlymasksfallawayasasinglewill

revealsandaffirmsitselftriumphantly.Thushestagesanexistentialmasqueasa

resistanceagainstsocialmasquerade.Inalettertoanactor,Pirandellowrotein1921that,

inordertoperformtheroletothebestofhisability,theprotagonist"hadgivenhimselfthe

anguishandtormentofaveryintensiveanalysis,verydetailedandprecise,whichhad

obsessedhimforaboutamonth."Afterfallingfromhishorse,"themaskstudiedwithsuch

18

scrupulosityineveryoneofitssmallestdetailsbecameinhimthepersonaofthegreatand

tragicEmperor"(quotedinCaesar,Characters&AuthorsinLP,202-3).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nu1F95YF4X0[PirandellocalledHeinrich"tragicoimperatore"intheplayandinan1890poem.]

PirandellocalledhimilgrandeMascherato(thegreatMaskedOne).Onlyheknowsthat

identityisbasedonroleplaying,thatselfisperformed.Inthisregard,hishubrisconsistsin

hisattempttoconstructapermanent,secureself.Sosecureisthisconsciouslyperformed

selfthatHenry’snameisnevermentionedwhenheisoutofcharacter.“The‘lossofself’

hereisnotmereabsenceofself,letaloneameretheorythatthereisnoself;itisanassault

ontheselfbytheself”(Bentley1966:73).Heisanamelesstwentieth-centurymanwho

hassufferedatragicfall.Last,weshouldnotassumethatHenryissanesince“Pirandellois

verycarefulnottohavehimconfessinsomanywordsthathehasbeenmerelyplayingthe

madman”(Styan1962:145).Weshouldnotaccepthisclaimsatfacevalue.“Onwhose

authoritydowehaveitthatthenamelessonewasevercured?Onlyhisown”(Bentley

1966:70).

Henrydirects

Throughouthislife,theprotagonisthasbeenapotentiallytragicfigure,one

ofthosedividedselveswhocansufferthebetrayaloffriends(113)andwatch

themselvessuffer.Evenbeforehisaccident,hewasaneccentricpronetotheatrics.

Wehearthathewasalwaysawareoflife’stheatricalityandlovedtoexploreitby

representing,improvising,actingout(89)andwatchinghimselfact.Directinghis

selfwasamajorpreoccupation,andalsogavehimadistinctairofself-awareness

thatmadepeoplethinkhewas“mad”(114).HereiswhattheCountesstellsthe

Doctorabouthislifebeforetheaccident:"Hewasalittlestrange,it'strue,thatwas

becausetherewassomuchlifeinhim.Itmadehimeccentric"(89).TheBaron

amplifies:"Hewasoftengenuinelyexalted.ButIcouldswear,Doctor:hewas

lookingathimself,lookingathisownexaltation.AndIbelievethesameistrueof

everymovehemade,howeverspontaneous:hesawit.I'llsaymore.I'mcertainit

wasthisthatmadehimsuffer.Attimeshehadthefunniestfitsofrageagainst

himself."Headdsthat"theluciditythatcamefromactingallthetime...being

19

anotherman...shattered,yes,shatteredatasingleblowthetiesthatboundhimto

howownfeelings."Furthermore,heusedtodirect:Hewasfamousforhistableaux

vivants,hewasalwaysgettingupdances,benefitperformances,alljustforfun,of

course.Hewasanawfullygoodactor,believeme.Marqis:Andhe'sbecomea

superbandterrifyingone-bygoingmad."Historyisfixedtheatrically(intableaux

vivant),andlivingsuchafixedhistoryisaperformativeart.Henrydirectstableaux

vivantsliketheoneattheendofActIIwithhisfourcounselorsbutheisalso

incorporatedinDr.Dionysus'oneatthebeginningofActIII.

