VARIETIES OF ENGLISH:

Words & Collocations

Readings:Y. Kachru & L. Smith, Ch 7

How varieties of English, native and non-native vary in terms of their◦ Sounds and rhythms◦ Phrases and sentences

We also saw how these variations among non-native varieties of English are often the result of transfer from the native language of the speakers.

In this lecture, we will look at how varieties of English differ in terms of their words (lexicon) and collocations.

Who is Rush Limbaugh? Why has he been in the news recently? What’s your opinion of his actions in this

particular case? Why do you feel that way? Who are Terry Gross and Geoff Nunberg?

A four-letter word

Why does Nunberg speculate that people have reacted so strongly againts what Limbaugh said?

From NPR’s ‘Fresh Air’ with Terry Gross

What’s the difference between Ed Schultz’ use of the word last year and Rush Limbaugh’s recent use of the word?

Is the word ‘slut’ obscene and indecent, or is it a sexist slur?

What’s the difference, if any, between ‘slut’ and ‘player’?

What’s the difference, if any, between ‘slut’ and ‘queer’?

What’s the original meaning of ‘slut’? Why did people find it offensive?

From: Lowenberg, Non-native Varieties of English: Nativization, Norms, and Implication, pp. 5-6.

What do these mean? 1. My friend wants to go down the bus2. Did you know that Richard is moving with

Eunice?3. Britain derecognized the DK in 1979.4. This is an outstation call.5. He overlistened to the boys’ conversation.6. Most of the students here are bed-spacers.7. Our son is England-returned.8. You have to be careful with these been-to

boys.5

In the previous two chapters, we saw how cultures adopt English either ◦ as a lingua franca or auxiliary language within a

country (e.g., India, Nigeria, Singapore, all Outer Circle countries)

or ◦ as a language of wider communication for use with

speakers of other languages more globally (e.g., Japan, Thailand, China, all countries). Expanding Circle

We also saw how, in the process of doing so, the varieties of English used in these contexts may change in terms of ◦ Pronunciation

or◦ syntax

These changes are the result of language contact and often transfer of linguistic features from the first languages of those cultures.

These changes are often collectively referred to as ‘nativization’ (or ‘indigenization’):◦ The adaptation that a language may undergo when

it is used in a different cultural and social situation. ◦ Indian English, Nigerian English, Singapore English,

etc. for example, are said to have undergone nativization because changes have occurred in aspects of their phonology, and syntax.

Nativization also occurs in the areas of ◦Lexicon (vocabulary)

and ◦Collocations (the ways in which words are regularly used together)

Borrowings: ◦ Into American English: cayote, bayou, canyon,

depot, kowtow, chintz, etc. ◦ Into other varieties of English: jitney (Phillipines),

krengcai (Thailand), etc. Loan translations:

◦ chewing stick (African varieties), sacred thread (India), head-tie (Africa), etc.

Semantic shift: ◦ father, uncle/aunt (many varieties), beauty (Thai),

seven (Thai), etc.

Shifts in form class (e.g., from adjective or noun to verb): tantamounts, doesn’t worth, etc.

Productive derivational processes: prepone, overstand, downpress, etc.

Neologisms (newly coined words): mozzie (‘mosquito’), pollie (‘politician’), chooch (‘jackass, moron’), etc.

New idioms and metaphors: ‘to write it down in my head’ (South Africa), ‘Give me chance/way’ (Ghana), etc.

Bokamba, Africanisms in African English

“When a Nigerian or a Ghanaian speaks English, no matter what his/her level of education, native speakers of English have no difficulty identifying the accent as African.”

AfricanismThese Englishes share certain properties that can be identified as Africanisms, in that they reflect structural characteristics of African languages.

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Bokamba, Africanisms in African English

1. Example of Syntactic Construction

With much pleasre [pleasure] and respect I inscribe you this few lines and with the hope that it will meet you in good condition of health. [Bokamba, p. 126].

Q: What are the non-STD American usages?

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Bokamba, Africanisms in African English

1. Adjectival AgreementAfricanism STD Englishthis few lines these few lines

“Most African languages do not require overt agreement markers between a noun and its modifier..”

