Van Sangyan: March, 2014 · Mango Mealybug : A Major Pest Kritish De West Bengal Mango (Mangifera sp.) is the most important commercially grown plant of India. According to National

Van Sangyan: August, 2014

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Issue : August 2014

Van Sangyan


From the Editor’s desk

Biofertilizers contain microorganisms that colonize the rhizosphere on application and promote

growth by increasing the supply/availability of primary nutrients to the host plant, and thereby

reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The microorganisms in bio-fertilizers

restore the soil's natural nutrient cycle and build soil organic matter. Therefore, they are

extremely advantageous in enriching soil fertility and are more cost-effective than chemical

fertilizers.

This issue of Van Sangyan contains an article on the prospects of biofertilizers. There are also

sections on the soils of India, and how afforestation can rehabilitate barren lands, along with

other useful articles. The back cover of this issue insists proper utilization of vermicompost,

which is also a biofertilizer.

I hope that you would find all information in this issue relevant and valuable.

Readers of Van Sangyan are welcome to write to us about their views and queries on various

issues in the field of forestry.

Looking forward to meet you all through forthcoming issues.

Dr. N. Roychoudhary

Chief Editor


Contents Page

Mango Mealybug : A Major Pest

& Kritish De

1

Bamboo and Rural Livelihood

& Swaran Lata, Dr P. K. Khatri and Sanjay Singh

6

Hybrid seed production in cotton

& Naseer Mohammad

9

iM+rh Hkwfe ij oukas dk iquokZlu

& MkW- ,- ds- HkkSfed

13

The Prospect of Bio-fertilizers for Sustainable Plant Development

& Rupnarayan Sett

18

ijkcSaxuh fofdj.k] vkstksu ijr vkSj gekjk i;kZoj.k

& MkW- jkts'k dqekj feJk] MkW- ulhj eksgEen ,oa Vzhlk gseYVu

25

Biotechnology for forests

& Tresa Hamalton

33

Flowering Plants and Insects

& Swaran Lata and Dr. P. B. Meshram

37

Soils of India

& Chandralekha Taksande

41

Know your Biodiversity ( Gyps bengalensis & Bombax ceiba )

& Swaran Lata and Dr. P. K. Khatri

46


1

Mango Mealybug : A Major Pest

Kritish De

West Bengal

Mango (Mangifera sp.) is the most

important commercially grown plant of India.

According to National Horticulture Board,

Government of India, India ranks first among

world’s mango producing countries accounting

for about 50% of the world’s mango production.

Other major mango producing countries include

China, Thailand, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines,

Indonesia, Brazil, Nigeria and Egypt. India’s

share is around 52% of world production i.e. 12

million tonnes as against world’s production of

23 million tonnes (2002-03). But, this important

fruit crop plant is attacked by several insect

pests every year which causes economic

damage. According to ICAR - National Bureau of

Agriculturally Important Insects, Bangaluru

there are 84 species of insects acting as pest of

mango plant of which 4 insects viz. Drosicha

mangiferae Green, Hemaspidoproctus cinereus

(Green), Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas) and Icerya

seychellarum (Westwood) come from the family

Monophlebidae (commonly called

monophlebids or giant scales). Among them,

last three species act as minor pest but the first

one, Drosicha mangiferae Green is a major pest.

It is commonly called mango mealybug. Though

the members of the family Pseudococcidae

(Hemiptera : Coccoidea) are commonly called

“mealybug”, however, it is also called “mango

mealybug” because of its close resemblance

with the mealybugs.

Distribution

Giant Scales are mostly found in tropical

countries, especially mango orchard of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh and other S.E. Asian

countries.

Morphological description of adult male

Body is reddish orange in color and

visibly divided into head, thorax and abdomen.

Head is small, bears one pair black compound

eyes and one pair antennae. Antennae are as

long as the length of the body, black in color,

segmented. Each segment of antennae bears

one pair lateral bristle. Thorax has two black

spots, one on dorsal side and another on

ventral side. Thorax bears three pairs of

externally jointed legs and one pair black

colored wings. Coastal margin of wing is

strongly developed. Median – flexion line and

claval furrow of wing are also well developed.

Abdomen has four pair of fleshy caudal tassels.

Penis sheath strongly tapering, the apex

produced into a slender, almost cylindrical style

with rounded tip.


2

Morphological description of adult female

Body is elongated oval, body length (10

mm or more) is twice than the width (5 mm or

more), dorsal side somewhat concave but

ventral side is flattened. Body is covered by

white waxy coating. Body is divided into head,

thorax and abdomen but these parts are fused

so that it is tough to distinguish. One pair

segmented, dark brown colored antennae are

present. Wings are absent. Three pairs of

externally jointed dark brown colored legs are

present. Thoracic spiracles often with pores,

concentrated near entrance of atrium. Well

developed anal tube present, with a simple

sclerotized ring or band of pores at inner end.

Abdominal spiracles present and simple,

without a pore collar (it is the microscopic key

character of family – Monophlebidae to

distinguish it from family - Pseudococcidae).

Mature female often with flutted ovisac or with

a marsupium (it is the field key character of

family – Monophlebidae to distinguish it from

family - Pseudococcidae).

Life cycle

Drosicha mangiferae Green has 1

generation each year. Female lay eggs between

April to May. Purple-colored eggs are laid in egg

sacs comprising mass of wax threads, in the

loose soil around (within 2 – 3 m radius) the

infested trees. Initially, maximum eggs are laid

daily i.e. 56 per day and at the end minimum

eggs are laid i.e. 1 per day. The egg laying


3

ranges from 221 to 361 per female in 9 to 16

days. The eggs hatch in the month of December

– January and 1st instar nymph emerge and

move upward the plant with an average speed

of 12.4 cm/minute. 1st instar nymph can live

without food for 5 to 19 days and this stage

lasts for 45 to 71 days in both male and female

after which they moult to form 2nd instar

nymph. The 2nd instar nymph moves upward the

plant with an average speed of 17.3 cm/minute.

The 2nd instar nymph can live without food for 3

to 23 days. The 2nd instar stage lasts for 18 to 38

days in both male and female. After that, they

moult to form 3rd instar nymph. The 3rd instar

moves upward the plant with an average speed

of 37.1 cm/minute. The 3rd instar nymph can

live without food for 3 to 23 days. The 3rd instar

stage lasts for 15 to 26 days for female and 9 to

15 days for male. Then, the female moults to

form adult whereas, the male goes to pupa

stage. The pupa stage lasts for 9 to 15 days.

After that, the adult male appears. During the

month of March – April, both adult male and

female are present. Life span of adult male is

about one week, but life span of adult female is

about one month. During this time, they

perform copulation. The males fly where the

flightless females are present and mating time

varies from 6 to 20 minute.

Damage

Only nymph and adult female cause

damage to the plants, but adult male causes no

damage. The nymphs and adult female suck sap

from inflorescence, tender leaves, shoots and

fruit peduncles. As a result, the affected

inflorescences are shriveled and get dried.

Rigorous infestation affects the fruit set and

causes fruit drop. They exude honey dew over

the leaves, on which sooty mould is

developed which causes damage. Chief host of

this insect is Mangifera sp. (Anacardiaceae) i.e.

mango plant. Though it is a major pest of

mango plant, it also causes damage to cacao,

tamarind, citrus etc.

Control Measures

It can be effectively controlled by

ploughing the soil (upper 6”) during May – June

as female lays eggs in the soil. Mixing methyl

parathion dust 2% @ 250gm/tree in the basal

region after ploughing gives good result.

Spraying of 0.20% carbaryl or 0.040%

monocrotophos also kills nymps on shoots.

Research shows that Profenofos (Curacron® 50


4

EC) at 800ml/100L water and Methomyl

(Lannate® 40 SP) at 250gm/100L water is

effective against first and second instar nymph.

Eco-friendly and popular method to

minimize the damage to the tree is the use of

physical barriers against nymphs to crawl up the

stem. During the month of November to

February, banding of the basal trunk of the tree

with 15 – 20 cm wide slippery alkathene sheet

prevents newly hatched nymphs to climb the

tree. Making sticky bands at 30 – 40 cm above

the ground level with rosin and castor oil or

grease or coal tar also prevent the nymphs to

climb the tree.

Research shows that the fungus Beauveria

bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. can effectively

reduces first instar nymph of this insect. It is

reported that three species of jumping spiders

(Salticidae) - Lyssomanes sikkimensis Tikader

1967; Myrmarachne bengalensis Tikader 1973;

and Zygoballus indica and one species of wolf

spider (Lycosidae) - Lycosa mackenziei Gravely,

1924 predate on this insect. Thus, these spiders

can also be used for biological control of giant

scales.

Note : Though Drosicha mangiferae Green is

commonly called mango mealybug, however,

the Rastrococcus mangiferae (Green)

(Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), Rastrococcus

invadens (Green) (Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae)

are also commonly called mango mealybug.