Recoveryfromhisillnessgavehimthegreatestopportunity:thepleasureto

experiencemadnesswithperfectlucidity.Nowhecouldbewhatotherscalledhim

andbethesolespectator.Hecouldbehisbestaudience,anaudienceofone,turning

hisdividedselfintoamodusvivendi.Yet,heescapedtimebutnothisanalytical

ability,hisinnerdivision.Henryisnotacharacterinsearchofanauthor.Heisnot

arealpersoninterruptingarehearsalandappealingtothedirectorinthenameof

somethingmoreessential.Heisanunnamedpersonwhohasbecomehisown

author,hasscriptedhisrole,andisdirectingitsperformance.Now"heenactsa

masquerade,yetremainsoutsidethemasquerade-possessingtheweirdclarityof

hislucidmadness"(Brustein:TheatreofRevolt297).Thusheis"anactor,a

characterindisguise"andaddsthat"heisalsoacriticwhocruellyjudgeshisown

performance"(290).Henryis"Actor,Artist,andMadman,and,besidesthis,

possessesanextraordinaryintellect,reflectingonallthree"(296).Furthermore,

sincehewritesthescriptandshapestheparts,Henryhascontroloverpeople,or

rather,overpeople’sinteractionwithhim,apowerherelishes.

Theplay'sintricatetheatricalityisaccentuatedbythepervasivepresenceof

carnival,pictorial,theatrical,socialandothermasks.Theentireplayis"aseriesofmasks

putonandtakenoff"(Paolucci:Pirandellos'Theater,94).[Pirandellocalledhiscollected

playsNakedMasks.]Asaresult,identitiesareshifting.Nocharacterissingular:theyall

movefromoneselftoanother,possessingbetweentwoandfiveidentities."Every

characterinHenryIVpossessesadoubleidentitywithinthefictiveworld;everycharacter,

alreadyfictive,playsthepartofafictivecharacterinthefictionwithinthefictiveworldof

heplay"(Schlueter:MetafictionalCharacters,22).Thereisconstantdoublingaspeople

20

enterandexittheMiddleAges.Asrolesmultiply,identitiesbecomefragmented.As

historicalmomentsmultiply,timebecomesfragmented.

Nowlet'saddressourselvestoaquestionthatpreoccupiedsomanyModernists,

especiallythosecommittedtovarietiesofMessianism.

IsPirandello's"tragedy"tragicorsomethingelse?

IfHamletisthe"ur-textofmetatheaterinthebaroqueera"(Witt:

MetatheaterandModernity117),EnricoIVistheur-textofModernistmetatheater.

[cf.Camus'Caligula,Genet'sMaids&Balcony,Stoppard'sR&G]However,hereisa

greatvarietyofopinionsregardingthetragiccharacter,dimension,orelementinit.

Somefindthat“Pirandello’smostrenownedprotagonistisanabsolutist.Heis

unyieldinginhisperceptions,andhisrigiditybothelevatesandisolateshim.…Asan

absolutist,hetransformshimintothenearimpossible:atwentieth-centurytragichero.In

aminimalistworldthatbyitsnaturebeatsdowntheveryideaofclassicaltragedy,Henry

fashionsforhimselfanewuniversefromhisownconsciousnessmodeledonthepast.He

haselevatedhimselftoalevelhewillbeunabletosustain:thisishistragedy”(Fairchild

2001:30).Inthisview,Henryis“thetragicfigureparexcellenceofourtime,thetwentieth-

centuryscapegoatfigurewhosumsupinhimselftheterrifyinginsecurityofself-

consciouslylivingalifebasedonlies,alifethatheknowstobeafictionalexpressionofthe

selfhecannototherwisefind”(Caputi1988:96-7).Othersfindthattheherois“toolucid…

tobetragic”(Witt1990:158)andtheplayisa“neartragedy”(159).

Aparticulartragicgenreisthedramaofoutcastsandcriminals,atradition

thatgoesbacktoKarlMoorinSchiller'sRobbers(1781)andOswaldin

Wordsworth'sBorderers(1795-97).Henrymaybeseenasanendlesslyreflexive

outcastwhoholdsamirrortosociety’sreasonbyplayinganoutcast,somebodywho

hasbeenexcommunicatedforresistingchurchauthorityandlivesundertheburden

ofanathema,andintheend,bykilling,hefulfillstheroleofthesublimecriminal.