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Bokamba, Africanisms2. Subject Verb AgreementIn STD English the subject NP of a sentence

requires that the form of the verb agrees with whether it is singular or plural where possible (in all third person present tense):

Arthur sleeps in a bedThe twins sleep in a bunk

Kim lives in BerkeleyYoko and Arthur live in Richmond

“With much pleasre [pleasure] and respect I inscribe you this few lines and with the hope

that it will meet you in good condition of health.” 15

Bokamba, Africanisms

3. Word Choice“In many African languages the verbs find, meet, and encounter are realized by a single verb which is often the equivalent of meet in English.”

“With much pleasre [pleasure] and respect I inscribe you this few lines and with the hope that it will meet you in good condition of health.”

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Class Exercise: What do these mean?

My friend wants to go down the bus.*My friend wants to go down the bus = get offDid you know that Richard is moving with

Eunice?*Did you know that Richard is moving with

Eunice? = courtingBritain derecognized the DK in 1979.*Britain derecognized the DK in 1979.=

withdraw diplomatic recognitionThis is an outstation call.*This is an outstation call. = out of town

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He overlistened to the boys’ conversation.*He overlistened to the boys’ conversation. =

eavesdroppedMost of the students here are bed-spacers.*Most of the students here are bed-spacers. =

room renters (no board)Our son is England-returned.*Our son is England-returned. = come back from

EnglandYou have to be careful with these been-to

boys.*You have to be careful with these been-to boys.

= who have returned from England

Class Exercise: Distinctive collocations and idioms noted inPakistan, Nigeria and Ghana (Cf. Crystal)

Example Provide Meaning

Senior Wash mouth Morning meal Baby lawyer Hear French Declare a surplusTake inGive me chance/ wayI am not financial

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Answers: Distinctive collocations and idioms noted inPakistan, Nigeria and Ghana

Senior elderWash mouth brush teethMorning meal breakfastBaby lawyer young lawyer Hear French understand Declare a surplus throw party Take in become pregnant Give me chance / way let me passI am not financial have no money

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Class Exercise: Distinctive Features of STD Nigerian English(From Changing English, p. 151)

STD Nigerian English STD American English?

1. Equipments2. Enable him do it3. I am going to voice out my opinion4. We shall discuss about that later5. I congratulate you for your brilliant performance6. The politicians and their supporters, they don’t

often listen to advice.7. A person who has no experience, can he be a

good leader?8. To barb9. Bala

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Class Exercise: Distinctive Features of STD Nigerian English(From Changing English, p. 151)

STD Nigerian English Bush meat: ‘We will hunt some bush-meat’

gameWhite-cap chiefs

senior chiefs in Lago whose rank is shown by the white cap

Environment: ‘This environment is nice’. neighborhood

At now: ‘They have not arrived at now.’yet

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Off-head from memory

To take the light to make a power cut (electricity)

Social wake-keeping feasting and drumming

To wet: ‘I will wet my plants’ to water (flower)

Globe: ‘Can you change the globe, please!’ electric light bulb

To land one’s speech to finish one’s speech

Juju music a type of dance music

Bluffto give an air of importance

Bokamba, Africanisms

4. Greeting Style (Cultural)“African languages characteristically inquire about or make reference to an addressee’s welfare as an initial step in either face-to-face greetings or letter writing.”

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Chinese: Have you eaten?

Lao:Good health.

Thai: Where are you going?

American English: Hey, Dude!

How are you ! How have you been !

Other cultures?How do you greet? To whom? When?

Where? In what context?

How do these changes become the standard form of Outer Circle varieties of English?

Codification: use of this variety in media, literature, publication of style sheets, grammars, dictionaries, etc.

Lexicography: The art and science of dictionary making

There is a continuum or cline of varieties, ranging from less educated non-standard to educated varieties

Basilect Mesolect AcrolectLeast standard Colloquial Educated

variety

Some items have only a very restricted use, that is, they are used for specific registers

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““Th-th-th-that's all folks!" Th-th-th-that's all folks!"