References :

1. Abdul Latif (1949). The taxonomic Status of Drosicha stebbingi (Green) and Drosicha mangiferae (Green) (Hem.,

Coccid.). Bulletin of Entomological Research, 40, pp 351-354. doi:10.1017/S0007485300022811.

2. Abrol, D. P. (Ed.) 2014. Integrated Pest Management: Current Concepts and Ecological Perspective. Academic Press.

(Page : 291)

3. Karar, H. 2010. Bio-ecology and management of mango mealybug, Drosicha mangiferae Green in mango orchards of

Punjab, Pakistan. Ph.D thesis submitted to Faculty of Agriculture, University Of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Pakistan).

(Page : 72 – 76)

4. Koul, O. & Dhaliwal, G. S. (Ed.) 2002. Microbial Biopesticides. Taylor and Francis. (Page : 254)

5. Prasad, D. 2007. Sustainable Pests Management. Daya Publishing House. (Page : 138)


5

6. Syed Ismat Hussain, Mushtaq A. Saleem and Shoaib Freed. 2012. Toxicity of Some Insecticides to Control Mango

Mealy Bug, Drosicha mangiferae, a Serious Pest of Mango in Pakistan. Pakistan J. Zool., vol. 44(2), pp. 353-359.

7. Technical Bulletin, Number 52. 1928. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Office of Information. Division of Publications.

U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington. (Page 160)

8. T. Radha, T. & Mathew, L. 2007. Fruit Crops (Horticulture Science Series - 3). New India Publishing Agency. (Page : 70,

253)

9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango_mealybug

10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophlebidae

11. http://nhb.gov.in/report_files/mango/MANGO.htm

12. http://www.nbaii.res.in/insectpests/Drosicha-mangiferae.php

13. http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalekeys/scalefamilies/key/scale%20families/media/html/scalefamilies/Families/Mon

ophlebiidae/Drosicha.html


6

Bamboo and Rural Livelihood

Swaran Lata, Dr P. K. Khatri and Sanjay Singh

Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur

Bamboo is one of the fastest growing

ancient woody grasses and known as green

gold and poor man’s timber. Another

peculiarity of bamboo is that most species

flower very infrequently, with intervals as

long as 60 to 120 years. These species exhibit

‘mass flowering’ where all plants in the

population flower at the same time. Bamboo

is an important forest resource for the rural

communities both for farming activities as

well as a source of food and cash income. It

belongs to family Gramineae and subfamily

Bambusoideae and is found in forest and non

forest areas. It is closely associated with

indigeneous culture and used for house

construction, bamboo ply, agricultural

implements, handicraft, irrigation, brooms,

umbrellas, medicine, food, fuel, fodder and

papers since ancient time. Today it has much

potential for income generation, employment

generation and poverty alleviation by

improving the economic condition of

bamboo-dependent people. It grows

everywhere in the world except in extremely

cold climates.

It is thought to have originated in

China, where the first use of bamboo to make

every day items was recorded. With the

growing demand of timber it is substitute of

timber due to renewable property. Particular

environmental conditions like higher

temperature, air humidity, availability of

water promotes clum growth. It is harvested

for construction purpose when clums reaches

greatest strength and sugar content in sap is

lowest. Higher sugar content in sap at the

time of harvestation promotes pest

infestation rate. Major bamboo research

began after 1920 when history of plant was

studied. There are 1200 species belonging to

90 genera throughout the world. In India

there are 125 species of bamboos belonging

to 23 genera. India is second richest country

in the world after China in terms of Bamboo

genetic resources. It occupies an area of 14

million hectare land in India. It is found in all

parts of the country from tropical to

temperate regions except Kashmir region

where bamboo does not occur naturally.

More than 50 % of bamboo species occur in

Eastern India.

Madhya Pradesh ranks first in its

forest cover and forestry plays a very

important role in improving the economy of

the state. Bastar, Balaghat, Hoshangabad,

Mandla, Raipur, Shahdol, Seoni, Jabalpur etc

are the bamboo rich regions in Madhya

Pradesh. Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa

vulgaris, Bambusa bambos, Gigantochloa

rostrata, Schizostachyum pergracila are the


7

main species of bamboo growing in Madhya

Pradesh of which Dendrocalamus strictus is

most important species and grows throughout

the state. Bamboo, which is an important

forest produce, has high significance in socio

economic life of the rural people. In Madhya

Pradesh, two communities basod and nistari

are the main consumers of bamboo. Basods

are the people belonging to community of

bamboo craftsmen who are traditionally

dependent on bamboo for their livelihood.

The nistaris use bamboo for house repair and

crop harvesting and other domestic uses.

The importance of forest in an area is

reflected by the multiple uses, such as source

for fuel wood, tools and implements, timber,

fodder, leaf litter and other NTFPs. Bamboo is

one of the NTFPs which is used in

improvement of rural livelihood of the people

in different ways:

Bioenergy

Through pyrolysis, bamboo can be

converted into three valuable products:

bamboo charcoal, oil and gas. Bamboo

charcoal is traditionally used as a substitute

for wood charcoal or mineral coal. It can serve

as a fuel, absorbent and conductor. In some

areas the situation is so bad that poor

villagers need to purchase fuel wood or walk

miles to collect the fuel wood; hence bamboo

plantation in waste land are excellent

alternate of fuel wood. Utilization of this

renewable fuel can save vast natural forest

resources and fossil fuels such as coal, oil and

gas. This would allow retention of carbon

already sequestered in forests and in fossil

fuels. It can produce 30% more oxygen than a

hard wood forest of comparable size. Biomass

based power generation has huge potential to

electrify the non-electrified villages and

biomass gasification technology can also

create employment in rural areas.

Pulp, Paper and Clothing

It is used in pulp, paper and cloth

making. Bamboo paper has practically the

same quality as paper made from wood.

Paper made from wood may deteriorate over

time but paper made from bamboo does not

deteriorate. Because of its non irritant quality

it is used in baby cloths.

Furniture and Flooring

Bamboo is used for making furniture

from ancient times. Today Bamboo flooring is

preferred over wooden floors due to its

smoothness, brightness, stability, high

resistance, insulation qualities and flexibility.

Food and beverage

Young bamboo shoots are edible in

many parts of the world. Bamboo vinegar is

extracted while making charcoal and is used

for hundreds of treatments in almost all

fields. This liquid contains 400 different

chemical compounds and can be applied for

many purposes including cosmetics,

insecticides, deodorants, food processing and

agriculture.


8

Role of Bamboo products in rural livelihood

Reforestation

It should be selected as an alternative

to other trees not only for reforestation but

also for afforestation because of fastest

growing rate, easy propagation, tensile

strength and renewable property. It protects

steep slopes, soils, water ways and controls

soil erosion.

Bamboo has played and is still playing

an important role in improving the livelihoods

of rural people. The farmers produce a wide

range of bamboo products that are marketed

individually at present. The unavailability of

transportation, low product prices and varying

product quality are some of the main

concerns of the bamboo handicraft

producers. Therefore, possibilities need to be

explored for forming bamboo handicraft

production and marketing by the interested

farmers. The growing urban population and

their increased demand for bamboo products

are new oppurtunities to bamboo dependent

people. This will help to improve income as

well as employment opportunities to the rural

people. With rapid increase in demand due to

rising population have caused depletion of

bamboo resource in certain areas are also a

growing concern among the users. In depth

study of bamboo resource and factors

responsible for its depletion is needed for

future management of bamboo resources.

Central India has many types of bamboo and

it has potential of providing self employment

and income by bamboo based products.

Hence there is need to promote the utilization

of bamboo based products.


9

Hybrid seed production in cotton

Naseer Mohammad

Genetics & Plant Propagation Division, Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur

Cotton is a major fibre crop of global

importance and has high commercial value.

Four out of 50 recognized cotton species in

the world are cultivated. Two of them

[Gossypium arboreum (2n = 26) and

Gossypium herbaceum (2n = 26)] are diploid,

and remaining two [Gossypium hirsutum (2n =

52) Gossypium barbadense (2n = 52)] are

tetraploids. More than 80 per cent of the

world’s area is covered by Gossypium

hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense;

however diploid cottons are also cultivated in

Asia and Middle East. India is the only country

where all the cultivated species and some of

their hybrid combinations are commercially

grown.

Cotton and cotton textiles constitute

a major share of agricultural export. In sixties,

the production of cotton was about 5 million

bales, mostly of short and medium staple

cotton. With the advent of hybrid cottons in

the seventies, a sea change was brought in

cotton scenario both qualitatively and

quantitatively. Today, 23.15 million bales of

cotton consisting of short, medium, long and

extra long staple are produced annually.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The phenomenon of heterosis or

hybrid vigour is known in cotton since 1894

when Mell first reported an increase in

agronomic and fibre properties through

cotton hybrids. Thereafter, Balls reported

hybrid vigour in the inter-specific crosses

between upland and Egyptian cottons. Since

then, a number of workers in India, USA and

elsewhere recorded the heterosis for various

traits both in the intra-hirsutum and inter-

specific (Gossypium hirsutum x Gossypium

barbadense; Gossypium herbaceum x

Gossypium arboreum) crosses. Several

workers reported higher heterosis in case of

inter-specific (G. hirsutum x G. barbadense)

hybrids compared to the intra-specific

(G.hirsutum x G. hirsutum) crosses. However

this heterosis could not be commercially

exploited due to the tedious task of hand

emasculation and pollination required for the

hybrid seed production, especially in the

absence of male sterility systems in cotton

during those days.