Somehavewonderedwhethertheplaymaybeseenasarevengetragedy,

suggestingthatprotagonistispartLear,partFool,partEdgarinfeignedmadness(as

arevenger'smask).

21

ThereisaroleHenrycannotplay,“thegreatandtragicemperor”(81),becauseto

himhistory,likelife,isamasquerade.Thushecannotunderstandthatbyrepeatingthe

tragedyofaworld-historicalpersonage,heturnsintotheprotagonistofafarce.“Thereis

always,inPirandello’sdrama,apotentiallytragicsituation,withinthecircleofthecomedy

ofillusion.Butthenatureofthedevelopmentoftheplaysissuchthattheeffectofthis

innerdramaisusuallynottragic,butsimplypathetic”(Williams1968:164-65).The

reasonisthatoutsidehistoryissuesturnfromethico-politicaltomoral:areflectionon

representationbecomesapainfulawarenessofthemask,aprivatedramaandapublic

farce.

[“Itisastructureoffeeling–acrisisofindividualisminwhichtheverythingthatmustbe

defended,the‘personalimpenetrableworld,’is,bythefactofitscompromisingexistencein

others,thethingthatturnsbackanddestroysoneself–whichisverydeeplyrootedin

modernexperience”(165).]

InthewordsofJanKott:“Whatwasoncetragedytodayisgrotesque.”History

cannotprovideasaferefugefrompresenttime.Henryenduresthetortureofself-division,

thementalsufferingofintrospectionbuthishistoricaltragedynevermaterializes.“Hisaim

inlifeisnothinglessthantoattaintotragicseriousness”(Bentley1966:67)buthecannot

starinatragedybecauseheistoofascinatedbyhisvirtuosity,tooself-absorbedintohis

righteousness."Theprotagonistinsistsontragedy;theauthordoesnot.Theprotagonistis

acharacterinsearchofatragicpoet:suchisPirandello'ssubject,whichthereforecomes

outabsurd,grotesque,tragi-comic"(67)."Whathecomesbacktoagainandagainisthe

dangerofbeingridiculous-ofhistragedybeingreducedtocomedy"(68).

Thehero’shubrishasalottodowithhisrelationtotheeventinCanossa,whichto

himhasbecomeinaccessibleasworld-historiceventandisanoccasionforself-fashioning,

notpoliticalresponsibility.Theplayopensbyraisingthequestionoftherightrole(which

Henry?Whichcountry?Whatera?)andclosesbyshowingthatthosewhoseektofixtime

sealthemselvesofffromtherestoflife.“Itoffersastatementaboutthewaywelivein

termsofcomedy,andprovesitinanexperienceoftragedy.Adeepacquaintancewithtime,

andtheknowledgethatwehavenocontroloveritspassage,isthedrivingpowerinthe

play.Itsdeterminismgivesitthecomplexionofclassicaltragedy,butitsultimate

22

hysterical,evenfarcical,pessimismischaracteristicofPirandello’stouchandanothersign

ofthespiritoftheage”(Styan1962:156).

Whenquestionsoftheatricality,ofrole-playing,arise,youcanhaveamasquebut

nottragedy.Youcanhavereflectiononidentity,notonjustice;onepistemology,notethics.

"Henry'sstoryisbetterviewedasacommediadell'artescenarioratherthanasa

realisticexplanationofhissituation.DoctorDionisioGenni...resemblesthe

commedia'dottore'figure...'Henry'himselfbearsanaffinitytothecommedia's

Arlecchino...whoplaysthefoolbutmanipulateseveryone"(Witt:Metatheaterand

Modernity127).

[Thisisnotaplayaboutselfandmadness.TobelievethisistoagreewithHenry.

Neitherisitaplayabouttruthandappearance.Itisabouttheperilsofidentity–what

happenswhenallissues(social,economic,politicaletc.)arearticulatedintermsofidentity.