With an objective to achieve self

sufficiency in cotton, especially for the long

and extra long staple cottons, serious

attempts to develop hybrid cottons combining

both the yield and quality attributes began in

India in the late thirties mainly at the Cotton

Research Station, Surat in Gujarat State of

India under the leadership of late Dr. C. T.

Patel. Their strenuous efforts to commercially

exploit heterosis bore fruits during late sixties


10

when Hybrid-4, a cross between G 67, a

commercial cultivar of Gujarat and Nectariless

an exotic accession from the USA, was

developed and released for commercial

cultivation.

HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION

In cotton, there are two methods of hybrid

seed production, viz., Conventional method

and Male sterility based method.

CONVENTIONAL METHOD

Breeder or certified seed of male and

female parents is used for the production

of hybrid seed.

Land requirement: must be free from

volunteer plants of cotton.

Isolation requirements: isolation of 50

meters for certified seed production from

other varieties of same or other species is

necessary for certification.

The female and male parents are planted

in the same field in separate plots in 4: 1 or

5: 1 ratio.

Sowing of parental material is done in such

a way that there should be nicking in the

flowering time of both the parents.

The female and male parents are planted

at wider spacing for easy movement

during crossing.

Spacing: Between rows - 150cm; Between

plants - female -120 cm, Male - 60 cm.

Seed rate: Female – 3.75 kg/ha, Male -

2.75 kg/ha

The off type plants are rogued out before

initiation of crossing programme. Higher

doses of fertilizer and recommended plant

protection measures are used to raise

healthy crop to get continuous flush of

flowers

Crossing techniques

In cotton, hybrid seed production is

carried out by artificial crossing. The crossing

refers to hand pollination. The crossing

technique consists of three main steps, viz.,

1. Selection of Bud

The selection of flower bud for

emasculation is an important step in hybrid

seed production. The crossing work is

initiated after one week of flower initiation.

The flower buds of proper stage (buds which

are likely to open the next day) are selected

for emasculation. Such buds have generally

cream colour and are well developed.

2. Emasculation

The process of removal of anthers from

the selected flower bud is referred to as

emasculation.

Anthers of selected buds are gently

removed with the help of nail of the

thumb as suggested by Doak (1934).

The emasculated buds are covered with

tissue paper bag of red colour to prevent

natural out-crossing.


11

The best time for emasculation is 3-6 PM.

Some people use straw tube to cover the

ovary of emasculated bud. Emasculation is

not required when hybrid seed is produced

using male sterility.

3. Pollination

Emasculated buds are pollinated the

next morning with the pollen of male parent.

Best time for pollination is 8-11 AM, when the

stigma receptivity is max. Generally, 4-5 buds

are pollinated by one flower of male parent.

After pollination, the red tissue paper bags

are replaced by white tissue paper bags. For

identification, a label or thread is also tied on

the pedicel of crossed bud for identification of

crossed bolls.

Precautions

After pollination, keep suitable identity by

tying cotton thread for easy picking and

avoiding mixing.

Remove all unemasculated and unused

flowers (other than crossed ones) daily so

as to retain only genuine crossed flowers

(bolls) on the female parent. Destroy

leftover collected male flowers after use.

Remove off-type plants, if any, in female

and male parents before crossing is

commenced.

MALE STERILITY BASED METHOD

Two types of male sterility systems are mainly

used in cotton, viz., Genetic male sterility, and

Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility.

Genetic Male Sterility

In cotton, Gregg male sterility is the

only source utilized in India, Pakistan and

USA. This male sterility is governed by two

recessive genes (ms5 and ms6). The male

sterility is transferred to any female parent

through backcross technique. Maintenance of

GMS lines involves sibmating between male

sterile plants and heterozygous male fertile

plants. Cross of this male fertile genotype

with sterile line will always produce male

sterile and male fertile plants in 1 : 1 ratio.

Fertile plants are identified after flowerings

are removed. The male sterile plants are

pollinated with the pollen of male parent to

get hybrid seed. In case of male sterile parent,

3-4 seeds should be sown per hill because

50% of the population (male fertile) is

removed when flowering starts.

Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility

In cotton, mostly G.harknessii (D2

CMS) cytoplasm is used as a source of

cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (G. trilobum

D8 CMS and G. aridum D4 CMS also induce

stable male sterility for practical hybrid seed

production). The restoration in D2 CMS

involves monogenic dominant action with one

enhancer gene. The male sterile parent

(female) is pollinated with the pollen of

restorer (male) parent. After pollination,


12

flowers are covered with tissue paper bags to

avoid natural out crossing with other plants.

Male sterility in diploids

There are at present two sources of GMS

1. Hisar source: The recessive GMS in G.

arboreum cotton variety, DS 5 (GMS-1)

have white flowers with petal spot. The

GMS-1 was isolated as a spontaneous

mutation.

2. Akola Source: The GMS line GAK-423A is

developed by transferring the genome of

G. arboreum (AKH-4) in to G. anomalum

cytoplasm (Meshram and Wadodkar,

1992). This source has yellow, larger

flowers than DS 5 GMS and possesses

dark petal spot.

India is the first country to release a GMS

based hybrid (AHH-1) in diploids.

Chemically Induced Male Sterility

Chemicals FW 450 (Sodium a-

dichloro-iso-butyrate) and TD 1123 (Chemical

constituent not known) have been

demonstrated to posses male gametocide

action. However, their commercial viability

has not been established so far.

Topping: Top and side shoots may be nipped

suitably to control optimum growth and

better boll development. Inadequate or

excessive irrigation should be avoided. Stop

irrigation a week before last picking.

Picking: Pick completely opened crossed boll

(kapas) as and when ready in baskets and sort

out. Any bolls without thread be kept aside

and only genuine crossed bolls are kept

separately for use. Remove hard locks,

stained kapas etc. keep good crossed boll

kapas for processing. Dry well-cleaned kapas

in shade after each picking and store in a good

place picking-wise lots. Slow ginning is to be

practised to recover good quality seed and

without cutting the seed. After ginning, the

seeds may be kept well spread, air dried,

without heaping.

Acid delinting

100ml of commercial sulphuric

acid/kg seed treated for 2-3 minutes and

washed thoroughly with lime water/fresh

water till free of acid.

References:

1. Anonymous (2007). Practical Manual of Principles of seed Technology. Department of Botany, Dr.P.D.K.V., Akola.

2. Basu, AK and Paroda, RS (1995). Hybrid cotton in India- A success story. APAARI, Bankong.

3. Khadi, BM and Kulkarni (2001). Cotton. In: V.L. Copra (ed.) Breeding field crops. Oxford and IBH Publishing co. New

Delhi, pp531-575.

4. Meshram, LD and Wadodkar, MB (1992). Male sterility in Asiatic cotton G.arboreum L. Hybrid cotton News letter

2:3.

5. Patel, CT (1971). Hybrid 4, a new hope towards self sufficiency in cotton in India. Cott. Dev. 1: 1-6.


13

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d`f=e ou dgrs gSA ,slh Hkwfe tks vusd dkj.k ls

v/kksxfr dks izkIr gks pqdh gS] rFkk bldk orZeku eas

mfpr mi;ksx ugha gks ik jgk gS] iM+rh Hkwfe dgykrh

gSA vizR;{k :i ls ns[kk tk; rks cM+rh gqbZ ekuo

rFkk i'kq la[;k gh izeq[k dkj.kkas gS tk tykÅ ydM+h

rFkk i'kq pkjk dh iwfrZ ds fy, oukas ds vR;kf/kd

nksgu ds fy, mRrjnk;h gS] ftlls Hkwfe {kj.k gksdj

iM+rh Hkwfe dk fuekZ.k djrh gSA oukas ds vU/kk/kqU/k

dVkbZ ij jksd yxkdj rFkk u;as oukas dk jksi.k djds

iM+rh Hkwfe dks lq/kkjk tk ldrk gSA

i`Foh ij ekuo ds vfLrRo dks cuk, j[kus

ds fy, dqy HkqHkkx dk 33% Hkkx oukas ls vkPNkfnr

gksuk pkfg,A vr% vko';drkvkas dh iwfrZ ds fy, Hkwfe

dks lokZsRre fLFkfr eas cuk, j[kuk vfr vko';d gSA

Hkkjr ds dqy HkkSxksfyd {ks=Qy dk yxHkx 50% Hkkx

v/kksxfr dks izkIr gks pqdk gSA taxykas ds dzwjrkiw.kZ

dVkbZ ls ck


14

2- yo.kh; ènk % [kSj] ccwy] egkuhe] lQsn fljl]

uhyfxjh iztkfr] tkewu] vtwZu] csj] cgM+k

3- HkkVk Hkwfe % [kesj] vkWaoyk] veyrk'k] 'kh'ke]

lQsn fljl] dkykfljl] ccwy] lqccwy] lhlw

4- Hkwfe {kj.k jksdus ds fy, o`{k iztkfr;kWa % csj]

'kh'ke ckWal] flfjl] [ksj] uhe

5- Hkwfe dks mitkÅ cukus ds fy, % lqccqy] ccwy]

v'kLr] 'kh'kw] pdksM+k

6- tykÅ ydM+h ds fy, % ccwy] [ksj] djat]

?kkoM+k] tkequ] lqccqy

7- x`g fuekZ.k rFkk cfYy;kWa gsrq % ikWiyj]

;wdsfyIVl] ckWal

8- i'kqpkjk ds fy, % lqccqy] ccwy] flfjl] csj]

fl'lw] [kSj

9- Qykas gsrq % vke] tkequ] egqWavk] dSFkk] bZeyh] csj]

fHkyok] rsUnw] xqyj

10- vkS"k/kh; o`{k iztkfr;kWa % vkWaoyk] gjkZ] uhe] csy]

cgsM+k

11- 'kh?kz òf) gksus okys o`{k % foyk;rh ccwy]

'kh'ke] vxLr] fljl] ccwy] [kEgkj

12- tyeXu {ks=kas gsrq % ;wdsfyIVl] djat] fl'lw]

ccwy] vtwZu] lQsnj fljl] dkyk fljl

13- Hkwfe dVko jksdus gsrq % ckWal] ysUVkuk iztkfr]

izkslksfil

14- pV~Vkuh] catj ,oa iFkjhyh Hkwfe gsrq % csy]

taxytysch] csj] iyk'k] dqYyq

15- dks;yk [kku {ks= % foyk;rh beyh] fles:cs

Xyksdk] vdsf'k;k esuft;e] dSfl;k lkbfe;k]

fl';w] [kesj

16- ykSg v;Ld [knku % lqccqy] uhyfxjh iztkfr]

lQsn fljl] [kesj] fl';w] vkWaoyk

17- rkWack [knku {ks= % [kesj] uhyfxjh iztkfr]

vdsfl;k ysfUVdqysfjl] lQsn fljl

18- pwuk [knku {ks= % ccwy] fl';w] lqccqy] [ksj]

lQsn fljl] jrutksr] uhyfxjh iztkfr] [kesj]

uhe

vko';d@mi;ksxh tkudkfj;kWa %

efYpax ikS/kksa ds of̀) ,oa vknzZrk gkfu dks cpk,

j[kus ds fy, fofHkUu eYpsl dk iz;ksxkas }kjk

v/;;u fd;k x;k ftleas ?kkl dk egRo lcls

mi;qDr ik;k x;kA

oehZdEiksLV ,oa dEiksLV [kkn dk feJ.k ¼izR;sd

2 fd-xkz-½] ty'kfDr 10 xzk- izfr xM~


15

2- [knku {ks= eas Hkwfe ds fodkl dh fof/k;kWa %&

vfHk;kaf=dh; fof/k

tSfod fof/k

3- fuEu [knkuksa eas izk;ksfxd dk;Z fd;k x;k %&

dks;yk [knku] yksgk [knku] rkack [knku]

pwuk [knku] ckWDlkbV [knku

4- [knku {ks= eas fuEufyf[kr iSekukas ds vk/kkj

ij o`{kkjksi.k gsrq iztkfr;kas dk p;uA

izHkkfor {ks= eas fodflr gksus okyh iztkfr;kWaA

izHkkfor Hkwfe eas ukbVªkstu fLFkjhdj.k okyh

iztkfr;kWaA

LFkkuh; yksxksa gsrw] baZ/ku] pkjk ,oa js'kas mIiUu

djus okyh iztkfr;kWaA

i{kh;kas frrfy;kas ,oa vU; oU; izk.kh;kas dks

vkdf"kZr djus okyh iztkfr;kWaA

mUur ,oa LoLFk o`{kkas }kjk chtkas dk p;uA

dks;yk [knkukas dh Hkwfe dk fodkl

v/;;u {ks=

tsojk ,oa foJkeiqj ¼N-x-½

flaxjkSyh ¼e-iz-½

rkypsj ¼mM+hlk½

mfpr iztkfr;kWa

foyk;rh beyh ¼taxy tysch½] fles:ck

Xykdk] vdsfl;k eSfUt;e] dsfl;k lsfe;k] fllw ]

[kesj

iz;ksxkRed ifj.kke

vPNs ifj.kke gsrq izFke o"kZ 100 xzke ;wfj;k 25

xzke ,l-,l-ih- ,oa 25 xzke iksVk'k E;wjsV izfr

ikS/kk Mkyk tk;sA

o`{kkas dh vPNh mit ,oa o`f) gsrq [knku dh

feV~Vh ,oa daiksLV dk 1%2 dk feJ.k xM~


16

pwuk [knkukas dh Hkwfe dk fodkl v/;;u {ks=

dqVs'oj [knku] ckjgh] dVuh ¼e-iz-½

jksi.k gsrq mfpr iztkfr;kWa

ccwy] fllw] lqccwy] [kSj] lQsn fljl] jru

tksr] uhyfxjh iztkfr ¼gkbfczM½] [kesj] lkbek:ck

Xyksdk] uhe

ckWDlkbV [knku dh Hkwfe dk fodkl

v/;;u {ks=

vejdaVd ¼e-iz-½

jksi.k gsrq mfpr iztkfr;kWa

vkWLVªsfy;u ccwy] uhyfxjh iztkfr

¼dekYMqysfUll½] okVy czq'k] phj ikbu

ijrh Hkwfe eas okfudh dh laHkkouk,

1- loZizFke iM+rh Hkwfe tgkWa o`{k yxokuk gks ogkWa

>kfM+;kas] ?kkl bR;kfn dks lkQ dj nsuk pkfg,A

2- ikS/ks yxkus ds fy, xM~


17

serrata), ckWal (Dendrocalamus strictus), lqccqy

(Sesbania sesban), vkWLVsªfy;u ccwy (Acacia

auriculiformis), vatu (Hardwickia binata)

2. jsrhyh Hkwfe (Sandy soil)

tkequ (Syzygium cumini), [kSj (Acacia

catechu), [kesj (Gmelina arborea), bZeyh

(Tamarindis indica), uhyfxjh iztkfr (Eucalyptus

tereticornis), lybZ (Boswellia serrata), csy (Aegle

marmelos)

3. {kkjh; Hkwfe (Alkaline soil)

vkWaoyk (Emblica officinalis), ccwy (Acacia

auriculiformis), djat (Pongamia pinnata), lQsn

f'kjl (Albizia procera), vtwZu (Terminalia arjuna),

'kh'ke (Dalbergia sissoo)

4. ty Iykfor Hkwfe (Water logged soil)

uhyfxjh (Eucalyptus tereticornis), djat

(Pongamia pinnata), vtwZu (Terminalia arjuna),

lybZ (Boswellia serrata), tkequ (Syzygium

cumini), ccwy (Acacia auriculiformis)

5. vEyh; Hkwfe (Acidic soil) pH 5.5 ls de

[kSj (Acacia catechu), uhe (Azadirachta

indica), djat (Pongamia pinnata), lQsn f'kjl

(Albizia procera), 'kh'ke (Dalbergia sissoo), ccwy

(Acacia auriculiformis), vkWaoyk (Emblica officinalis)


18

The Prospect of Bio-fertilizers for

Sustainable Plant Development

Rupnarayan Sett

Genetics & Plant Propagation Division, Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur

Agro-ecosystem is defined as a

collection of agronomic crops and animals

considered in the context of the biological,

physical, social and economic environment.

Bio-fertilizers act as renewable inputs helping

in better crop nutrient management and

maintenance of soil health; different bio-

fertilizers including the role of VAM in plant

growth is described henceforth.

To increase the agricultural output,

agro-ecosystem integrated management is

efficiently practiced; the integrated

management of such a system can lead to

establishing better performance. The

paramount issues in agricultural production

consist not only of yields per land unit but of

qualities of food and fiber that can be

produced and delivered per hectare of land,

unit of energy and human time expended. The

increase in crop production and land

productivity in India is one of the essential

steps to meet the food demand of the

growing human population. With no

possibility of stretching the land resources,

increased agricultural production has to come

through the adoption of better management

technology. Increasing dry land farming and

development technologies for arid lands with

soil related constraints now acquire a new

importance and emerges as a new frontier for

agricultural development. Long term

sustainability in agriculture is possible

through:

The use of low cost farm grown inputs

which work in harmony with nature.