Thenpeoplemaywakeupinaworldofsimulation,aworldwhereindividualsfashiontheir

uniquelifewheretheywillnotage:“Fixedinthiseternityofmasquerade”(116).Inthis

privatedrama,Dionysus,thegodoftragedy,arrivesasapsychiatrist.Inaworldwhere

thereisnothingbutillusions,whereidentitiesareroles,wherepeoplemustmaketheir

ownjudgments,howcantheyestablishabasisfortheirvalues?Inaworlddominatedby

socialfate,whatisthesourceofhumanresponsibility?(Fiskin1948)]

"AsMartinEsslinhaspointedout,thePirandelliandramaticprotagonist

prefiguredbythepuppetofOrestes[reinterpretedasHamletinthenovelTheLate

MattiaPascal(1904)]goesastepfurtherthanHamlettowardmodernity.Notonly

hashebecomeawareofthenonexistenceofthegodsandofanabsolutemorallaw,

heisalsocognizantofhimselfasapuppet,thatis,oftheproblematicnatureofthe

selfanditsneedtofashionvariousidentities.ButEssliniswrongtoconcludefrom

thisthatPirandellosensedthe'deathoftragedy'andtheimpossibilityofwritingit

forthemodernstage.Rather,heenvisionsmoderntragedyaswritingthetragedyof

thelossofthecertaintiespresupposedbyclassicaltragedy"(Witt:TheSearchfor

ModernTragedy,92).

“Moderntragedyisthusinpartnecessarilymetatragic”(Witt2001:97)."Pirandellowrites

inHenryIVametatragedyinwhichherepresentsamourningforthelossofboththemoral

23

certaintiesofclassicaltragedyandthelegitimacyofferedbythefoundationalinstitutionsof

Europe,theimperialmonarchyandthechurch"(Witt:MetatheaterandModernity123)

Theplay"maybeseenasamodernistTrauerspiel-ashow-tragedymourningthedemiseof

theinstitutionsofchurchandempirethatonceprovidedEurope'sfoundations"(Witt:

MetatheaterandModernity131).

Wemayalsosaythatattheend,whenhisprivate,melancholicTrauerspielisexposedand

indangerofturningintoaridiculouscommedia,thesovereignkillstheusurperandclaims

theplayasatragedy.Thuspost-moderntragedyprevails(ortakesrevengeon)the

modernistTrauerspiel.

Themelancholicexits

Sowearebackwherewestarted,withBenjamin'sadvocacyduringthesame

periodwiththatEnricoIV,theearly1920s,ofthetheoryandwritingofTrauerspiel,

thedramaofthetyrantunderemergency."Thefunctionofthetyrantisthe

restorationoforderinthestateofemergency:adictatorshipwhoseutopiangoal

willalwaysbetoreplacetheunpredictabilityofhistoricalaccidentwiththeiron

constitutionofthelawsofnature"(Benjamin74).

Pirandello'sHenryisatyrant-turned-martyr(12years)turned-intriguer(8years).

This"tragicemperor"refusestomournandovercometheincidentofhismemory

loss.Hekeepsitalivebylivinginithistoricallyasamartyr-turned-intriguer.

Heisatyrantwhocannotdecideontheemergency,whenherecovershismemory,

andwithdraws/exitsbygoingmad/playingmartyr,

andturnstheexceptionofhisinsanityintoapermanentmasquerade.

Hestops/exitstimeandattacheshimselfmelancholicallytohistory.

[“Withthebreakdownofageneralmorality,wehavebeenofferedtheconsciously

dishonestmanasatypeofvirtue”(Williams1966:150).Henryisavirtuosoofthe

melancholicethicsofaestheticnarcissism.]

Themelancholicintriguer(whohasexitedthetragedyofthekingandthemartyr-

playoftheprince)isafarcicalfigure.[Herenouncesalienation,whichheseesasthe

truehumanfate,andchoosestoliveoutsidemainstreamrealityasanoutcast.]I

wouldliketoconcludebysuggestingthathealsoresonateswithseveralfiguresof

24

post-revolutionaryrefusal,notjusttheleftmelancholicsbutalsothevirtuososof

destituentpower.