Bio-fertilizers act as perpetually

renewable inputs helping in better crop

nutrient management and maintenance

of soil health.

Better soil and water management.

By adoption of improved agricultural

practices.

Trees and other plants survive on

essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus,

potassium and several minerals they receive

from soil and carbon source provided to them

by photosynthesis. In agriculture, chemical

fertilizers have been widely used, but their

requirements have gone up substantially per

plant because of the inefficient uptake by the

plants resulting from their leaching away from

soil, and reduced uptake by plants grown on

soil from which microelements catalyzing the

uptake of these fertilizers by plant have been

depleted due to intensive crop production,

thus resulting in the use of chemical fertilizers

becoming a very costly affair.


19

Many a microbial inoculants have

been developed for improved supply of

nitrogen, phosphorus and trace elements to

the plants for significant development.

Application of bio-fertilizers as a major

alternative tends to minimize the ecological

disturbance. Most of the bio-fertilizers are

formed by microbes like algae and fungi.

They, so often portrayed as the simplest and

humblest vestiges of life, are in fact the most

versatile and talented, products of evolution.

Stem-nodulating legumes such as Sesbania

rostreta and incorporating Azolla, blue green

algae and other sources of symbiotic and non-

symbiotic nitrogen fixation in the farming

system are fundamental to sustainable

agriculture. The only disadvantage of the

organic supplements is that they are required

in bulk and they cannot be transported over

distances. But this argument can be answered

by the fact that most of these bulky organic

supplements can be generated at the farm

itself. The nutrient rich composts and bio-

fertilizers also help in substituting market

purchased inputs, and thus are economically

attractive for the farming families.

Some of the important groups of bio-

fertilizers are detailed below.

Azolla-Anabaena symbiosis

Azolla is the globally distributed small

aquatic fern comprising of 7 living species. In

their leaves a heterocystous di-nitrogen-fixing

blue green alga Anabaena azollae is always

present as symbiont. Azolla is an alternative N

source. The agronomic potential of Azolla as

bio-fertilizer for rice has been recognized in

many countries including India, Philippines,

USA, Sri Lanka and Thailand. A trial under

International Network on Soil fertility and

Fertilizer Evaluation for Rice (INSFER)

conducted at 37 sites in 10 countries also

confirmed the bio-fertilizer potential of

Azolla. Azolla when grown in fallow rice fields

increased its fresh weight by 2-6 folds in a

week and produced 330 tons fresh biomass

ha-1 which was equivalent to 840 kg N.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium

Symbiotic N2 - fixation by Rhizobium

with legumes contributes substantially to

total biological nitrogen fixation (BNF).

Rhizobium inoculation is a well known

agronomic practice to ensure adequate

nitrogen nutrition of legumes in place of

fertilizer nitrogen. The three Rhizobial genera

include Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium and

Azorhizobium. Root infection by Rhizobia is a

multistep process initiated by pre-infection

events in the rhizosphere. Various events

which lead to the formation of nodules

include mutual recognition of host plant and

Rhizobium species, rhizobial adherence to the

root hairs, root hair curling, root hair

infection, division of cortical cell to form root

primordia and finally formation of nitrogen-

fixing tissues in the nodules. In the formation

of nodules, several bacterial and plant genes

are involved and structure, function and

regulation of several such genes are now


20

known. Various bacterial genes involved in

symbiosis are nod, nif and fix genes. Several

plant genes, specifically induced in root

tissues as a consequence of the interaction

with Rhizobia, are known as nodulin genes.

Rhizobia can infect wheat, rice, maize and oil

seed rape forming nodule-like structures. The

slow growing rhizobia are grouped under the

genus Bradyrhizobium and the fast growing

under the genus Rhizobium.

The ability to fix high amount of N

(efficiency) is governed by the symbiotic

capability between Rhizobium and the host

plant. It may be necessary to introduce

superior strains of Rhizobium to ensure

adequate N2 fixation for maximum growth

and yields of the host plant. The performance

of inoculation is variable. In pigeon-pea,

significant increase in early nodulation due to

inoculation was not always well correlated

with the final grain yields. Increase in grain

yield of the pigeon-pea ranged from 19 to

68% over un-inoculated controls.

Diazotrophs

Diazotrophs which comprise a large

group of aerobic chemolithotrophs

(Thipobacillus, Desulphovibrio), anaerobic

photoautotrophs (members of

Rhodospirillaceae, Chromatiaceae and

Chlorobiaceae), aerobic to micro-aerobic

heterotrophs (members of Azotobacteraceae

and Bacillaceae), Corynebacteriaceae

(Azotobacter) and Spirillaceae (Azospirillum)

are the free-living as well as associative form

which fix nitrogen in the rhizosphere of a

variety of crop species. Diazotrophs like

Herbaspirillum spp. grow endophytically in

the stems and leaves of sugarcane and rice.

Azoarcus inhibits roots of Kallar grass

(Leptochloa fusca) and rice. Although many

genera of bacteria are isolated from the

rhizosphere of various cereals, many

members of Azotobacter and Azospirillum

genera have been widely tested to increase

yields of cereals under field conditions. Many

experiments have been performed in several

countries to investigate the effect of

inoculation of various strains of Azotobacter

chroococcum and Azospirillum spp. on cereals

and grasses. Azotobacter is effective only in

soil with a native Azotobacter population.

Azospirillum are the other useful inoculants. It

is widespread in distribution and easy to

culture and identify. In Israel, field

experiments with Azospirillum were carried

out using different cereal crops. Multi-

location trials in India showed that seed

inoculation with A. brasilense increased the

mean grain yield of pearl millet significantly at

6 out of 9 locations tested.

Frankia

Frankia is a member of Actinomycetes

or ray fungi. It forms nodules with higher

plants like Alnus and Elder. There is a need to

determine the defence response of a crop to

Frankia and technologies to engineer the

plant to nodule with Frankia. It produces true

mycelium and the spores are not produced.


21

Cynobacteria

Species of Anabaena, Nostoc,

Scytonema, Calothrix, Aulosira, Nodularia,

Lyngbya and Mastigocladus etc. are able to fix

nitrogen. Most of the crops which grow in

plenty of water like rice etc. have association

of these blue green algae or Cynobacteria. It is

a common observation that if a soil is under

rice cultivation there is native cynobacterial

flora and may not need fresh inoculation. If

crops are changed as in most parts of the

country, there is need to use fresh inoculums.

Usually a mixture of these algae is used and

not monoculture. The cynobacterial flakes are

mixed at the rate of 1015kg ha-1 one week

plantation.

Phosphate solubilizing bacteria

A large number of heterotrophic and

autotrophic soil micro-organisms are now

known to have the capacity to solubilize

inorganic phosphates through their metabolic

activities directly or indirectly. The

solubilization of different types of insoluble

phosphate varies with the type of

microorganism, the type of phosphate

available and available carbon source.

Rhizosphere soil of wheat possesses a greater

number of phosphate solubilizing bacteria

than in the non-rhizosphere soil. Bacillus spp.,

Pseudomonas sp., Brevibacterium sp.,

Acrobacter acrogens, Serretia spp.,

Nitrobacter and Escherichia freundii are

important phosphate solubilizing and

phosphate mobilizing microbes. Phosphatic

bio-fertilizer was first prepared by the Russian

scientists using Bacillus megaterium var.

phosphaticum as phosphate solubilizing

bacteria and the product was termed as

‘Phosphobacterin’.

Phosphate solubilizing fungi

Along with bacteria and

actinomycetes certain fungi also solubilize

phosphate. Aspergillus awamori has been

found to be better solubilizer than Bacillus

polymyxa or Pseudomonas striata. Phosphate

solubilizing bacteria Pseudomonas and fungi

Aspergillus are found in the rhizosphere of

coconut and cocoa.

Plant growth promoting Rhizobacteria

Several strains in Bacillus have been

patented for commercial production in

developed countries. The plant growth

promoters belonging to pseudomonads and

bacilli play a major role in plant productivity.

These are usually non-colonizers. The spore

forming bacteria are promising organisms for

microbial control. Pseudomonas fluorescens is

registered as microbial pesticide against

Phythium and Rhizoctonia.

Mycorrhiza for sustainable agriculture

The root fungus symbiosis is caused

by mycorrhizae. The association of mycorrhiza

is wide-spread in bryophytes, a large number

of pteridophytes, most or all species of

gymnosperms and some 90 per cent or more

of angiosperms. The association of fungus and

roots of higher plants is termed as

‘mycorrhiza’. Forest crops may have


22

ectomycorrhizae while endomycorrhizae are

present in most agricultural crops. These

mycorrhizae differ in their structure and in

the systematic position of the fungi involved.

There are 8 distinctive types of Eucalyptus

ectomycorrhizas. Tropical ectomycorrhizas

are synthesized on Pinus ponderosa by four

fungi species, viz., Amanita muscaria, A.

pantherina, Suillus granulatus and Lactarius

deliciosus. Russula aeruginea is another

fungus forming ectomycorrhiza in Picea.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi grow best at pH 5-6.

Excess of inorganic fertilizers suppress

ectomycorrhizal development. It has been

found that optimal development of

ectomycorrhiza in Chir Pine nurseries occur

when nutrients are present in the soil at half

the normal level. Shading suppresses

ectomycorrhizal development. The poor

development of mycorrhizal root results in

the stunted growth and chlorosis of leaves.

The mycorrhizal plants are able to withstand

better water stress condition than the non-

mycorrhizal seedlings. The mycorrhizae are

described as ‘Biofertilizer’ and ‘Biocide’. The

multilayered mantle formed by Pisolithus

tinctorius which envelops the entire root is

typical ectomycorrhizae. The mantle of P.

bicolor consists of sparse hyphae embedded

in a considerable amount of mucilage, similar

to ectomycorrhizae formed by Wilcoxina

species on Pine. Arbutoid mycorrhizae (P.

tinctorius – Arbutus mycorrhizae or

association of ectomycorrhizae with Arbutus)

may be a modified type of ectomycorrhiza,

with structural difference determined largely

by the host reaction to colonization by typical

ectomycorrhizal fungi. The ectomycorrhizal

association produces minor changes in the

root morphology. The mantle surrounding the

root is absent. There are two mycelial

networks, one on outer side and one internal.

The orchids have endomycorrhiza which is

called Glomerate-endomycorrhizal association

of a different type. Ectendo-mycorrhizae are

characterized by presence of a mantle and

mycelium penetrating the root cells.

VAM: Vital for soil management

Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal

(VAM) fungi are ubiquitous soil microbes and

are found associated with crop plants, forest

plants and other plants. These fungi are not

host specific but differ in their characteristic

association with host rhizosphere. VAM has

been reported from 1000 genera of plants

representing some 200 families. Pinaceae,

Orchidaceae and Caesalpiniaceae do not have

VAM. Vamycorrhizae are formed by non-

separate zygomycetous fungi belonging to the

genera Glomus, Gigaspora, Acaulospora,

Enterophospora, Sclerocystis and

Scutellospore. The fungi being obligate

biotrophs, do not grow on synthetic media

and hence are classified according to the

morphological characteristics of the spores

formed in the soil. Spores are present in

dormant stage in soil. Surface wall layer

spores seen under scanning electron


23

microscope may help to identify a species.

Endomychorriza has been considered as

biological enigma.

Ecology of VAM: The distribution and

occurrence of VAM differ both qualitatively as

well as quantitatively with the change in

edaphic factors and the type of vegetation.

The pH of soil plays an important role; same

pH may not be equally good for all. The

number of spores in soil is also influenced by

the season. Maximum number of spores is

encountered during July-October. The

number of VAM spore also varies with depth

of soil and altitude.

VAM multiplication: VAM fungi may

produce zygospore, azygospore or

chlamydospore. Most VAM fungi sporulate

outside the plant roots in soil. However, there

are 10 species of Glomus which possibly

sporulate in root.

Soil inoculum is produced in

traditional “Pot-Culture”. Rhodes grass was

found to be the best host. Sphagnum moss

peat and nutrient film technique channels can

be used for VAM culture. Large scale

inoculum can be produced by aeroponics or

tissue culture of root also. Expanded clay

aggregates have been used for mass

multiplying VAM fungi in Germany. Axenic

culture of VAM (Glomus aggregatum)

associated with Cymbopogon martini var.

motia) has also been tried.

VAM in agriculture and forestry: The effect

of VAM on plant growth and yield has been

extensively studied in relation to economically

important plants like rice, jowar, pearl millet,

soybean, groundnut barley, sunflower and

ginger. A combination of legumes, rhizobia

and mycorrhizal fungus brings a significant

improvement in plant growth through

increased availability of phosphorus together

with nitrogen fixation in soil. Nitrogen fixing

microbes interact with VAM fungi producing

synergistic effects. The combination may

prove the cheapest way to enrich tropical soil

with nitrogen. Indigenous VAM stimulated

growth in mung, green gram (Phaseoulus

aureus) and Urad bean in pot culture.

Mycorrhizal fungi in agroforestry has been

found useful for Acacia nilotica, Prosopis

cineraria, Proposis juliflora, Acacia

famensiana, tissue culture raised plants of

edible bamboo (Dendrocalamus).

Improved productivity in medicinal plants:

Plant can serve as factories for the production

of vital medicinal compounds. The effect of 3

Glomus isolates on neem seedlings has been

reported. Organics amendment with

Calotropis has been found useful for Glomus

fasciculatum in improving the yields of

alkaloid in Catharanthus roseus.

VAM as disease-control agent: Fusarium

disease severity in Albizia procera and

Dalbergia sissoo was significantly reduced

when inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi. VAM


24

formed by Gigaspora exerted an inhibitory

effect on the development of pigeon pea

blight caused by Phytophthora drechsleri f. sp.

cajani. The addition of G. fasciculatum

together with the pathogen S. rolfsii nullified

the effect of the pathogen in peanut. Yields of

two varieties of gram in the presence of

fungicide metalyxyl increased when Glomus

spp. were present. Glomus lates reduced the

percentage of Fusarium infection in tomato

and Capsicum roots at different rates. Not

only fungi but some viruses too are known to

be inhibited by VAM fungi.