First,themessianicsuspension,theoneclosesttoBenjamnin.Agamben,in

"TheMessiahandtheSovereign:TheProblemofLawinWalterBenjamin"([1998]

Potentialities,1999)drawsonBenjamin'sMessianisminhis"CritiqueofViolence"

(1921)andcallstherealstateofexception"TheMessianicKingdom."Thetaskof

contemporarypoliticalactionistochallengethepermanentstateofexceptionin

whichpeoplelivewithamoreradicalstateofexceptionwherethelawismade

meaningless.ThechallengecomesfrompeoplewhofulfilltheMessianictaskby

refusingtotakeapositionandthustheychallengethecontentofthelaw:Kafka's

manfromthecountrywhospendshislifewaitingoutsidethedoorofthelawasking

forapermissiontoenterthatisnevergivenhimyethedoesnotwalkaway,and

Melville'sBartlebywho"wouldprefernotto"yetrefrainsfromwalkingoutofhis

WallStreetoffice.Theybothrepresentapotentialitytoactthatthatdoesnot

compromiseitselfinacting,andremainssuspendedinthesheerpossibilityof

acting.Theydestroytheforceofthelawbyrestoringthelawtoitsmeaningless

potentiality;theyovercomethenatureofsovereignpowerbyembracingdivine

violence,violenceaspuremeanswithoutends.Onemightconceivablysaythesame

thingaboutthenamelesspersonwhocontinuestoperformtheroleoftheGerman

Emperoreventhoughhecouldwalkoutofitinasecond.

[Writingon"destituentpower"(2013),whichhelatercalled"destituentpotential"

([2014]TheUseofBodies,2017),Agambenwarnsthateveryconstitutedpower

knockeddownbyaconstituentrevolutionresurgesinadifferentform.He

advocatesadestituentpotentialthatdeactivatesthisdominantsystem,rendersit

inoperative,andliberatesforcesthatcannotgelbackintoconstituentpower.

DrawingonSt.Paul'sRomans,hespecifiesthatitisthemessianicfaiththatrenders

inoperativethelawwithoutabolishingit."Thelawthatis'heldfirm'isalaw

rendereddestituteofitspowertocommand,thatistosay,itisnolongeralawof

commands/entolonandworks/ergon...butoffaith/pisteos"(273-74).]

25

Apartfromdestituentpotential,therehasbeenagreatvarietyofrefusals

stemmingoutofleftdefeatand/ormelancholicdisengagement.Somenotionshave

similartheologicalovertones,suchasSimoneWeil's"decreation,"Adorno's

"resignation,"Derrida's"unpower,"Tiqqun's"desertion,"ToniNegri's"exodus."

Othershaveapost-Marxistbasis,suchastheParallaxissueon"Mourning

Revolution,"ScottMcCracken's"themoodofdefeat,"RobynMarasco's"thehighway

ofdespair,"Salvage'smotto"thedesolatedleft,"anddiscussionsforabsenteeism

goingbacktoclassforrefusaltowork.Othershavearacialidentity,suchasFrank

Wilderson's"Afro-Pessimism"(whichseesblackexistenceasanontological

absence)oraqueerorientation,suchasLeeEdelman's"nofuture,"Jack

Halberstam's"thequeerartoffailure,"andMariRuti'sTheEthicsofOptingOut

(2017).Someoftheminvoketragedyexplicitly,suchasDavidScott's"tragicpost-

coloniality,"T.J.Clark'sandAlbertoToscano's"leftpoliticsinatragickey."LastI

willmentioncallstobecomebarbarians(Crisso&Odoteo:Barbarians,2006)by

rejectingthedialecticofrecognition,refusingtospeakthelanguageofthepolis,and

actinginuncivilanddisorderlyways.

DependingonthetheatricalgenreweassigntoPirandello'splay,wemaydetermine

accordinglythepoliticalroleandagencyweattributetoitshero.

*AversionofthislecturewasgivenasparticipationinDialoguesIII,partofthe

InterdisciplinaryWorkshop"CentralConceptsinContemporaryTheory"atthe

UniversityofMichigan,onMarch24,2018.Iamgratefultothewonderful

organizers,SrdjanCvjeticaninandMeganTorti,fortheinvitation.