25

ijkcSaxuh fofdj.k] vkstksu ijr vkSj gekjk i;kZoj.k

MkW- jkts'k dqekj feJk] MkW- ulhj eksgEen ,oa Vzhlk gseYVu

संगणक एवं सूचना प्रौद्योगगकी अनुभाग/आनुवांगिकी एवं पादप प्रजनन प्रभाग

उष्णकटिबंधीय वन अनुसंधान संस्थान, जबलपुर

गपछले कुछ दिकं से पराबंगनी गवककरण मं हो

रही वृद्धी का पयाावरण पर अत्यंत गवनािकारी प्रभाव पड़

रहा ह ै । पूरी दगुनया मं उभयचर आबादी (एगफिगबऑन

पॉपुलेिन) बढ़त े पराबंगनी गवककरण के प्रभाव के कारण

नष्ट हो रही ह ै क्ययंकक वैज्ञागनकं का ऐसा मानना ह ै कक

उभयचर अण्डे पारदिी एवं अत्यंत संवेदनिील होत ेह ं।

पराबंगनी गवककरण बी के बढत ेस्तर के िलस्वरूप पौधं मं

प्रकाि संशे्लषण की गगतवगवधी मं कमी आ रही ह ै। प्रकाि

संशे्लषण भोजन चक्र का एक महत्वपूणा आंतटरक भाग ह ै

गजसके द्वारा पौधे जल और सूया के प्रकाि की उपगस्थगत मं

िका रा का गनमााण कर सकत ेह ै । पौधं की इस क्षमता का

पतन उनके गलए गवनािकारी सागबत हो रहा ह ै ।

आनुवांगिकी अगभयांगिकी द्वारा पराबंगनी गवककरण बी

प्रगतरोधी पौधे गवकगसत करन ेका दावा ककया गया ह ै ।

परंत ुपराबंगनी गवककरण बी प्रगतरोधी पौधे गवकगसत होन े

से वातारण मं पाटरगस्थगतकी असंतुलन होन ेका खतरा भी

हो सकता ह ै।

पृथ्वी पर जीवन के गलए वायुमंडल मं गवगभन्न

गैसं का संतुलन महत्त्वपूणा ह।ै अन्य गैसं के समान ओज़ोन

भी जीवन की गगतिीलता मं आवश्यक भूगमका गनभाती ह।ै

ओज़ोन गैस पृथ्वी के वायुमंडल के ऊपरी गहस्स ेमं एक ऐसा

आवरण बनाती ह ै गजससे अंतटरक्ष से पृथ्वी की सतह की

ओर आने वाला हागनकारक पराबंगनी गवककरण ऊपरी

वायुमंडल मं ही रुक जाता ह।ै इस प्रकार धरती के जीव-

जंत ु हागनकारक पराबंगनी गवककरण के कुप्रभाव से बच े

रहत े ह ं । लेककन आज पृथ्वी पर गवगभन्न जीवन-सहायक

कारकं का संतुलन गबगड़ रहा ह ैऔर ओज़ोन आवरण भी

झीना होता जा रहा ह।ै ओज़ोन आवरण के पतल ेहोन े के

कारण पृथ्वी पर हागनकारक पराबंगनी गवककरण की

अगधक मािा पहुचं सकती ह।ै इसके पटरणामस्वरूप त्वचा

रोग एवं कंसर जैसी गवकृगतयं मं वृगद्ध होन ेकी संभावना

ह।ै असल मं ओज़ोन आवरण के झीनेपन का सफबंध

वायुमंडल मं हाइड्रो क्यलोरोफ्लोरो काबान व अन्य

हागनकारक रसायनं की मािा मं वृगद्ध से ह।ै इन तत्त्वं का

टरसाव रेकिजरेिर, एयरकंडीिनर, स्प्र ेव कुछ औद्योगगक

कायं से होता ह ै । जहां एक ओर ओज़ोन गैस ऊपरी

वायुमंडल मं ओज़ोन आवरण के रूप मं जीवन के गलए

महत्त्वपूणा भूगमका गनभाती ह ै वहं धरती की सतह पर

वायुमंडल मं इसकी अगधक मािा हागनकारक हो सकती ह ै।

ऊजाा एवं संसाधन संस्थान (िेरी) ने दिे मं बढ़ते ओज़ोन के

स्तर के बारे मं आगाह ककया ह ै। िेरी को 2010 मं भारत


26

के कुछ बड़ ेिहरं मं हवा की गुणवत्ता सफबंधी आंकड़ं के

अध्ययन से ये पटरणाम गमले ह ं। िेरी ने चिचता जागहर की ह ै

कक यकद 2030 तक ऐसा ही चलता रहा तो ओज़ोन और

कण पदाथा, दोनं ही उच्च स्तर तक पहुचं जाएगें ।

ऐसा माना जाता ह ैकक पृथ्वी के ननमााण के

प्रारंनभक कदनं मं यहां पर पराबंगनी ककरणं (ऄल्ट्रा

वायलट रे ) की बरसात होती थी । आसनलए पृथ्वी पर

जीवन ऄसंभव था । ईस समय वायुमंडल मं अक्सीजन

बहुत कम मात्रा मं थी ।

समय के साथ-साथ अक्सीजन की मात्रा बढ़ती

गइ और यह ऄल्ट्रा वायलट ककरणं अक्सीजन को ओजोन मं

बदलने लगी। पृथ्वी के चारं ओर नथथत समतापमंडल

(थरैटोथफीयर) मं ऄरबं टन ओजोन गैस जमा हो चुकी ह ै।

यकद यह न हो तो सूया से ननकलने वाली पराबंगनी ककरणं

से पृथ्वी पर मनुष्य , पशु, पक्षी समाप्त हो सकते ह ं।

मानवजानत के नलए औद्योनगक क्रांनत जहां एक ओर वरदान

सानबत हुइ है, वहं दसूरी ओर यह ईनके नवनाश का कारण

भी बनी हुइ ह।ै ओजोन परत के तेजी से हो रह ेक्षरण के

फलथवरूप मानव जीवन के ऄनथतत्व पर मंडरा रह े खतरे

को लेकर पूरा नवश्व चिचनतत ह ै।

यू. वी. सी. यू. वी. बी यू. वी. ए. दषृ्य ककरणं अवरक्त ककरणं

कुछ भाग ओजोन परत द्वारा सफपूणा सतह पर

अविोगषत कुछ सतह पर पहुचँा । पहुचँा ।

ओजोन परत द्वारा अविोगषत ओजोन परत

अविोगषत

लघ ु तरंग दधै्या

दीघा

यू Short Wave Length Long


27

पराबंगनी ककरणं दगृष्टगोचर प्रकाि मं लाल,

नारंगी, पीला, हरा, आसमानी, नीला और बंगनी रंग

कदखाई पड़ते ह।ं यकद सूया की ककरणं को ककसी गिपार्श्ा

(गप्रज्म) से होकर एक सिेद पद ेपर पड़ने कदया जाये तो इन

सात रंगं की पट्टी पद ेपर कदखाई पड़न ेलगती ह।ै इस पट्टी

को वणाक्रम कहा जाता ह।ै आजकल यह माना जाता ह ैकक

सभी वणं की ककरणं गवद्युतबकीय तरंगं ह।ं लाल रंग की

रगश्मयं या गवककरण का तरंगदधै्या लगभग 7,000 ॠरू

और बंगनी रंग की रगश्मयं का लगभग 4,000 ॠरू होता

ह।ै सूया के प्रकाि तथा अन्य प्रकािस्त्रोतं से ऐसी ककरणं भी

गनकलती ह ंजो आँखं से दखेी नहं जा सकती ह।ं गजन

अदशृ्य ककरणं का तरंगदधै्या 4,000 ॠरू स ेकम होता ह,ै

उन्ह ंपराबंगनी ककरणं कहा जाता ह।ै ये ककरणं िोिो-प्लेि

या किल्म को प्रभागवत करती ह।ं इनकी खोज इसी गुण के

आधार पर सन् 1801 ई. मं ज.ेडब्लल्यू. टरिर ने की थी । सन ्

1862 ई. मं जी.जी. स्िोक्यस ने इन ककरणं के कई गुणं का

पता लगाया था। इनका गविेष अध्ययन करनेवाल े

वैज्ञागनकं मं मैस्कािा, गथयोडोर लाइमन और रौलंड के

नाम मुख्य ह ं।

सूया के अगतटरक्त गवद्युत् आका , गवद्युत ्स्पाका और

गवद्युगद्वसजान से भी पराबंगनी ककरणं गनकलती ह।ं सूया से

गनकलनेवाली पराबंगनी रगश्मयं को वायुमंडल का

ऑक्यसीजन गैल िोगषत कर लेता ह ैऔर वे पृथ्वी तक नहं

पहुचँ पातं। िीिा भी इन ककरणं को पूणात: िोगषत कर

लेता ह,ै किकत ु क्वार्ट्ज़ा, या स्िटिक 1,850 ॠरू तक की

पराबंगनी ककरणं के गलए पारदिाक होता ह।ै 2,000 ॠरू

से 1,800 ॠरू तक की ककरणं को गनवाात पराबंगनी कहत े

ह।ं ये ककरणं आँखं तथा िरीर के अन्य कोमल तंतुओं के

गलए हागनकारक होती ह।ै बहुत से पदाथा इन ककरणं को

सोखकर दशृ्य प्रकाि दनेे लगते ह।ं इसी गुण का उपयोग

करके प्रगतदीगि लंप बनाए जाते ह।ं कीिाणुनािक होन ेसे

गचककत्सा गवज्ञान मं भी इन ककरणं को प्रयोग होता ह।ै ये

आँख से नहं कदखाई दतें, परंत ुस्वस्थ युवा आँखं मं हलके

नीले रंग की अनुभूगत पैदा करती ह।ं

समुद्री जीवन को भी धरती के बढ़ते तापमान

और वायुमंडल मं बढ़ रह े काबान के अलावा पराबंगनी

(यूवी) गवककरण से भी खतरा ह।ै अंतरााष्ट्रीय िोधकतााओं के

अनुसार पराबंगनी गवककरण समुद्री जीवं और पौधं के

गलए खतरा पैदा कर रहा ह।ै समुद्री जीवन गविेषज्ञं न े

दगुनयाभर मं समुद्री जीवं पर हुए 1784 प्रयोगं का

गहनता से अध्ययन कर पराबंगनी बी गवककरण (यूवीबी) के

हागनकारक प्रभावं की मािा का मूल्यांकन ककया । गवज्ञान

पगिका 'ग्लोबल इकोलॉजी एडं बायोगजयोग्रािी' के

अनुसार अभी तक पराबंगनी गवककरण का समुद्री जीवन पर

हागनकारक प्रभावं का अध्ययन नहं ककया गया था ।

गवर्श्गवद्यालय के बयान के मुतागबक पराबंगनी गवककरण से

सबसे अगधक प्रभागवत होन ेवाले समुद्री जीवं मं प्रोटिस्िा

(िैवाल), सीप, क्रसिेगियन, मछली के लावाा और अंड े

िागमल ह ं । 1970 के दिक से फ्लोरोकाबान यौगगकं के

गनरंतर उत्सजान के कारण ओजोन परत को नुकसान पहुचं

रहा ह,ै गजसके पटरणामस्वरूप पराबंगनी गवककरण का स्तर

बढ़ रहा ह ै। यह गविेष रूप से दगक्षणी गोलाधा मं हो रहा

ह ै। ओगियंस इंस्िीटू्यि के गनदिेक एवं िोध के सह-लेखक

प्रोिेसर कालोस डूआिे ने कहा कक पराबंगनी गवककरण के

बढ़ते प्रभावं का अध्ययन दो प्रमुख भ्रांगतयं के कारण

सफभव नहं हो सका गजनमं एक यह थी कक मांटियल

प्रोिोकाल ओजोन परत के गवषय मं ह ै और दसूरा कक

पराबंगनी गवककरण का प्रभाव समुद्र के भीतर नहं होता ।

ओजोन परत के बारे मं लोग आम तौर पर भले

ही ज्यादा न जानत ेहं लेककन यह पृथ्वी और पयाावरण के

गलए एक सुरक्षा कवच की तरह काया करती ह ैतथा इसे

सूया की खतरनाक पराबंगनी ककरणं से बचाती ह ै । 'द

एनजी एडं टरसोसेज इंस्िीटू्यि' के अनुसार ओजोन परत

बहुत ही महत्वपूणा ह ैजो सूया की खतरनाक पराबंगनी यू.

वी. ककरणं से हमारी रक्षा करती ह ै। उनके अनुसार गबना

ओजोन परत के हम चिजदा नहं रह सकत े क्ययंकक इन

ककरणं के कारण कंसर, िसलं को नुकसान और समुद्री

जीवं को खतरा पैदा हो सकता ह ैऔर ओजोन परत इन्हं


28

पराबंगनी ककरणं से हमारी रक्षा करती ह ै। आस्िेगलया का

उदाहरण हमारे सामने ह ं , जहा ंओजोन परत को कािी

नुकसान पहुचंा ह ै । इसी नुकसान की वजह से सूया की

पराबंगनी ककरणं से बड़ी संख्या मं वहां लोग त्वचा के

कंसर का गिकार हुए ह ं । एक अन्य खतरा इसके कारण

धुवं के गपघलने का ह ै। अंिाका टिका मं ओजोन मं एक बड़ा

छेद हो गया ह ै। अंिाका टिका क्षेि मं बड़े गहमखंड ह।ं यकद य े

गहमखंड गपघलत ेह ंतो तिीय क्षेिं मं बाढ़ सगहत कई खतरे

पैदा हो सकत े ह।ं इसके अलावा गमी भी बढ़ेगी जो

नुकसानदायी होगी । ओजोन परत के क्षरण के गलए

क्यलोरीन और ब्रोमीन के अणु गजफमेदार ह ं। जब इन अणुओं

से युक्त गैसे पयाावरण मं छोड़ी जाती ह ंतो ये कालांतर मं

ओजोन परत के क्षरण का कारण बनती ह।ं ओजोन परत को

नुकसान पहुचंान े वाली सबसे आम हलैोजन गैस

क्यलोरोफ्लोरो काबान ह ै गजसे सी.एि.सी. के नाम से भी

जाना जाता ह।ै इसे बचाने के गलए सबसे पहल ेतो जरूरी ह ै

कक लोग ओजोन परत और इसके संरक्षण को लेकर

जागरूक हं । सभी लोगं को उन पदाथं और उनके

नुकसान को लेकर जागरूक रहना चागहए जो इस परत को

नुकसान पहुचंाते ह।ं कई आसान तरीके ह ंगजन्ह ंअपनाकर

ओजोन परत को बचाया जा सकता ह ैजैस ेपयाावरण गमि

उत्पादं का इस्तेमाल करना, एयरोसोल और अन्य

सीएिसी स ेयुक्त चीजं के उपयोग से बचना, पौधारोपण

को बढ़ावा दनेा, यकद फ़्रीजर और वातानुकूलक काम नहं

कर रहा तो उसे ठीक करवाना आकद । इस तरह की कई

छोिी छोिी बाते ह ंगजनका ध्यान रखकर ओजोन परत को

बचाने मं योगदान कदया जा सकता ह ै। उल्लेखनीय ह ै कक

ओजोन परत तकरीबन 97 से 99 प्रगतित तक पराबंगनी

ककरणं का अविोषण करती ह ै। इसके संरक्षण को बढ़ावा

दनेे के गलए मांटियल प्रोिोकॉल के अनुसार 16 गसतंबर को

ओजोन कदवस के रूप मं मनाया जाता ह ै।

ओजोन एक हल्ट्के नीले रंग की गैस ह।ै यह

अक्सीजन के तीन परमाणुओं का यौनगक ह।ै वातावरण के

उपरी भाग मं सूया की ईच्च घनत्व वाली पराबंगनी ककरणं

से कक्रया करके अक्सीजन के तीनं परमाणु एक साथ जुड़

जाते ह ं। यह गैस एिमॉगस्ियर, िोपोगस्ियर एवं

स्िैिोगस्ियर मं एक समान रूप मं पायी जाती ह।ै ओजोन

परत जमीन से 10 ककलोमीटर से 50 ककलोमीटर की उंचाइ

के बीच थरैटोथफीयर मं पायी जाती ह ै। आस उंचाइ पर

वायु मं ओजोन का ऄनुपात पृथ्वी के वातावरण मं पाये गए

ऄनुपात से ऄनधक होता है । यह गैस सूया की पराबंगनी-

नवककरणं के नलए एक ऄच्छे कफल्ट्टर का काम करती ह।ै

सूया की ककरणं के ऄदशृ्य भाग मं ऄत्यनधक उजाा वाली

पराबंगनी-सी (220-280 नैनोमीटर), पराबंगनी-बी

(280-320 नैनोमीटर) तथा पराबंगनी- ए (320-400

नैनोमीटर) ककरणं होती हं । पराबंगनी बी और सी जीवन

के नलए खतरनाक है । थरैटोथफीयर मं नथथत ओजोन परत

पराबंगनी-सी का ऄनधकांश भाग रोक दतेी ह ैऔर केवल

2-3 प्रनतशत भाग पृथ्वी की सतह तक पहुचं पाता है ।

ओजोन परत मं ऄगर कोइ क्षनत पहुचंती ह ैतो

पृथ्वी की सतह पर पराबंगनी बी और सी की ऄनधक ककरणं

पहुचंेगी, नजसके पररणाम भयंकर हंगे । वैज्ञाननकं का

कहना ह ैकक ओजोन परत के नष्ट होने से सूया से अने वाली

पराबंगनी ककरणं की बढती मात्रा के कारण धरती वीरान

और बंजर हो सकती ह ै। यह नवककरण वषाा , वृक्ष-

वनथपनतयं से लेकर जीव-जन्तुओं तक को समान रूप से

हानन पहुचंाती ह ै। मनुष्य मं आससे अंख की बीमाररयां व

कंसर जैसे ऄसाध्य रोग से लेकर ऄंधेपन तक की नथथनत अ

सकती ह ै। आसके सीधे संपका मं अने से मुनष्यं मं त्वचा

कंसर की संभावना बढ सकती ह ै। आस ककरण की मारक

क्षमता ककतनी ऄपार है , आसका ऄंदाजा आसी से लग सकता

ह ैकक समुद्र तल की वनथपनतयं को भी यह प्रभानवत कर

सकती है । मौसम वैज्ञाननकं का यहां तक कहना ह ैकक

आससे वायुमंडलीय तापमान बढ ज़ाएगा , नजससे बफा

नपघलने लग जाएगी और समुद्री जलथतर ब ढ़ने से जल

प्रलय जैसी नथथनत ईत्पन्न हो सकती ह ै। ओजोन परत ऄपने

अप बनती और नबगड़ती ह ै। यह एक सतत् ननयम ह ै।

आससे ओजोन का संतुलन बना रहता ह ै।


29

तरंग दधै्या

400 एन. एम. 315 एन. एम. 280 एन. एम. 100 एन. एम.

य.ू व्ही. ए. य.ू व्ही. बी. य.ू व्ही. सी.

औद्योनगक युग की शुरूअत के साथ ही ओजोन

परत की क्षनत की प्रकक्रया भी शुरू हुइ ।

सवाप्रथम, कैलीफोर्ननया नवश्वनवद्यालय के दो रसायनशास्त्री

माररयो मोलाआना तथा रोऄरवुड रोलेन्ड ने क्लोरोफ्लोरो

काबान (सी एफ सी) नामक रसायन की खोज की थी ।

ईन्हंने पता लगाया था कक ओजोन जैसे धरती के रक्षा

कवच को सवाानधक हानन पहुचंने वाला यही पदाथा ह।ै

परन्तु ऄमेररका ने सबसे पहले आस रसायन का प्रयोग एयर

कंडीशनरं, रेफ्रीजरेटरं जैसे नवलानसता के ऄत्याधुननक

यंत्रं के ननमााण मं ककया । बाद मं ऄन्य पनिमी दशें--

आंग्ललंड, जमानी, फ्रांस ने भी आसका ऄंधाधुंध प्रयोग करना

शुरू कर कदया ।

मनुष्य के कुछ कक्रया-कलापं के फलथवरूप

ननकलने वाले रसायन ओजोन परत को क्षनत पहुचंा रह ेह ं।

आन रसायनं को ओजोन क्षरण पदाथा (ओ.डी.एस.) कहते ह ं

। आनका ईपयोग रेकफ्रजरेटरं और प्रशीतन ईपकरणं के

ऄनतररक्त नछड़काव , दाबीकृत प्रसाधनं और थवाथथ्य

ईत्पादं, फोम के ननमााण , ईद्योगं मं सूक्ष्म माजान कायं

और लदान पूवा प्रकक्रयाओं मं भी ककया जाता ह ै। आसके

ऄनतररक्त सुपरसोननक नवमान ईस उंचाइ पर ईड़ते ह ंजो

सुरक्षात्मक ओजोन परत को नुकसान पहुचंाते ह ं। आंजन के

ईच्च तापमान के कारण, नाआरोजन और अक्सीजन नमलकर

नाआररक अक्साआड बनाते हं , जो ओजोन परत को हानन

पहुचंाता ह ै। होमोफ्लुरोकाबान (हलैो�

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